{{short description|Province of the Roman Empire (6–135 AD)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox former subdivision | native_name = {{native name|la|{{big|{{aut|Provincia Iudaea}}}}|italic=no}}<br/>{{native name|grc-x-koine|Ἐπαρχία Ιουδαίας}}<br/> {{native name|hbo|מְדִינְתָּא יְהוּד}} | conventional_long_name = Province of Judaea | common_name = Judaea | image_map = Roman Empire - Iudaea (125 AD).svg | image_map_caption = The [[Roman Empire]] under the reign of [[Hadrian]] (125 AD) with Judaea highlighted in red | era = [[Roman Palestine]] | subdivision = [[Roman province|Province]] | nation = the [[Roman Empire]] | year_start = 6 AD | event_start = Annexation to the Roman Empire | year_end = 135 AD | p1 = Herodian Tetrarchy | s1 = Syria Palaestina | capital = [[Caesarea Maritima]] | coordinates = {{Coord|32|30|N|34|54|E|display=inline,title}} | title_deputy = [[Herodian Dynasty|King of the Jews]] | deputy1 = [[Agrippa I]] | year_deputy1 = 41–44 AD | deputy2 = [[Agrippa II]] | year_deputy2 = 48–93/100 | title_leader = [[Prefects]] before 41, [[Procurator (Roman)|Procurators]] after 44 AD | leader1 = [[Coponius]] | year_leader1 = 6–9 AD | leader2 = [[Pontius Pilate]] | year_leader2 = 26–36 AD | leader3 = [[Gessius Florus]] | year_leader3 = 64–66 AD | leader4 = [[Lusius Quietus]] | year_leader4 = 117 AD | leader5 = [[Quintus Tineius Rufus (consul 127)|Tineius Rufus]] | year_leader5 = 130–132 AD | legislature = [[Synedrion#Synedrion in Judea|Synedrion/Sanhedrin]] | event1 = [[Crucifixion of Jesus]] | date_event1 = c. 30/33 AD | event2 = Crisis under [[Caligula]] | date_event2 = 37–41 AD | event3 = Incorporation of [[Galilee]] and [[Perea|Peraea]] | date_event3 = 44 AD | event4 = [[Destruction of the Second Temple]] | date_event4 = 70 AD | event5 = Assigned a governor of praetorian rank and given the 10th Legion | date_event5 = c. 74 AD | event_end = Renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] | date_end = | today = [[Israel]]<br/>[[Palestine]]<br/>[[Jordan]] (Peraea)<br/>[[Lebanon]] (NW Galilee) | footnotes = Form of Judaism: before [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD)#Fall and destruction of the temple |August 70]], it is referred to as [[Second Temple Judaism]], from which the [[Tannaim]] and [[Origins of Christianity|Early Christianity emerged]]. }}
'''Judaea'''{{efn|{{langx|la|Iudaea}} {{IPA|la|juːˈdae̯.a|}}; {{langx|grc|Ἰουδαία|translit=Ioudaía}} {{IPA|grc|i.uˈdɛ.a|}}.}} was a [[Roman province]] from 6 to 135 AD, which at its height encompassed the regions of [[Judea]], [[Edom#Classical Idumaea|Idumea]], [[Perea| Peraea]], [[Samaria]], and [[Galilee]], as well as parts of the [[Israeli coastal plain|coastal plain]] of the [[southern Levant]]. At its height, it encompassed much of the core territories of the former Kingdom of Judaea, which had been ruled by the [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean]] and [[Herodian dynasty|Herodian]] dynasties in previous decades. The name ''Judaea'' (like the similar ''Judea'') derives from the [[Iron Age]] [[Kingdom of Judah]], which was centered in the region of Judea.
Since the [[Roman Republic]]'s conquest of Judaea in 63 BC, which abolished the independent [[Hasmonean Judea|Hasmonean monarchy]], Rome maintained a system of [[Client kingdoms in ancient Rome|semi-autonomous vassalage]] in the region. After Hasmonean ruler [[Antigonus II Mattathias]] briefly regained the throne, he was overthrown by [[Herod the Great|Herod]], who was appointed King of the Jews by the [[Roman Senate]] and ruled Judaea until his death in 4 BC. The province's formal incorporation into the Roman Empire was enacted by [[Augustus]] in 6 AD following an appeal by the populace against the misrule of Herod's son, [[Herod Archelaus]] (r. 4 BC – AD 6). The administrative capital was relocated from [[Jerusalem]] to the coastal city of [[Caesarea Maritima]].
Over the six decades following the province's establishment, relations between the majority Jewish population and Roman authorities were marked by frequent crises. With the onset of direct rule, [[Census of Quirinius|the official census]] instituted by [[Publius Sulpicius Quirinius]], the governor of [[Roman Syria]], caused tensions and led to an uprising by Jewish rebel [[Judas of Galilee]] (6 AD). Other notable events in the region include the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] {{circa|30–33 AD}} (which led to the emergence of [[Christianity]]) and in 37 AD Emperor [[Caligula]] ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the [[Second Temple]]. A brief respite came under [[Herod Agrippa|Agrippa I]] (r. 41–44 AD), a popular ruler who temporarily restored Jewish self-governance under Roman auspices. However, after his death, Judaea—now encompassing Galilee and Peraea—reverted to direct Roman rule, and unrest gradually escalated. In the following years, prophetic figures sought to gain followers, [[Sicarii]] assassins targeted officials, and corrupt and brutal governors—most notably [[Gessius Florus]] (r. 64–66 AD) further inflamed tensions.
