{{Short description|Branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family}} {{About|the language family|languages spoken in the modern country of Iran|Languages of Iran|the official language of Iran|Persian language}} {{More citations needed|date=June 2021}} {{Infobox language family | name = Iranian | altname = Iranic | ethnicity = [[Iranian peoples]] | region = [[West Asia]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], and [[South Asia]] | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | protoname = [[Proto-Iranian language|Proto-Iranian]] | child1 = [[Western Iranian languages|Western]] | child2 = [[Avestan language|Avestan]] † | child3 = [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern]] | iso2 = ira | iso5 = ira | glotto = iran1269 | glottorefname = Iranian | lingua = 58= (phylozone) | map = Distribution of Iranian Languages.png | mapcaption = Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around the [[Iranian plateau]] | speakers = {{est.}} 200 million }} The '''Iranian languages''', or the '''Iranic languages''',<ref name="BechertBernini1990">{{cite book|author1=Johannes Bechert|author2=Giuliano Bernini|author3=Claude Buridant|title=Toward a Typology of European Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BemPapPEBYAC|year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-012108-7}}</ref><ref name="Windfuhr1979">{{cite book|author=Gernot Windfuhr|title=Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0g8n9mmnjKgC|year=1979|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-90-279-7774-8}}</ref> are a branch of the [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] that are spoken natively by the [[Iranian peoples]], mainly in the [[Iranian plateau|Iranian Plateau]].

The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly attested Old Iranian languages are [[Old Persian]] (from the [[Achaemenid Empire]]) and [[Avestan]] (the language of the [[Avesta]]). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are [[Middle Persian]] (from the [[Sasanian Empire]]), [[Parthian language|Parthian]] (from the [[Parthian Empire]]), and [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] (from the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] and [[Hephthalites|Hephthalite]] empires).

== Number of speakers == In 2005, ''[[Ethnologue]]'' estimated that there are 86 languages in the group.<ref name="SIL">{{cite journal|editor-last=Gordon|editor-first=Raymond G. Jr.|title=Report for Iranian languages|journal=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|year=2005|edition=Fifteenth|location=Dallas|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IR}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |+Top languages by number of native speakers !Name !speakers |- |[[Persian language|Persian]] |92 million{{citation needed|date=March 2025}} |- |[[Pashto]] |55 million<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ps/</ref> |- |[[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]] |28 million{{sfn|Windfuhr|2012|p=587}} |- |[[Balochi language|Balochi]] |5–8 million{{sfn|Windfuhr|2012|p=634}} |- |[[Caspian languages|Caspian]] |10 million{{citation needed|date=March 2025}} |- |[[Luri language|Luri]] |5 million{{citation needed|date=March 2025}} |- | colspan="2" |150–200 million{{sfn|Windfuhr|2012|p=1}} |}

==Terminology and grouping== {{Indo-European topics}}

=== Etymology === The term ''[[Iran (word)|Iran]]'' derives directly from [[Middle Persian]] {{transliteration|pal|Ērān}}, first attested in a third-century inscription at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]], with the accompanying [[Parthian language|Parthian]] inscription using the term {{transliteration|xpr|Aryān}}, in reference to the [[Iranian peoples]].<ref name="MacKenzie">{{cite encyclopedia|last=MacKenzie |first=David Niel |title=Ērān, Ērānšahr |year=1998 |volume=8 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |publisher=Mazda |location=Costa Mesa |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313095654/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |archive-date=13 March 2017}}</ref> The Middle-Iranian ''ērān'' and ''aryān'' are oblique plural forms of [[Demonym|gentilic]] nouns ''ēr-'' (Middle Persian) and ''ary-'' (Parthian), both deriving from [[Proto-Iranian language]] ''*arya-'' (meaning "[[Arya (Iran)|Aryan]]", i.e. "of the Iranians").<ref name="MacKenzie"/><ref name="Schmitt_Aryans1">{{citation|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|chapter=Aryans|pages=684–687|series=vol. 2|year=1987|title=Encyclopedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|chapter-url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans}}</ref> In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the [[Avesta]],<ref name="Bailey_Arya">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bailey |first=Harold Walter |author-link=Harold Walter Bailey |title=Arya |pages=681–683 |year=1987 |volume=2 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |location=New York |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194904/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|In the Avesta, the ''airiia-'' are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to the ''anairiia-'' (the "[[Aneran|non-Arya]]"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in the [[Behistun Inscription]], where ''ariya-'' is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur in [[Darius the Great]]'s inscription at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] (DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription of [[Xerxes I]] at [[Persepolis]] (XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves as ''pārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça'' "a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin."—The phrase with ''ciça'' ("origin, descendance") assures that ''ariya'' is an ethnic name wider in meaning than ''pārsa'' and not a simple adjectival epithet.<ref name="Bailey_Arya" />}} and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names ''[[Alans|Alan]]'' ({{langx|os|Ир}} {{transliteration|os|Ir}}) and ''[[Iron people|Iron]]'' ({{lang|os|Ирон}}).<ref name="Schmitt_Aryans1"/>

=== Iranian vs. Iranic === When used as a linguistic term ''Iranian'' is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral [[Proto-Iranian language]].<ref name="Skjærvø 2006">{{Harv|Skjærvø|2006}}</ref>

Some scholars such as [[John R. Perry (orientalist)|John R. Perry]] prefer the term ''Iranic'' as the [[Anthropology|anthropological]] name for the [[Linguistics|linguistic]] family and ethnic groups of this category, and ''Iranian'' for anything about the modern country of Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], Finnish from [[Finnic languages|Finnic]], or differentiating Turkish and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=John R. Perry |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=31 |number=3/4 |title=A Review of the 'Encyclopaedia Iranica' |date=Summer–Autumn 1998 |pages=517–525}}</ref>