In 66 AD, unrest in Caesarea, followed by clashes in Jerusalem, ignited the [[First Jewish–Roman War]]. The Romans, under [[Vespasian]] and later his son [[Titus]], systematically crushed the rebellion, culminating in the razing of Jerusalem and the [[destruction of the Second Temple]] in 70 AD. The Jewish population recovered within a generation and, in 132 AD, launched the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] in response to [[Hadrian]]'s plans to construct [[Aelia Capitolina]], a Roman [[Colonia (Roman)|colony]] dedicated to [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], on the ruins of Jerusalem. The rebels briefly established an independent Jewish state, but the Roman suppression of the revolt in 135–136 resulted in the widespread destruction and near-depopulation of the region of Judea. At that point, Judea was officially renamed [[Syria Palaestina]].
==Background== {{further|Second Temple period}} [[File:Pompée dans le Temple de Jérusalem.jpg|thumb|''Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem'', by [[Jean Fouquet]]]]Judaea, an independent state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], was conquered by the [[Roman Republic]] in 63 BCE.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=9}}{{sfn|Safrai|Stern|1974|p=216}} At the time, it was embroiled in a civil war between [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], sons of Queen [[Salome Alexandra]], both vying for the throne.{{sfn|Berlin|Overman|2002|p=2}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=94–95}} Roman general [[Pompey]] intervened, [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|besieging and capturing Jerusalem]]. In the aftermath, he appointed Hyrcanus II as [[ethnarch]] and [[High Priest of Israel|High Priest]], but denied him the title of king.
In 40 BCE, [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], son of Aristobolus II, temporarily reclaimed the throne with Parthian support{{sfn|Berlin|Overman|2002|p=3}} but was overthrown in 37 BCE by [[Herod the Great|Herod]], whom the [[Roman Senate]] had appointed "King of the Jews."{{sfn|Price|1992|p=5}} Herod [[Herodian kingdom|ruled Judaea]] as a [[Client kingdoms in ancient Rome|client kingdom of Rome]] until his death in 4 BCE.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=113}} Widely despised and resented by the public, he maintained close relations with the Romans.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=5}} During this period, the remaining Hasmonean heirs were eliminated, and the grand port city of [[Caesarea Maritima]] was constructed.<ref>"Founded in the years 22–10 or 9 B.C. by Herod the Great, close to the ruins of a small Phoenician naval station named Strato's Tower (Stratonos Pyrgos, Turns Stratonis), which flourished during the 3d to 1st c. B.C. This small harbor was situated on the N part of the site. Herod dedicated the new town and its port (''limen Sebastos'') to [[Caesar Augustus]]. During the Early Roman period, Caesarea was the seat of the Roman procurators of the province of Judea. Vespasian, proclaimed emperor at Caesarea, raised it to the rank of Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta, and later Alexander Severus raised it to the rank of Metropolis Provinciae Syriae Palestinae." A. Negev, "CAESAREA MARITIMA Palestine, Israel" in: Richard Stillwell et al. (eds.), ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'' (1976).</ref>
Herod died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was partitioned into a [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy]] and divided among three of his sons.{{sfn|Berlin|Overman|2002|p=3}} [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]] served as ethnarch of [[Judea]] (including Jerusalem), [[Samaria]], and [[Idumaea]], while [[Herod Antipas]] governed [[Galilee]] and [[Perea| Peraea]], and [[Philip the Tetrarch|Philip]] ruled over [[Gaulanitis]], [[Trachonitis]] and [[Batanaea]].{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=127–128, 130}} [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]]' rule of Judea was so gravely atrocious that he was dismissed in 6 CE by the first [[Roman emperor]], [[Augustus]], after an appeal from his own subjects. Following his removal, Judaea was annexed as the Roman province of Judaea.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=1}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=130}}{{sfn|Safrai|Stern|1974|pp=308–309}} Herod Antipas continued to rule Galilee and Peraea until his dismissal by Emperor [[Caligula]] in 39 CE.
== Geography == [[File:Herodian Tetrarchy political map.svg|thumb|The territories of the [[Herodian tetrarchy]], including those of [[Herod Archelaus]], which became the [[Roman province]] of Judaea]] When Judaea became a [[Roman province]] in 6 CE, its territory corresponded to the domains previously ruled by [[Herod Archelaus]] under the [[Herodian tetrarchy]],{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=130}} which comprised the districts of Judea, Samaria, and Idumaea, including major urban centers such as Jerusalem, Caesarea Maritima, Sebaste, and Joppa.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=128}} After 44 CE, when direct Roman rule was restored following the reign of [[Herod Agrippa I]], the province was expanded to include Galilee and Peraea.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=142}}
The [[New Testament]] reflects a province divided among Jews, Samaritans and Gentiles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Isaac|first=Benjamin H.|url=https://brill.com/view/title/2497|title=The Near East under Roman Rule: Selected Papers|publisher=Brill|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-35153-0|pages=261|chapter=Ethnic Groups in Judaea under Roman Rule|doi=10.1163/9789004351530_018}}</ref>
== History == {{History of Israel}}
=== Revolt and removal of Herod Archelaus === Following the death of [[Herod the Great]], the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]] was divided into the [[Herodian Tetrarchy]], jointly ruled by Herod's sons and sister: [[Herod Archelaus]] (who ruled [[Judea]], [[Samaria]] and [[Edom|Idumea]]), [[Philip the Tetrarch|Herod Philip]] (who ruled [[Batanaea|Batanea]], [[Trachonitis]] as well as [[Auranitis]]), [[Herod Antipas]] (who ruled [[Galilee]] and [[Perea| Peraea]]) and [[Salome I]] (who briefly ruled [[Yavne|Jamnia]]).