This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by [[Christian Lassen]].<ref>Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.<br>This was followed by [[Wilhelm Geiger]] in his ''Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie'' (1895). [[Friedrich von Spiegel]] (1859), ''Avesta'', Engelmann (p. vii) used the spelling ''Eranian''.</ref> [[Robert Needham Cust]] used the term ''Irano-Aryan'' in 1878,<ref>Cust, Robert Needham. 1878. ''A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies.'' London: Trübner.</ref> and [[Orientalism|Orientalists]] such as [[George Abraham Grierson]] and [[Max Müller]] contrasted ''Irano-Aryan'' ([[Iranian peoples|Iranian]]) and ''Indo-Aryan'' ([[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indic]]{{refn|group=note|In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of the [[Indian subcontinent]], thus also including non-Aryan language families like [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] and [[Munda languages|Munda]]. See e.g. {{cite book|last1=Reynolds |first1=Mike |chapter=Indic languages |date=2007 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-in-the-british-isles/indic-languages/8343FABC094E91986DBD68A492FFEA1B |title=Language in the British Isles |pages=293–307 |editor-last=Britain |editor-first=David |place=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-79488-6 |access-date=2021-10-04 |last2=Verma |first2=Mahendra}}}}). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.<ref>[[Ahmad Hasan Dani|Dani, Ahmad Hasan]]. 1989. ''History of northern areas of Pakistan.'' Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research.<br>"We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan".</ref><ref>[[Gilbert Lazard|Lazard, Gilbert]]. 1977. ''Preface'' in: Oranskij, Iosif M. ''Les langues iraniennes''. Traduit par Joyce Blau.</ref><ref>Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994. ''Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistan'' in: ''Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag.'' Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196.</ref><ref>Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter. {{ISBN|3-11-015670-9}}, {{ISBN|978-3-11-015670-6}}</ref>

=== Grouping === The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches: *The [[Western Iranian languages]], subdivided into: ** Southwestern, of which [[Persian language|Persian]] (including the [[Dari]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]], and [[Hazaragi]] dialects) and [[Luri language|Luri]] are the dominant members; ** Northwestern, of which the [[Kurdish languages]] are the dominant members. *The [[Eastern Iranian languages]], subdivided into: ** Southeastern, of which [[Pashto]] is the dominant member; ** Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] is the dominant member.

According to modern scholarship, the [[Avestan language]]s are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from [[Proto-Iranian]] before the east–west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western.<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eastern-iranian-languages Encyclopaedia Iranica: EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES. By Nicholas Sims-Williams]</ref>

==Proto-Iranian== [[File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png|thumb|Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age period.]]

The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: [[Proto-Iranian language|Proto-Iranian]], which itself evolved from [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in [[Central Asia]], and the [[Andronovo culture]] of the [[Bronze Age]] is suggested as a candidate for the common [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian culture]] around 2000 BCE.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan. It was thus in relative proximity to the other [[Centum and satem languages|satem ethno-linguistic groups]] of the [[Indo-European family]], such as [[Thracian language|Thracian]], [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the [[Pontic-Caspian Steppe]] to the north of the Black Sea and the [[Caucasus]]), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of [[Southeast Europe|southeastern Europe]], the [[Iranian Plateau]], and Central Asia.

Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:<ref>[[Michael Witzel]] (2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115.</ref> the turning of [[sibilant]] [[fricative]] *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated [[plosive]]s *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.

==Old Iranian== The multitude of [[#Middle Iranian|Middle Iranian]] languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, ''direct'' evidence of only two has survived. These are: * [[Avestan]], the two languages/dialects of the [[Avesta]] (the [[Liturgy|liturgical]] texts of [[Zoroastrianism]]). * [[Old Persian]], the native language of a southwestern [[Iranian peoples|Iranian people]] known as [[Persians]].<ref>Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953.</ref> ''Indirectly'' attested Old Iranian languages are discussed [[#indirect_old|below]].

Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of [[Fars province|Fars]]) by the inhabitants of [[Fars province|Parsa]], Persia, or [[Persis]] who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the [[Behistun]] inscription, composed {{Circa|520 BCE}}, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of [[Avestan language|Avestan]], which take their name from their use in the [[Avesta]], the [[Liturgy|liturgical]] texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of [[Zoroastrianism]] but in the Avesta itself is simply known as ''vohu daena'' (later: ''behdin''). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as [[Vedic Sanskrit|Rigvedic Sanskrit]].<!-- e.g. Humbach, "A western approach...", p. 12 --> On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

{{anchor|indirect_old}}In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only ''directly'' attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include [[Parthian language|Old Parthian]]. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "[[Median language|Median]]" substrate in some of its vocabulary.<ref name=EI-IL-vi>{{harv|Skjærvø|2006}} vi(2). Documentation.</ref> Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as [[Herodotus]] did for what he called "[[Scythian languages|Scythian]]" and in one instance, [[Median language|Median]] (''σπάκα'' "dog").

===Isoglosses=== Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches.<ref name="Iranica">Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages</ref> These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west<!-- Parthia is still north *WEST* --> in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series [[Palatal consonant|palatal]] consonants, *ć and *dź:<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Gernot|last=Windfuhr|year=2009|title=Dialectology and Topics|encyclopedia=The Iranian Languages|pages=18–21|publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref> * Avestan and most other Iranian languages have [[Deaffrication|deaffricated]] and depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć > ''s'', *dź > ''z''. * Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć > ''θ'', *dź > *ð > ''d''. As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring [[Nuristani languages]].) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw: * Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters to ''sp'', ''zb''. * In Old Persian, these clusters yield ''s'', ''z'', with loss of the glide *w, but ''without'' further fronting. * The [[Saka language]], attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relative [[Wakhi language|Wakhi]] fail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw > ''š'', *dźw > ''ž''.

A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied: * Persid (Old Persian and its descendants) * Sakan ([[Saka]], [[Wakhi language|Wakhi]], and their Old Iranian ancestor) * Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages)

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of [[Scythian languages|Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian]] in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

==Middle Iranian== What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, [[Western Iranian|Western]] and [[Eastern Iranian|Eastern]].

The Western family includes [[Parthian language|Parthian]] ([[Parthia|Arsacid]] Pahlavi) and [[Middle Persian]], while [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]], [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]], [[Khwarezmian language|Khwarezmian]], [[Saka language|Saka]], and [[Old Ossetic]] ([[Scythians|Scytho]]-[[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]]) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various [[Aramaic]]-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial [[Aramaic script]], though Bactrian was written using an adapted [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]].

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the [[Sassanid|Sasanian]] dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century [[Common Era|CE]] until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the [[Manichaean]]s, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the [[Syriac script]].<ref>Mary Boyce. 1975. ''A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian'', p. 14.</ref> The [[Achomi language|Achomi]] (Larestani/Khodmooni) language is considered a surviving remains of Pahlavi Middle Persian,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Talei |first1=Maryam |last2=Rovshan |first2=Belghis |date=2024-10-24 |title=Semantic Network in Lari Language |url=https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_8091.html?lang=en |url-status=live |journal=Persian Language and Iranian Dialects |language=en |doi=10.22124/plid.2024.27553.1673 |issn=2476-6585 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241128033018/https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_8091.html?lang=en |archive-date=2024-11-28 |quote=This descriptive-analytical research examines sense relations between the lexemes of the Lari language, the continuation of the [[Middle Persian]] and one of the endangered Iranian languages spoken in Lar, Fars province}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=2024-06-16 |title=Western Iranian languages History |url=https://www.destinationiran.com/western-iranian-languages.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241128034127/https://www.destinationiran.com/western-iranian-languages.htm |archive-date=2024-11-28 |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=Destination Iran |language=en-US |quote=Achomi or Khodmooni (Larestani) is a southwestern Iranian language spoken in southern Fars province and the Ajam (non-arab) population in Persian Gulf countries such as UAE, Bahrain, and Kuwait. It is a descendant of Middle Persian and has several dialects including Lari, Evazi, Khoni, Bastaki, and more.}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Taherkhani |first1=Neda |last2=Ourang |first2=Muhammed |year=2013 |title=A Study of Derivational Morphemes in Lari & Tati as Two Endangered Iranian Languages: An Analytical Contrastive Examination with Persian |url=https://www.jofamericanscience.org/journals/am-sci/am0911s/008_21547am0911s_38_45.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of American Science |issn=1545-1003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130234815/https://www.jofamericanscience.org/journals/am-sci/am0911s/008_21547am0911s_38_45.pdf |archive-date=2024-11-30 |access-date=2024-11-28 |quote=Lari is of the SW branch of Middle Iranian languages, Pahlavi, in the Middle period of Persian Language Evolution and consists of nine dialects, which are prominently different in pronunciation (Geravand, 2010). Being a branch of Pahlavi language, Lari has several common features with it as its mother language. The ergative structure (the difference between the conjugation of transitive and intransitive verbs) existing in Lari can be mentioned as such an example. The speech community of this language includes Fars province, Hormozgan province and some of the Arabic-speaking countries like the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Oman (Khonji, 2010, p. 15).}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |title=ICEHM: International Centre of Economics, Humanities and Management |url=http://icehm.org/siteadmin/upload/4853ED0115115.pdf |url-status=dead |doi=10.15242/icehm.ed0115115 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429055708/http://icehm.org/siteadmin/upload/4853ED0115115.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-29 |access-date=2020-12-10 |website=icehm.org}}</ref><ref name="nesreen">گويش مردم اوز. نسرين انصاف پور و محمد رفيع ضيايى 1396</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite book |last1=Wikipedia |first1=Source |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLL6nQEACAAJ |title=Southwestern Iranian Languages: Persian Dialects and Varieties, Persian Language, Tajik Language, Dari, Persianate Society, Tajik Alphabet, Old Persia |publisher=General Books |year=2013 |isbn=9781230641287}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Moridi |first=Behzad |date=2009 |title=The Dialects of Lar (The State of Research) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703812 |url-status=live |journal=Iran & the Caucasus |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=335–340 |doi=10.1163/157338410X12625876281389 |issn=1609-8498 |jstor=25703812 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103155930/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703812 |archive-date=2022-01-03 |access-date=2020-12-10|url-access=subscription }}</ref> as well as [[Luri language|Luri]], with their respective dialects.

==New Iranian== {{See also|Persian literature|Pashto literature and poetry|Ossetian literature|Kurdish literature|Tajik literature}} [[File:Iranian Language Status.png|thumb|250px|Dark green: countries where Iranian languages are official.<br />Teal: countries where Iranian languages are official in a subdivision.]]

Following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], there were essential changes in the role of the different dialects. The old prestige form of [[Middle Iranian]], ''Pahlavi'', which was associated with the western Sasanian provinces of [[Spahan (province)|Spahan]] and [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]], was replaced by a new variety as the official language of the court. In 875, the [[Saffarid dynasty]] was the first in a line of many dynasties to adopt the new prestige language officially.

[[Western Iranian languages|West Iranian varieties]] from eastern regions may have had a significant impact on the development of the new standard, which served as the basis for a standardised [[New Persian]]. Medieval Iranian scholars such as [[ibn al-Muqaffa']] (8th century) and [[ibn al-Nadim]] (10th century) associated the term ''Dari'' with the eastern [[Khorasan province|province of Khorasan]], ''Pahlavi'' for the dialects of the northwestern areas between the [[Isfahan province|province of Isfahan]] and [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]], and ''Pârsi'' to describe the [[dialects of Fars]] (Persia).

These scholars also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty was ''[[Khuzi language|Khuzi]]'', associated with the western [[Khuzestan province|province of Khuzestan]]; it was likely a late variety of the [[Elamite language]], a language isolate that previously was the official court language of [[Elam]] in that region.