A messianic revolt erupted in Judea in 4 BCE because of Archelaus's incompetence; the revolt was brutally crushed by the [[Legatus|Legate]] of [[Roman Syria|Syria]], [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]], who occupied [[Jerusalem]] and crucified 2,000 Jewish rebels.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Jewish War]]'', Book 2, Chapter 56</ref><ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', Book 17, Chapters 271-272</ref>
Because of his failure to properly rule Judea, Archelaus was removed from his post by Emperor [[Augustus]] in 6 CE, while Judea, Samaria, and Idumea came under direct Roman administration.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Malamat|first1=Abraham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&q=%22Archelaus+was+deposed%22&pg=PA246|title=A History of the Jewish People|last2=Tadmor|first2=Hayim|date=1976|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|language=en|quote=When Archelaus was deposed from the [[ethnarch]]y in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea.}}</ref>
This event had significant and ever-lasting effects on [[Jewish history]], and the [[Origins of Christianity|development of Christianity]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |title=The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-674-77886-3 |edition= |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=44 |chapter= |quote=}}</ref>{{History of Palestine}}
=== Under a prefect (6–41 CE) === [[File:Judaea Roman Province.svg|thumb|Map of Judaea Roman Province (6–41 CE)]] The Judean province did not initially include [[Galilee]], [[Golan Heights|Gaulanitis (today's Golan)]], nor Peraea or the [[Decapolis]]. Its revenue was of little importance to the Roman treasury; however, it controlled the land and coastal sea routes to the "bread basket" of [[Egypt (Roman province)|Egypt]] and was a buffer against the [[Parthian Empire]]. The capital was moved from Jerusalem to [[Caesarea Maritima]].<ref>''A History of the Jewish People'', H. H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, page 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, page 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities ([[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebaste]], Caesarea and others)."</ref>
Augustus appointed [[Quirinius|Publius Sulpicius Quirinius]] to the post of [[Legatus|Legate]] of [[Syria (Roman province)#Syria in antiquity|Syria]] and he conducted [[Census of Quirinius|a tax census of Syria and Judea]] in 6 CE, which triggered the revolt of [[Judas of Galilee]]; the revolt was quickly crushed by Quirinius.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant18.html|title=Josephus, Antiquities Book XVIII|website=earlyjewishwritings.com}}</ref>
Judea was not a [[senatorial province]], nor an [[imperial province]], but instead was a "satellite of Syria"<ref>H. H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish Peoples'', page 247–248: "Consequently, the province of Judea may be regarded as a satellite of Syria, although, in view of the measure of independence left to its governor in domestic affairs, it would be wrong to say that in the Julio-Claudian era Judea was legally part of the province of Syria."</ref> governed by a [[prefect]] who was a [[Equestrian (Roman)|knight of the Equestrian Order]] (as was that of [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman Egypt]]), not a former consul or [[praetor]] of [[Roman senate|senatorial rank]]. Quirinius appointed [[Coponius]] as first prefect of Judea.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]]'' 17.355 & 18.1–2;</ref> The prefect inherited the Herodian military forces, consisting of one cavalry unit and five infantry cohorts.{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=389}}{{Efn|These units, named Kaisareis and Sebastenoi, were likely recruited from the non-Jewish communities in Caesarea, Sebaste, and the surrounding regions.{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=389}}}}
Still, Jews living in the province maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offenses, until {{circa|28 CE}}.<ref>[[Babylonian Talmud]], ''Avodah Zarah'' 8b; ibid, ''Sanhedrin'' 41a; ibid, ''Shabbat'' 15a; [[Jerusalem Talmud]], ''Sanhedrin'' 1:1 (1b)</ref> Judea in the early [[Roman period]] was divided into five administrative districts with centers in Jerusalem, [[Gadara]], [[Amathus, Transjordan|Amathus]], [[Jericho]], and [[Sepphoris]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1=William David Davies | editor2=Louis Finkelstein | editor3=William Horbury | title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC | year=2008 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 | chapter=The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 bce – ce 70 | first=Emilio | last=Gabba | page=98}}</ref>
In 30–33 CE, Roman prefect [[Pontius Pilate]] had [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucified]] on the charge of [[Jesus, King of the Jews|sedition]], an act that led to the birth of [[Christianity]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', Book 18, Chapter 3, Paragraph 3</ref><ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'', Book 15, Chapter 44</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Eddy|first1=Paul Rhodes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgROZMp4zDMC|title=The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition|last2=Boyd|first2=Gregory A.|date=2007|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-0-8010-3114-4|pages=172|language=en|quote=...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion.}}</ref> In 36 CE another messianic revolt erupted near [[Mount Gerizim]], under the lead of a [[Samaritans|Samaritan]], and was quickly crushed by Pilate; the Samaritans complained against Pilate's brutality to the Legate of Syria [[Lucius Vitellius (consul 34)|Lucius Vitellius the Elder]], who removed Pilate from his post and sent him to Rome to account, replacing him with an acting prefect called [[Marcellus (prefect of Judea)|Marcellus]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', Book 18, Chapter 4, Paragraphs 1-2</ref>