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of the [[Arabic script]] for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. The [[Tajik alphabet]], used to write the [[Tajik language]], was initially [[Romanization|Romanized]] in the 1920s under the [[Soviet nationalities policy]]. This was shifted to a [[Cyrillic script]] in the 1930s.

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran, and [[Turkic languages]] spread through much of [[Central Asia]], displacing various [[Eastern Iranian languages]] such as [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] and [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] in what is today [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Tajikistan]]. In Eastern Europe, in what is now Ukraine, southern [[European Russia]], and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the Eastern Iranian-speaking [[Scythians]], [[Sarmatians]], and [[Alans]], had been decisively [[Slavicisation|Slavicised]] by the various [[Early Slavs]] of the region by the [[6th century]].<ref name="The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450">{{cite book |quote="(..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations."|title=The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450 |first1= Richard |last1=Brzezinski |first2=Mariusz | last2=Mielczarek |publisher= Osprey Publishing | date = 2002 |page=39 }}</ref><ref name="Taylor & Francis">{{cite book |quote="(..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations."|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |first1= Douglas Q. |last1=Adams |publisher= Taylor & Francis | date = 1997 |page=523 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |quote="(..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians." |title=Women in Russia |first1=Dorothy |last1=Atkinson |author-link=Dorothy Atkinson (historian) |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1977 |page=[https://archive.org/details/womeninrussia0000unse/page/3 3] |display-authors=etal |isbn=9780804709101 |url=https://archive.org/details/womeninrussia0000unse/page/3 }}</ref><ref name="Slovene Studies">{{cite book |quote="(..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs."|title=Slovene Studies |publisher= Society for Slovene Studies | volume = 9–11 | date = 1987 |page=36 }}</ref> This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant [[Scythian languages]] of the region. [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]]'s close relative, [[Yaghnobi language|Yaghnobi]], barely survives in a small area of the [[Zarafshan Range]] east of [[Samarkand]], [[Wakhi language|Wakhi]] is spoken by [[nomadic pastoralists]] from Afghanistan to China, and [[Saka]] survives as [[Ossetian language|Ossetic]] in [[Ciscaucasia]], which is the sole remnant of the once-predominant Scythian languages of the region. Minority Eastern Iranian languages survive in the [[Pamir Mountains]]; [[Pashto]] is the only widely-spoken Eastern Iranian language, with at least 90 million speakers.

=={{anchor|Iranian languages word table}}Comparison table== {{unreferenced section|date=October 2013}} <div style=" width:100%; overflow:auto"> {|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%" !English ![[Zaza language|Zaza]] ! style="background-color: #d6e1ec" |[[Persian language|Persian]] ! style="background-color: #e4e0f0" |[[Tati language (Iran)|Tati]] ![[Talysh language|Talysh]] ! style="background-color: #ece0f0" |[[Gilaki language|Gilaki]] ! style="background-color: #f1dfe5" |[[Mazanderani language|Mazanderani]] ! style="background-color: #d6e1ec" |[[Sorani Kurdish|Sorani]] ! style="background-color: #d1ebeb" |[[Kurmanji]] ! style="background-color: #d6e1ec" |[[Pashto]] ![[Balochi language|Balochi]] ![[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat (Caucaus)]] ! style="background-color: #f1e9df" |[[Luri language|Luri]] ! style="background-color: #f1e9df" |[[Shughni language|Shughni]] !style="background-color: #f0f1df"|[[Middle Persian]] !style="background-color: #e8f1df"|[[Parthian language|Parthian]] !style="background-color: #dff1e0"|[[Old Persian]] !style="background-color: #dff1ed"|[[Avestan]] |style="background-color: #d6e1ec"| [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] |- |- |'''''beautiful''''' |rınd, xasek |zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel |xojir |ghašang |xujīrçī/xujīr |xoşgel, xojir, xejir |ciwan, nayab |rind, delal, bedew, xweşik |x̌kūlay, x̌āista |dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān |qəşəng, şihid |qəşaŋ, xoşgel |xushrui, xagh(''fem.'') xigh(''masc.'') |hučihr, hužihr |hužihr |naiba |x<sup>v</sup>a<sup>i</sup>ni, sraiia, sr<sup>a</sup>o- |ræsughd |- |'''''blood''''' |goni |xūn |xevn |xun |xun |xun |xwên |xwîn, xûn |wīna |hon |xun |xī(n) |xun |xōn |gōxan | |vohuna, va<sup>ŋ</sup>hutāt̰ |tug |- |'''''bread''''' |nan, non |nān |nun |nun |nön |nun |nan |nan |ḍoḍəi, məṛəi, naɣan/nɣaen |nān, nagan |nun |nu(n) |gartha |nān |nān | |tāiiū<sup>i</sup>r<sup>i</sup>, dr<sup>a</sup>o-naŋh (scared bread) |dzul |- |'''''bring''''' |ardene |āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!") |vârden, biyordon |varde |hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən |biyârden |hanîn, hawerdin, hênan |anîn |(rā)wṛəl |âurten, yārag, ārag |avardən |o(v)erden, |videu |āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar- |āwāy-, āwar-, bar- |bara- |bara, bar- |xæssyn |- |'''''brother''''' |bıra |barādar |bərâr |bira, boli |bərär, bərâr |berâr, beror |bira |bira |wror |brāt, brās |birar |Gaghe |værod |brād, brâdar |brād, brādar |brātar |brātar- |æfsymær |- |'''''come''''' |ameyene |āmadan |biyâmiyan |ome |həmän, ämön, hömän |biyamona, enen, biyâmuen |hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî) |hatin, were, |rā tləl |āhag, āyag, hatin |amarən |umae(n) |yà |āmadan, awar |awar, čām |āy-, āgam |āgam- |cæwyn |- |'''''cry''''' |bermayene |gerīstan/gerīye |bərma |berame, bame |burmə |berme |giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî) |girîn |žəṛəl |greewag, grehten |girəstən |gerevesen, gereva |náu |griy-, bram- |barmâdan | |snuδ, |kæwyn |- |'''''dark''''' |tari |tārīk, tār |ul, gur, târica, târek |toki |zuləmât, tärik |tār, siyo, zolamât |tarî/tarîk |tarî |skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara |tār |tariki |tārīk |torice |tārīg/k |tārīg, tārēn |tārīk |sāmahe, sāma |tar |- |'''''daughter''''' |keyne, çêne/çêneke |doxtar |titiye, dətar |kinə, kila |lâku, kör (girl)