In 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Temple in Jerusalem]],<ref name="philo-gaius-statue">Philo of Alexandria, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' [[wikisource:On the Embassy to Gaius#XXX|XXX.203]].</ref> a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.<ref name="philo-caligula-16">Philo of Alexandria, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' [[wikisource:On the Embassy to Gaius#XVI|XVI.115]].</ref> The [[Legatus|Legate]] of Syria, [[Publius Petronius]], fearing civil war if the order was carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.<ref>Philo of Alexandria, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' [[wikisource:On the Embassy to Gaius#XXXI|XXXI.213]].</ref> King [[Herod Agrippa|Herod Agrippa I]] finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.<ref name="zepjql">Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 8|XVIII.8.1]].</ref> Caligula later issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem, but he was murdered before the statue reached Jerusalem and his successor [[Claudius]] rescinded the order.<ref name="josephus-antiquities-19-2">Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 8|XVIII.8]].</ref> The "Crisis under Caligula" has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and [[Jews]].<ref>H. H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, ''The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula'', pages 254–256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the [[Julio-Claudian]] empire. Until then – if one accepts [[Sejanus]]' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment – there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish–Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East."</ref>
===Autonomy under Herod Agrippa (41–44)=== Between 41 and 44 AD, Judea regained its nominal [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]], when [[Herod Agrippa]] was made ''King of the Jews'' by the emperor [[Claudius]], thus in a sense restoring the Herodian dynasty. Claudius had allowed [[procurator (Roman)|procurators]], who served as personal agents to the Emperor and often as provincial tax and finance ministers, to be elevated to governing magistrates with full state authority to keep the peace. He may have elevated Judea's procurator to imperial governing status because the imperial legate of Syria was not sympathetic to the Judeans.<ref>Tac. A.12.60</ref>
===Under a procurator (44–66)=== Following Agrippa's death in 44, the province returned to direct Roman control, incorporating Agrippa's personal territories of Galilee and Peraea, under a row of procurators. Nevertheless, Agrippa's son, [[Agrippa II]] was designated ''King of the Jews'' in 48. He was the seventh and last of the [[Herodians]].
Jerusalem was plagued by famine between 44 and 48.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Testament Parallels to the Works of Josephus - Page Two |url=https://www.josephus.org/ntparallels2.htm |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=www.josephus.org}}</ref> According to [[Josephus]], [[Helena of Adiabene]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XX |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XX |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=2023-03-09}}</ref>"...went down to the city Jerusalem, her son conducting her on her journey a great way. Now her coming was of very great advantage to the people of Jerusalem; for whereas a famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of corn, and others of them to Cyprus, to bring a cargo of dried figs. And as soon as they were come back, and had brought those provisions, which was done very quickly, she distributed food to those that were in want of it, and left a most excellent memorial behind her of this benefaction, which she bestowed on our whole nation. And when her son [[Izates II|Izates]] was informed of this famine, he sent great sums of money to the principal men in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Josephus]]|title=The Antiquities of the Jews|title-link=The Antiquities of the Jews |volume=[[Wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX|Book XX]]}}</ref>
=== First Jewish–Roman War (66–70) === {{Main|First Jewish–Roman War}} In 66 CE, tensions in Judaea escalated into an open revolt following clashes between Jews and Greeks in Caesarea.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=126–127}} These were followed by the Roman procurator Florus' seizure of Temple funds in Jerusalem and his subsequent massacres of its population.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=289–290}} A Temple captain halted sacrifices for the emperor, and the Roman garrison in the city was massacred. In response, [[Gaius Cestius Gallus (governor of Syria)|Cestius Gallus]], the Roman governor of Syria, led a 30,000-strong army into Judaea and besieged Jerusalem.{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=204}}{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=204}} However, after withdrawing from the city for unclear reasons,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}}{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=204}} his forces suffered a [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|devastating ambush]] at the [[Bethoron|Bethoron Pass]].{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=281}}{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=180}} [[File:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png|thumb|The spoils of the Jerusalem Temple, carried in triumph after the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], as depicted on the [[Arch of Titus]]]] After Gallus' defeat, a [[Judean provisional government|provisional government]] was formed in Jerusalem,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=1, 51, 52–53}} appointing military commanders across the country.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=70}} Soon Emperor Nero tasked [[Vespasian]] with suppressing the revolt,{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=306}} and in 67 CE, he launched a campaign in Galilee, besieging and destroying rebel strongholds such as [[Yodfat]], [[Tarichaea]], and [[Gamla]].{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=72–73}} Meanwhile, Jerusalem became overcrowded with refugees and rebels.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=86}} Inside the city, internal Jewish factions clashed as [[Zealots]] seized power, overthrew the moderate government, and invited the [[Idumeans]], who massacred opposition leaders and consolidated their control.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=267–278}} By 68 CE, Vespasian had secured Galilee and parts of Judea, aiming to isolate Jerusalem. However, Nero's suicide in 68 CE plunged Rome into civil war (the "[[Year of the Four Emperors]]").{{sfn|Price|1992|p=102}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=289–290}} In 69 CE, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor and left for Rome,{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=163}}{{sfn|Schäfer|2003|p=129}} entrusting command to his son [[Titus]], who prepared to crush the remaining Jewish resistance.{{sfn|Schäfer|2003|p=129}}
In 70 CE, the Roman army under Titus laid a [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|five-month siege to Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=391}} Titus's forces comprised legions, along with detachments (vexillationes) from two other legions, twenty infantry cohorts, eight mounted alae, and thousands of troops provided by client kings,{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=391}} totaling around 50,000 soldiers.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=302}} Jerusalem population had swollen with [[Passover]] pilgrims and refugees, while three-way factional strife among Jewish groups further weakened its defense. As supplies dwindled, the inhabitants suffered from starvation and disease. The Romans breached the city walls one by one, and, in the summer, stormed the [[Temple Mount]], destroying the Second Temple.{{sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=42–43}} The following month, the Romans completed their conquest of Jerusalem, slaughtering, enslaving, or executing many of its inhabitants and reducing the city to ruins.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=368–370}}{{sfn|Price|2011|p=409}}{{sfn|Magness|2024|pp=293–294}}
In the years that followed, Roman forces launched a final campaign against isolated rebel-held fortresses, which concluded with the [[Siege of Masada|fall of Masada]] in 73/74 CE.{{sfn|Tropper|2016|pp=91–92}}{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}}
===Interwar period (70–132)=== The Jewish defeat in the First Jewish–Roman War left a lasting impact on Judaea. Jerusalem, the spiritual and national center of the Jewish people, was destroyed,{{sfn|Zissu|2018|p=19}} and large numbers of Jews were killed through war, famine, disease, and massacres, while many others were captured or displaced.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} Nevertheless, communal life gradually recovered,{{sfn|Safrai|1976|p=314}}{{sfn|Schiffman|1991|p=161–162}} and Jews continued to make up a relative majority of the population.{{sfn|Levine|2017|p=164}}
In the aftermath, the province underwent administrative reorganization. A senatorial-rank legate was appointed as governor, and [[Legio X Fretensis|''Legio X Fretensis'']], which had taken part in the conquest of Jerusalem, was permanently stationed in the city's ruins.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}} To strengthen Roman control, the regions of Judea and Idumaea were designated a military zone under legionary officers,{{sfn|Zissu|2018|pp=21–22}} and veterans as well as other Roman citizens settled in the province.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=373}}[[File:First century Iudaea province.gif|thumb|First century Iudaea province]]
In 115 CE, widespread Jewish uprisings, known as the [[Diaspora Revolt]], erupted almost simultaneously across several eastern provinces, including [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]], Egypt, [[Roman Libya|Libya]], and [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Mesopotamia]]. Suppression of the revolt took about two years and led to the near-total destruction of Jewish communities in Cyprus, Egypt, and Libya.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|pp=61–62}}{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=10}} Judaea's involvement remains disputed: no fully reliable source confirms its direct participation, and archaeologically it is difficult to distinguish any destruction dating to 117 CE from that of the Bar Kokhba revolt a decade and a half later. Rabbinic tradition, however, preserves a memory of the "[[Kitos War]]," placing it fifty-two years after the destruction of the Second Temple and sixteen years before the Bar Kokhba revolt, and associating it with restrictive decrees and a ban on teaching Greek.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=100–101}} Late [[Syriac language|Syriac]] sources also speak of unrest in Judaea, describing Roman defeats of Jews from Egypt and Libya there,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=100–101}} while an inscription from [[Sardinia]] refers to an ''expeditio Judaeae'' among [[Trajan]]'s campaigns.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=100–101}} Hostilities may have been stoked by Roman cult acts in Jerusalem: [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] reports that a legion under Trajan set up an idol called ''Kore'', while an inscription records soldiers of [[Legio III Cyrenaica|''Legio III Cyrenaica'']] dedicating an altar or statue to [[Serapis]] in the city during Trajan's final year.{{Sfn|Ben Zeev|2018|p=90}}
Following his role in suppressing Jewish unrest in the eastern provinces, [[Lusius Quietus]] (namesake of the Kitos War) briefly governed Judaea with consular authority.{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=390}} After Hadrian succeeded Trajan in 117, Quietus was dismissed and replaced by [[Marcus Titius Lustricus Bruttianus]].{{Sfn|Ben Zeev|2018|pp=91–92}} Judaea's status was upgraded from a praetorian to a consular province, and a second permanent legion, ''[[Legio II Traiana Fortis]]'', was stationed there before 120 CE.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=100–101}}{{Sfn|Ben Zeev|2018|pp=92–93}} The legion's soldiers constructed a new road linking [[Legio|Caparcotna]], Sepphoris and Acre, turning Caparcotna into a northern base and securing the corridor between Judaea, Galilee, Egypt, and Syria.{{Sfn|Ben Zeev|2018|pp=93–94}} To strengthen control, Rome settled veterans and other loyal colonists in Judaea, a policy that aimed to secure the province but intensified alienation from the Jewish population.{{sfn|Zissu|2018|p=47}}[[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Roman Empire]] in the time of [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117–138 CE), showing, in western Asia, the Roman province of Judea]]
=== Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136) === {{Main|Bar Kokhba revolt}}
In 132 CE, the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]]—the final major Jewish revolt and last organized effort to regain national independence{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}{{sfn|Isaac|1990|p=55}}—erupted in Judaea. It was primarily concentrated in Judea proper'''{{efn|The region encompassing the Judaean Hills, the Judean Lowlands, and the Judaean Desert{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=392}}}}''' and was led by [[Simon bar Kokhba]]. The revolt was directly precipitated by the establishment of [[Aelia Capitolina]], a pagan [[Colonia (Roman)|Roman colony]], atop the ruins of Jerusalem,{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}{{sfn|Price|2024|p=19}}{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=106}}—an act Goodman described as the "final solution for Jewish rebelliousness."{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=27–28}} The many [[Bar Kokhba hiding complexes|hiding complexes]] built before the revolt show that the Jews had been preparing for conflict in advance.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=106}} With early victories over the Romans, Bar Kokhba secured control over a Jewish state and [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|minted coins]] bearing symbols and slogans proclaiming Jewish independence, similar to those issued during the revolt.{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=270}} However, Roman forces under Emperor Hadrian eventually crushed the revolt, resulting in widespread destruction and mass slaughter, which some historians describe as [[Genocide|genocidal]].{{sfn|Taylor|2012|p=243}} The fall of [[Betar (ancient village)|Betar]] and the death of Bar Kokhba in 135 marked the final collapse of the revolt.{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=401}} Judea proper was heavily depopulated, with many Jews sold into slavery and transported to distant regions.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=126}}
While Hadrian's death in 137 eased some of the restrictions and persecution, the Jewish population in the region was severely reduced.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=126}} The remaining Jews were largely concentrated in the Galilee, the [[Golan Heights|Golan]], and coastal plain cities, with smaller communities along the fringes of Judea proper and a few other areas.{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=37}}
=== Aftermath === After the revolt, Hadrian imposed laws targeting Jewish practices with the goal of dismantling Jewish nationalism.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=464–465}} The revolt also sealed the fate of the Jerusalem Temple, preventing its rebuilding for the foreseeable future.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=465–466}} Hadrian's punishment also included banning Jews from Jerusalem and its surrounding areas, and renaming the province from Judaea to [[Syria Palaestina]].{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}
The creation of Syria Palaestina from the ruins of Judaea, the former of which [[Timeline of the name Palestine|had not been an officially used name until then]], did not prevent the Jewish people from referring to the land in their writings as either "Yehudah" ({{Langx|he|יהודה}})<ref>''[[The Mishnah]]'' (ed. [[Herbert Danby]]), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1933, s.v. Tractate [https://archive.org/stream/DanbyMishnah#page/n77/mode/2up ''Shebiit'' 9:2]; compiled by Rabbi [[Judah the Prince]] in 189 [[Common Era|CE]].</ref><ref>See p. 1 in: {{cite journal |last=Feldman |first=Louis |title=Some Observations on the Name of Palestine |journal= Hebrew Union College Annual|volume=61 |pages=1–23 |jstor=23508170 |year=1990}}</ref> or "The Land of Israel" ({{Langx|he|ארץ ישראל|link=no}}).<ref>''[[The Mishnah]]'' (ed. [[Herbert Danby]]), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1933, s.v. Tractate [https://archive.org/stream/DanbyMishnah#page/n633/mode/2up ''Kelim'' 1:6]</ref>
== Economy ==
=== Agriculture === [[File:Israel_Hiking_Map_מערת_המספד_2.jpeg|thumb|A [[Rock-cut tombs in ancient Israel|rock-cut Jewish tomb]] at [[Horvat Burgin|Horvat Borgin]], dating from the late first century BCE to the Bar Kokhba Revolt]] [[Agriculture]] played a significant role in economic life in Judaea. Wheat, barley, olives and grapes were the main crops grown in Judaea's fields. Evidence for the cultivation of herbs, vegetables, and legumes comes from [[Rabbinic literature]], [[Josephus]]' works, and the New Testament. Writings from the late first and early second centuries indicate that Jewish farmers introduced rice to Judea during the early Roman period. The local crop was fine, large-kernel rice.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Decker|first=Michael|title=Tilling the Hateful Earth: Agricultural Production and Trade in the Late Antique East|pages=109–110|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-956528-3|oclc=316430311}}</ref><ref name=":132">{{Cite book|last=Safrai|first=Zeev|title=The Economy of Roman Palestine|chapter=Trade in the Land of Israel during the Second Temple period|pages=125–128|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=|year=2003|isbn=1-280-09423-0|oclc=814404092}}</ref>
=== Coinage === {{Main|Procuratorial coinage of Roman Judaea}}