dətər (daughter) |kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter) |kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî) |dot, keç |lūr |dohtir, duttag |duxtər |doxter |rezin |duxtar |duxt, duxtar | |duxδar |čyzg (<small>[[Iron dialect|Iron]]</small>), kizgæ (<small>[[Digor dialect|Digor]]</small>) |- |'''''day''''' |roce, roje, roze |rūz |revj, ruz |ruj |ruz, ruj |ruz, ruj |řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî) |roj |wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z) |roç |ruz |ru |ruz |rōz | |raucah- |raocah- |bon |- |'''''do''''' |kerdene |kardan |kardan, kordan |karde |gudən, kudən, kördən |hâkerden, hâkorden |kirdin |kirin |kawəl |kanag, kurtin |saxtən |kerde |chideu |kardan |kartan |kạrta- |kәrәta- |kænyn |- |'''''door''''' |ber, keyber, çêber |dar |darvâca |bə |bər |dar, loş |derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî) |derî |wər, dərwāza |dar, gelo, darwāzag |dər |dər, dar |dêve |dar |dar, bar |duvara- |dvara- |dwar |- |'''''die''''' |merdene |mordan |bamarden |marde |murdən, mərdən |bamerden |mirdin |mirin |mrəl |mireg, murten |mürdən |morde |mideu |murdan | |mạriya- |mar- |mælyn |- |'''''donkey''''' |her |xar |astar, xar |hə, hər |xər |xar |ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî) |ker |xər |har, her, kar |xər |xər |marcabe |xar | | |kaθβa |xæræg |- |'''''eat''''' |werdene |xordan / xurāk |harden |harde |xördən, xöndən |xerâk / baxârden |xwardin |xwarin |xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl |warag, warâk, wārten |xardən |harde |xideu |parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg |parwarz / xwâr | |hareθra / CE-, at- |xærinag |- |'''''egg''''' |hak, akk |toxm, xāya ("testicle") |merqâna, karxâ |morqana, uyə |murqönə, murqänə |merqâne, tîm, balî |hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî) |hêk |hagəi |heyg, heyk, ā morg |xaykərg |xā'a |tarmurx |toxmag, xâyag |taoxmag, xâyag | |t<sup>a</sup>oxma- |ajk |- |'''''earth''''' |erd |zamīn |zemin |zamin |zəmi, gəl, bunə |zamîn, bene |zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd |erd, zevî |d͡zməka (md͡zəka) |zemin, degār |xari |zemi |zimath |zamīg |zamīg |zam- |zãm, zam, zem |zæxx |- |'''''evening''''' |şan |begáh |nomâzyar, nomâšon |shav |şänsər |nemâşun |êware, îware (Pehlewanî) |êvar, şev |māx̌ām (māš̥ām) |begáh |şangum |evāra |véga |ēvārag |êbêrag | |ar<sup>ə</sup>zaŋh |izær |- |'''''eye''''' |çım |čashm |coš |čaş,gelgan |çum |çəş, bəj |çaw/çaş |çav |stərga |cham, chem |çüm |tīya, çaş |çem |čašm |čašm |čaša- |čašman- |cæst |- |'''''father''''' |pi, pêr |pedar, bābā |piyar, piya, dada |piya, lala, po |pér |pîyer, pîyar, per |bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî) |bav, bab |plār |pet, pes |piyər |bua |tat |pidar |pid |pitar |pitar |fyd |- |'''''fear''''' |ters |tars, harās |târs |tars |tərs |taşe-vaşe, tars |tirs |tirs |wēra (yara), bēra |turs, terseg |tərsi |ters |hoge |tars |tars |tạrsa- |tar<sup>e</sup>s- |tas |- |'''''fiancé''''' |waşti |nāmzād |numzâ |nomja |nömzət |numze |desgîran,xwşavest |dergistî |čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine] |nāmzād |nükürdə | |xîsmenz | – | – | |para-dāta (affianced) |usag |- |'''''fine''''' |weş, hewl |xoš, xūb, beh |xojir, xar |xoş |xujīr, xurum |xâr, xeş, xojir |xoş |xweş |x̌a (š̥a), səm |wash, hosh |xuş, xas, xub |xu |bashand |dārmag | | |srīra |xorz, dzæbæx |- |'''''finger''''' |engışte/gışte, bêçıke |angošt |anquš |anqiştə |ənguşt, əngüşt |angus |engust, pence,angus, pênce |tilî, pêçî |gwəta |changol, mordâneg, lenkutk |əngüşt |kelek |angiht |angust | | |aṇgušta |ængwyldz |- |'''''fire''''' |adır |ātaš, āzar |taš |otaş |təş |taş |agir/awir, ahir,ayer |agir |wōr (ōr) |âch, atesh, âs |ataş |taş, gor |yoç |âdur, âtaxsh |ādur |âç- |ātre-/aēsma- |art |- |'''''fish''''' |mase |māhi |mâyi |moy |mäyi |mâhî |masî |masî |kab (māhay) |māhi, māhig |mahi |māhi |moie |māhig |māsyāg | |masya |kæsag |- |'''''go''''' |şiayene |ro/şo |šiyen, bišiyan |şe |şön |burden, bašiyen |çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî) |çûn |tləl |shoten |raftən |ro |sà, tideu |şow/row |ay- |ai- |ay-, fra-vaz |cæwyn |- |'''''God''''' |Homa/Huma/Oma |Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq |Xədâ |Xıdo |Xuda |Xedâ |Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y) |Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê |Xodāy (xʷəday) |Xoda, Hwdâ |Xuda |xodā |Xuthoi |Xudā/Yazdān | |baga- |baya- |xwycaw |- |'''''good''''' |hewl, rınd, weş |xub, nīkū, beh |xâr, xojir |çok |xujīr, xurum |xâr, xeş, xojir |baş, çak, xas |baş, rind |x̌ə (š̥ə) |zabr, sharr, jowain |xub, xas |xu |bashand |xūb, nêkog, beh | |vahu- |vohu, vaŋhu- |xorz |- |'''''grass''''' |vaş |sabzeh, giyāh |vâš |alaf |vâş |vâş |giya/gya |giya, çêre |wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə) |rem, sabzag |güyo |sozi, çame |woh |giyâ |giya |viş |urvarā |kærdæg |- |'''''great''''' |gırd/gırs, pil |bozorg |pilla |yol, yal, vaz, dıjd |pilâ, pillə, pille |gat, pilla |gewre,mezin |mezin, gir |lōy, stər |mastar, mazan,tuh |kələ |gap |wazmin |wuzurg, pīl, yal | |vazraka- |mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi |styr |- |'''''hand''''' |dest |dast |bâl |dast |dəs, bâl |das, bāl |dest, des |dest |lās |dast |dəs |das |thust |dast |dast |dasta- |zasta- |k'ux / arm |- |'''''head''''' |ser |sar |kalla |sə, sər |kəlle, sər |kalle, sar |ser |ser |sər |sar, sarag, saghar |sər |sar |cile, cale |sar | |kalli |sairi |sær |- |'''''heart''''' |zerri/zerre |del |dəl |dıl |dīl, dəl, qlf |del, zel, zil |dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil |dil |zṛə |dil, hatyr |dül |del |dile, zorth |dil |dil | |zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš |zærdæ |- |'''''horse''''' |estor/ostor/astor |asb |asb, astar |asp |əsb, əsp |asp, as |asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir |hesp |ās [male], aspa [female] |asp |əs |asb |vorge |asp, stōr |asp, stōr |aspa |aspa- |bæx |- |'''''house''''' |key/çê |xāne |kiya |ka |sərə, xöne |sere, kime, xene |mał, xanû, xanig, ghat |xanî, mal |kor |ges, dawâr, log |xunə |huna |chide |xânag | | |demāna-, nmāna- |xædzar |- |'''''hungry''''' |vêşan/veyşan |gorosne, goşne |vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ |vahşian |vəşnä, viştâ |veşnâ, veşnâsâr |birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî) |birçî, birsî (behdînî) |lwəǵa (lwəẓ̌a) |shudig, shud |gisnə |gosna |maghzönch |gursag, shuy |veşnâg | |ṣ̌uδ | |- |'''''language''''' (also '''''tongue''''') |zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan |zabān |zobun, zəvân |zivon |zəvön, zuvön, zuvän |zivun, zebun, tok |ziman, zuwan |ziman |žəba |zewān, zobān |zuhun |zevu |zive |zuwān |izβān |hazâna- |hizvā-, zafana (mouth) |ævzag |- |'''''laugh''''' |huyayene |xande |xurəsen, xandastan |sıre |purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən |rîk, baxendesten, xanne |kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene |kenîn |xandəl/xənda |hendag, xandag |xəndə |xana |shinteu |xande, xand | |karta |Syaoθnāvareza- |xudyn |- |'''''life''''' |cuye, weşiye |zendegi, jan |zindәgi |jimon |zīndəgī, zīvəş |zindegî, jan |jiyan, jîn |jiyan |žwənd |zendegih, zind |həyat |zeŋei |zindage, umre |zīndagīh, zīwišnīh |žīwahr, žīw- | |gaēm, gaya- |card |- |'''''man''''' |mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd |mard |mardak, miarda |merd |mərd, mərdönə |mardî |mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr |mêr, camêr |səṛay, mēṛə |merd |mərd |piyā |chorice, mardina |mard |mard |martiya- |mašīm, mašya |adæjmag |- |'''''moon''''' |aşme, menge (for month) |mâh, mâng, mânk |mâng |mang, owşum |mâng, məng