During the Roman administration of Judaea, some governors commissioned the minting of coins for local use. Only six governors are known to have issued such coins, all minted in Jerusalem.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Meshorer |first1=Ya'akov |title=Coins of the Holy Land: the Abraham and Marian Sofaer Collection at the American Numismatic Society and the Israel Museum |last2=Bijovsky |first2=Gabriela |last3=Hendin |first3=David |last4=Meadows |first4=Andrew |date=2013 |publisher=American Numismatic Society |others=American numismatic society |isbn=978-0-89722-283-9 |series=Ancient coins in North American collections |location=New York |pages=269}}</ref> All issues minted were [[Prutah|''prutot'']], small [[bronze]] coins averaging 2-2.5 grams, similar to the Roman ''[[quadrans]]''.<ref name=":6" />
The design of the coins reflects an attempt to accommodate Jewish sensibilities, likely in collaboration with the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Meshorer |first=Ya'akov |title=Ancient Jewish Coinage |publisher=Amphora Books |year=1982 |volume=II: Herod the Great through Bar Cochba |pages=173–174, 186–187 |lccn=82-074517}}</ref> Unlike typical [[Roman currency|Roman coinage]] featuring the emperor's portrait, these coins displayed symbols like [[Date palm|palm tree]] and [[Ear (botany)|ears of grain]], echoing earlier [[Herodian kingdom|Hasmonean]] and [[Herodian coinage|Herodian]] designs. A notable exception is the coinage of [[Pontius Pilate]], (26-36 CE), which included Roman cultic items like the ''[[simpulum]]'' and ''[[lituus]]'' on one side, though the reverse maintained Jewish imagery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McGing |first=Brian C. |date=1991 |title=Pontius Pilate and the Sources |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43718282 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=425 |jstor=43718282 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref><ref>Graves, D. E. (2019). Pilate's Ring and Roman Religion. ''Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin'', ''64'', p. 7</ref>
Attributing these coins to specific governors is a challenge. They lack the governor's name, but display the reigning emperor's [[regnal year]] and name in Greek. Scholars rely on cross-referencing this information with historical records, particularly the writings of Josephus, to establish a governor's chronology and assign the coins accordingly.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6" />
These coins were primarily circulated within Judaea, with the highest concentration found in Jerusalem, where hundreds have been discovered. However, evidence indicates that the coins transcended their intended region, with discoveries in [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]] and even in distant locations like [[Dura-Europos|Dura]] and [[Antioch]].<ref name=":6" />
The minting of provincial coins ceased in 59 CE, and they continued to circulate until the end of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in 70 CE. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, Jews lost their previously held rights; subsequent Roman coinage in Judaea no longer reflected Jewish influence.<ref name=":6" />
==List of governors (6–135 AD)== {{Main|Roman administration of Judaea (AD 6–135)}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! Name ! Reign ! Length of rule ! Category |- | [[Coponius]] | 6–9 | 3 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Marcus Ambivulus]] | 9–12 | 3 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Annius Rufus]] | 12–15 | 3 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Valerius Gratus]] | 15–26 (?) | 11 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Pontius Pilate]] | 26–36 (?) | 10 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Marcellus, prefect of Judea|Marcellus]] | 36–37 | 1 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Marullus, prefect of Judea|Marullus]] | 37–41 | 4 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | ''Vacant'' | 41–44 | 3 | ''Monarchy restored'' |- | [[Cuspius Fadus]] | 44–46 | 2 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Tiberius Julius Alexander]] | 46–48 | 2 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Ventidius Cumanus]] | 48–52 | 4 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Antonius Felix|Marcus Antonius Felix]] | 52–60 | 8 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Porcius Festus]] | 60–62 | 2 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Lucceius Albinus]] | 62–64 | 2 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Gessius Florus]] | 64–66 | 2 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Marcus Antonius Julianus]] | 66–70 (dates uncertain) | 4 | style="background:#ffe0e0;" | [[Procurator (Roman)|Roman Procurator]] |- | [[Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis]] | 70–71 | 1 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Sextus Lucilius Bassus]] | 71–72 | 1 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Lucius Flavius Silva]] | 72–81 | 9 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Salvidenus|Marcus Salvidienus]] | 80–85 | 5 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Gnaeus Pompeius Longinus]] | c.86 | 1 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Sextus Hermentidius Campanus]] | c.93 | 1 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes (suffect consul 132)|Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes]] | 99–102 | 3 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus]] | 102–104 | 2 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Quintus Pompeius Falco]] | 105–107 | 2 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Tiberianus]] | 114–117 | 3 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Lusius Quietus]] | 117–120 | 3 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus|Gargilius Antiquus]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/ancient-inscription-identifies-gargilius-antiques-as-roman-ruler-on-eve-of-bar-kochva-revolt/2016/12/01/|title=Ancient Inscription Identifies Gargilius Antiques as Roman Ruler on Eve of Bar Kochva Revolt|date=December 2016 }}</ref> | c. 124–? | 1 | style="background:#e0e0ff;" | [[Praefectus|Roman Prefect]] |- | [[Quintus Tineius Rufus (consul 127)|Quintus Tineius Rufus]] | 130–132/3 | 3 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |- | [[Sextus Julius Severus]] | c. 133/4–135 | 1 | style="background:#e0ffe0;" | [[Legatus|Roman Legate]] |}