|ma, munek, mong, rojâ |mang, heyv |meh, heyv |spuǵməi (spožməi) |máh |ma |māh |mêst |māh |māh |mâh- |måŋha- |mæj |- |'''''mother''''' |may, mar |mâdar |mâr, mâya, nana |moa, ma, ina |mâr, mär |mâr, nenâ |dayik, dayig |dayik, dê |mor |mât, mâs |may |dā(ya), dāle(ka) |nan |mâdar |dayek |mâtar |mātar- |mad |- |'''''mouth''''' |fek |dahân |duxun, dâ:ân |gəv |dəhən |dâhun, lâmîze, loşe |dem |dev |xula (xʷəla) |dap |duhun, luše |dam |gêve |dahân, rumb | | |zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh |dzyx |- |'''''name''''' |name |nâm |num |nom |nöm |num |naw, nêw |nav |nūm |nâm |num |num |nöme |nâm | |nâman |nãman |nom |- |'''''night''''' |şew |shab |šö, šav |şav |şö, şöv, şəb |şow, şu |şew |şev |špa |šap, shaw |şöü |şo |hab |shab | |xšap- |xšap-, naxti |æxsæv |- |'''''open (v)''''' |akerdene |bâz-kardan, va-kardan |vâz-kardan |okarde |vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən |vâ-hekârden |kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî) |vekirin |prānistəl |pāch, pabozag |vakardən |vākerde(n) |ët chideu |abâz-kardan, višādag | |būxtaka- |būxta- |gom kænyn |- |'''''peace''''' |haşti/aşti |âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish |dinj |aşiş |əşt |âştî, esket |aştî, aramî |aştî, aramî |rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi |ârâm |salaməti, dinci |āş(t)i |salöm |âštih, râmīšn |râm, râmīšn |šiyâti- |rāma- |fidyddzinad |- |'''''pig''''' |xoz/xonz, xınzır |xūk |xu, xuyi, xug |xug |xuk |xî |beraz,goraz |beraz |soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug |khug, huk |xug |xuk |xug |xūk | | |hū, varāza (boar) |xwy |- |'''''place''''' |ca |jâh/gâh |yâga |vira |jâ, jigâ, jigə |jâ, gâ, kolâ |cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî) |cih, geh |d͡zāy |ja, jaygah, hend |cigə, cə |jā |joi |gâh |gâh |gâθu- |gātu-, gātav- |ran |- |'''''read''''' |wendene |xândan |baxânden |hande, xwande |xöndən, xönəsən |baxenden, baxundesten |xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin |xwendin |lwastəl, kōtəl |wánag, wānten |xundən |vane(n) |heideu |xwândan | | |pa<sup>i</sup>t<sup>i</sup>-pǝrǝs |kæsyn |- |'''''say''''' |vatene |goftan, gap(-zadan) |vâten, baguten |vote |gutən, guftən |baowten, boten, bagoten |gutin, witin |gotin |wayəl |gushag, guashten |guftirən, gaf saxtən |gute(n) |lövdeu |guftan, gōw-, wâxtan |gōw- |gaub- |vac, mrū- |dzuryn |- |'''''sister''''' |waye |xâhar/xwâhar |xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr |hova |xâxur, xâxər |xâxer, xâxor, xoar |xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk |xwîşk |xōr (xʷōr) |gwhâr |xuvar |xuar |yàx, yàxbìç |xwahar | | |x<sup>v</sup>a<sup>ŋ</sup>har- |xo |- |'''''small''''' |qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi |kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz |qijel, ruk |hırd |kuçhī, kujī, kuştə |peçik, biçuk, xerd |giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî) |biçûk, hûr, qicik |kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay |gwand, hurd |küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm |koçek |zulice |kam, rangas |kam |kamna- |kasu, kamna- |chysyl |- |'''''son''''' |lac, laj |pesar, pur |pur, zâ |zoə, zurə |vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy |peser/rîkâ |law/kuř |kur, law, pis |zoy |possag, baç |kuk |kor |puç |pur, pusar |puhr |puça |pūθra- |fyrt |- |'''''soul''''' |roh, gan |ravân, jân |rəvân |con |ruh, jön |ro, jân |can, giyan, rewan, revan |reh, can |sā |rawân |can | |jöne |rūwân, jyân |rūwân, jyân | |urvan- |ud |- |'''''spring''''' |wesar/usar |bahâr |vâ:âr |əvəsor, bahar |vəhâr, bâhâr |vehâr, behâr |behar, wehar |bihar, behar |spərlay |bārgāh |vasal |behār, vehār |bahor |wahâr | |vâhara- |va<sup>ŋ</sup>har | |- |'''''tall''''' |berz |boland / bârz |pilla |barz, bılınd |burz, bələnd |belen, belend |bilind/berz |bilind/berz |lwəṛ, ǰəg |borz, bwrz |bülünd |beleŋ |beland |buland, borz |bârež | |bərəzaṇt̰ |bærzond |- |'''''ten''''' |des |dah |da |da |dä |da, datâ |deh/de |deh |ləs |dah |də |da |thiste |dah | |datha |dasa |dæs |- |'''''three''''' |hirê/hiri |se |so, se |se, he |su, sə |se, setâ |sê |sê |drē |sey |sə |se |arai |sê |hrē |çi- |θri- |ærtæ |- |'''''village''''' |dewe |deh, wis |döh, da |di |mällə, məhällə, kəläyə |dih, male, kolâ, kande |gund, dêhat, dê, awayî |gund |kəlay |dehāt, helk, kallag, dê |di |de |qishloq |wiž |dahyu- |vîs-, dahyu- |vîs |qæw |- |'''''want''''' |waştene |xâstan |begovastan, jovastan |piye |xäsən, xästən |bexâsten, bexâsti |xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî) |xwestin |ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl / ɣ(ʷ)uxš̥təl |loath, loteten |xastən, vayistən |hāse |forteu |xwâstan | | |ūna, a<sup>i</sup>ništi |fændyn |- |'''''water''''' |awe/awk, owe, ou |âb |âv, ö |ov, wat(orandian dialect) |ow, âv |ow, ou, u |aw |av |obə/ubə |âp |ou |ow |haç |âb/aw |aw |âpi |avō- |don |- |'''''when''''' |key |key |key |keyna |kén, kəy |ke, kemin, geder |key, kengî(Hewlêrî) |kengê, kîngê |kəla |kadi, ked |key, çüvəxti |ke |çavaxt |kay |ka | |cim- |kæd |- |'''''wind''''' |va |bâd |vâ |vo |vâ |vâ |ba, wa (Pehlewanî) |ba |siləi |gwáth |var |bād |huz |wâd |wa | |vāta- |dymgæ / wad |- |'''''wolf''''' |verg |gorg |varg |varg |vərg |verg, verk |gurg, |gur |lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥) |gurk |gürg |gorg |urge/urj |gurg | |varka- |vehrka |birægh |- |'''''woman''''' |cıni/ceni |zan |zeyniye, zenak |jen, jiyan |zən, zənək, zunönə |zenā |jin, afret, zindage,gyian |jin |jənəi, njləi (lit. Girl) x̌əd͡za/š̥əd͡za |jan, jinik |zən |zena |ghenice/ghinice, caxoi |zan |žan | |gǝnā, γnā, ǰa<sup>i</sup>ni-, |sylgojmag / us |- |'''''year''''' |serre |sâl |sâl |sor, sal |sâl |sâl |sal/sał |sal |kāl |sâl |sal |sāl |sol |sâl | |θard |ýāre, sar<sup>ә</sup>d |az |- |'''''yes / no''''' |ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni |baleh, ârē, hā / na, née |ahan / na |ha / ne, na |əhâ/nä, nâ |are, ehe / nâ, no |bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr |erê, belê, a / na |Hao, ao, wō / na, ya |ere, hān / na |həri, hə / nə |a, ā / na |ön / nai, nå |ōhāy / ne |hâ / ney |yâ / nay, mâ |yā / noit, mā |o / næ |- |'''''yesterday''''' |vızêr |diruz |azira, zira, diru |zir, zinə |dîru |dîruz, aruz |dwênê, dwêke |duho |parun |zí |deydi |diru |biyor |dêrûž | |diya(ka) |zyō |znon |- !English ![[Zaza language|Zaza]] ![[Persian language|Persian]] ![[Tati language (Iran)|Tati]] ![[Talysh language|Talyshi]] ![[Gilaki language|Gilaki]] ![[Mazandarani language|Mazandarani]] ![[Sorani]] ![[Kurmanji]] ![[Pashto]] ![[Balochi language|Balochi]] ![[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]] ![[Luri language|Luri]] ![[Shughni language|Shughni]] ![[Middle Persian language|Middle Persian]] ![[Parthian language|Parthian]] ![[Old Persian language|Old Persian]] ![[Avestan language|Avestan]] ![[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] |- |} </div>