==See also== *[[History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel]] *{{Annotated link|Fiscus Judaicus|''Fiscus Judaicus''}} *''[[The Life of Brian]]'' – a 1979 British comedy film which riffs on the idiosyncrasies of life in 33 AD Roman Judea *[[Roman Palestine]]
==Sources== ===References=== {{Reflist}}
===Notes=== {{notelist}}
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Ancient and Modern Perspectives | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004352971_011 | year=2017 | pages=161–175 | isbn=978-90-04-35297-1 | publisher=Brill | doi=10.1163/9789004352971_011 }} * {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/archaeology-of-the-holy-land/22D828E7C9A290BCB132BF5234F02332 |title=The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-139-01383-3 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=|author-link=}} * {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/jerusalem-through-the-ages-9780190937805 |title=Jerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-093780-5 |series= |volume= |location=New York, NY |pages= |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Steve |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139020718 |title=A History of the Jewish War: AD 66–74 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-139-02071-8 |series=Key Conflicts of Classical Antiquity |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139020718 }} * {{Cite book |last=Price |first=Jonathan J. |url=https://brill.com/display/title/1630 |title=Jerusalem under Siege: The Collapse of the Jewish State, 66-70 C.E. |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=978-9-004-09471-0 |series=Brill's Series in Jewish Studies |volume=3 |location= |pages= |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last=Price |first=Jonathan J. |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series= |location= |chapter=The Jewish Population of Jerusalem from the First Century BCE to the Early Second Century CE: The Epigraphic Record |pages=399–418|doi=10.1163/9789004216693_017 }} * {{Cite book |last=Price |first=Jonathan |url=https://brill.com/display/title/68991 |title=Looking In, Looking Out: Jews and Non-Jews in Mutual Contemplation |publisher=Brill |year=2024 |isbn=978-9-004-68503-1 |editor-last=Czajkowski |editor-first=Kimberley |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |location=Leiden and Boston |chapter=Historiography in the Time of Stasis: Reflections on the Nationalistic Uprisings in Judea/Palestine |editor-last2=Friedman |editor-first2=David A.|pages=15–37|doi=10.1163/89004685055|volume=212|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }} * {{Cite book |last=Pucci Ben Zeev |first=Miriam |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |location=Cambridge |chapter=The Uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117|pages=93–104 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.005}} * {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Guy MacLean |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300248135/for-the-freedom-of-zion/ |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-300-24813-5 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=}} * {{Cite book |last1=Safrai |first1=Samuel |url=https://brill.com/display/title/17300 |title=The Jewish People in the First Century |publisher=Brill |year=1974 |isbn=978-9-004-27500-3 |series= |volume=1 |location= |pages= |chapter=|last2=Stern|first2=Menachem}} * {{Cite book |last=Safrai |first=Samuel |url= |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=0-674-39731-2 |series= |volume= |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=307–382 |chapter=The Era of the Mishnah and Talmud (70–640)}} * {{Cite book |last = Schäfer |first = Peter |title = The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest |publisher = Routledge |year = 2003 |isbn=9780415305877 }} * {{cite book |last=Schiffman |first=Lawrence H. |title=From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-881-25372-6 |chapter=Revolt and Restoration }} * {{Cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Seth |author-link=Seth Schwartz |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/political-social-and-economic-life-in-the-land-of-israel-66c-235/9B8F740CD3C91D2600B977B8A5EA2A09 |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |location= |pages=23–52 |chapter=Political, social, and economic life in the Land of Israel, 66–c. 235}} * {{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. 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===Works cited=== * {{citation |url=http://cojs.org/when_palestine_meant_israel-_david_jacobson-_bar_27-03-_may-jun_2001/. |title=When Palestine Meant Israel |first=David |last=Jacobson |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=27 |issue=3 |year=2001}}
==Further reading== *{{cite book |last=Hall |first=J. F. |author-link=John F. Hall |date=1996 |chapter=The Roman Province of Judea: A Historical Overview |title=Masada and the World of the New Testament (1996–97) |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=319–336 |chapter-url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43044136 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/i40117983 |jstor=i40117983}}
==External links== {{commons category|Judea (Roman province)}} * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=541&letter=P&search=Lucius%20Vitellius Jewish Encyclopedia: Procurators of Iudaea] * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=541&letter=P Procurators], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]'', 1906 * [http://focusonjerusalem.com/whatromecalledthepromisedland.html The name Rome gave to the land of Israel]
{{Jewish history}} {{Roman provinces AD 117}} {{First Jewish–Roman War}} {{Bar Kokhba revolt}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Judaea (Roman province)| ]] [[Category:0s establishments in the Roman Empire]] [[Category:AD 6 establishments]] [[Category:130s disestablishments in the Roman Empire]] [[Category:Jordan in the Roman era]] [[Category:Israel in the Roman era]] [[Category:Political entities in the Land of Israel]] [[Category:Samaria]] [[Category:1st-century Judaism]] [[Category:2nd-century Judaism]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 0s]] [[Category:Provinces of the Roman Empire]]