==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}}

==References== {{reflist}}

==Bibliography== {{refbegin}} * [[Bailey, H. W.]] (1979). ''Dictionary of Khotan Saka''. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-521-14250-2}}. *{{cite book|title=Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum|editor-last=Schmitt|editor-first=Rüdiger |publisher=Reichert|location=Wiesbaden|year=1989|language=de|isbn=978-3-88226-413-5}} *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Iranian languages|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=7|year=1996|pages=238–245|publisher=Mazda|location=Costa Mesa|last=Sims-Williams|first=Nicholas}} *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Iran|year=1996|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=7|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda|editor-last=Yarshater|editor-first=Ehsan|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran}} *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Peoples of Iran|year=1996|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=7|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda|last=Frye|first=Richard N.|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey}} *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cases in Iranian languages and dialects|year=1995|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=5|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda|last=Windfuhr|first=Gernot L.|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vii1-non-iranian-languages-overview-|pages=25–37}} *{{cite book |last=Windfuhr |first=Gernot |date=2012 |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780700711314/ |title=The Iranian languages |publisher=Routledge Taylor and Francis Group }} *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Dari|last=Lazard|first=Gilbert|year=1996|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=7|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dari}} *{{cite journal|title=The Ancient language of Azarbaijan|last=Henning|first=Walter B.|url=http://www.azargoshnasp.net/languages/Azari/henningazari/henningazari.htm|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|year=1954|doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x|volume=53|issue=1|pages=157–177|url-access=subscription}}{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} *{{cite web|last=Rezakhani|first=Khodadad|title=The Iranian Language Family|year=2001|url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041009124244/http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html|archive-date=2004-10-09}} *{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts|first=Prods Oktor|last=Skjærvø|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|year=2006|volume=13}} * {{cite book| last= Delshad| first= Farshid| title= Georgica et Irano-Semitica| series= [[Ars Poetica (series)|Ars Poetica]]| publisher= [[Deutscher Wissenschaftsverlag DWV]]| year= 2010| isbn= 978-3-86888-004-5| url= http://www.db-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate-3610/Diss.pdf}} *{{Cite book | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-929668-2 | last1 =Mallory | first1 = J. P. | first2 = Douglas Q. | last2=Adams | title = The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world | year = 2006 }} * Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic". ''Farhang-e Ilia''. pp.&nbsp;38–172. {{refend}}

==Further reading== *Sokolova, V. S. "New information on the phonetics of Iranic languages." Trudy Instituta jazykoznanija NN SSR (Moskva) 1 (1952): 178–192. *Jügel, Thomas. "[https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Q0R6EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA39&dq=Iranic&ots=TXzYBfFe3F&sig=VYhp0bLQhXlPwdWCToKSb1eGEqA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Iranic&f=false Word-order variation in Middle Iranic: Persian, Parthian, Bactrian, and Sogdian]." Word order variation: Semitic, Turkic, and Indo-European languages in contact, Studia Typologica [STTYP] 31 (2022): 39–62.

==External links== *[https://ia801207.us.archive.org/15/items/dokumen.tips_areal-developments-in-the-history-of-iranic-west-vs-east/dokumen.tips_areal-developments-in-the-history-of-iranic-west-vs-east.pdf Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East] Martin Kummel, Department of Indo-European linguistics, [[University of Jena]] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110123210035/http://www.iranianlinguistics.org/ Society for Iranian Linguistics] * [http://www.kurdishacademy.org/?q=node/153 Kurdish and other Iranic Languages] * [http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com Iranian EFL Journal] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122021909/http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com/ |date=2019-01-22 }}) * [http://www.bues.ru/iranskie_yaziki/ Iranian language tree] in Russian, identical with above classification. * [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/aveol Old Iranian Online] by Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the [https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc Linguistics Research Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]

{{Indo-European languages}} {{Iranian languages}} {{Iranian peoples}} {{Persian language}} {{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iranian Languages}} [[Category:Iranian languages| ]] [[Category:Indo-European languages]]