{{Short description|Approach for economic control of pests}} {{Globalize|1=article|2=US and Southeast Asia|date=July 2025}}
'''Integrated pest management (IPM)''', also known as '''integrated pest control (IPC)''' combines both non-chemical and chemical practices for economic control of pests, reducing reliance on chemicals while improving productivity and health.<ref name="Zhou">{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Wentao |last2=Arcot |first2=Yashwanth |last3=Medina |first3=Raul F. |last4=Bernal |first4=Julio |last5=Cisneros-Zevallos |first5=Luis |last6=Akbulut |first6=Mustafa E. S. |title=Integrated Pest Management: An Update on the Sustainability Approach to Crop Protection |journal=ACS Omega |date=8 October 2024 |volume=9 |issue=40 |pages=41130–41147 |doi=10.1021/acsomega.4c06628 |doi-access=free |pmid=39398119 |pmc=11465254 }}</ref><ref name="Scotland">{{cite web |author=Academic Advisory Panel (AAP) |title=Academic Advisory Panel - integrated pest management (IPM): advisory note|date=15 October 2025 |url=https://www.gov.scot/publications/academic-advisory-panel-integrated-pest-management-ipm-advisory-note/ |website=Scottish Government |access-date=11 May 2026 |language=en}}</ref> The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization defines IPM as follows:
{{quote| "IPM is the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations. It combines biological, chemical, physical and crop specific (cultural) management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides, reducing or minimizing risks posed by pesticides to human health and the environment for sustainable pest management."<ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management (IPM) {{!}} Pest and Pesticide Management {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations {{!}} IPM and Pesticide Risk Reduction {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/pest-and-pesticide-management/ipm/integrated-pest-management/en/ |website=www.fao.org |access-date=6 May 2026 |language=en}}</ref>}}
First developed for agricultural pest management,<ref>{{cite web|title=IPM Guidelines|url=http://www.umass.edu/umext/ipm/publications/guidelines/index.html|publisher=UMassAmherst—Integrated Pest Management, Agriculture and Landscape Program|access-date=13 March 2012|year=2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312110559/http://www.umass.edu/umext/ipm/publications/guidelines/index.html|archive-date=12 March 2012}}</ref> IPM programs are also used to deal with diseases, weeds, insects and animal pests<ref name="Scotland"/> at residential and commercial locations, lawns and turf, community gardens and homes.<ref name="Rossi 710">{{Cite journal|last1=Rossi|first1=Vittorio|last2=Sperandio|first2=Giorgio|last3=Caffi|first3=Tito|last4=Simonetto|first4=Anna|last5=Gilioli|first5=Gianni|date=November 2019|title=Critical Success Factors for the Adoption of Decision Tools in IPM|journal=Agronomy|language=en|volume=9|issue=11|pages=710|doi=10.3390/agronomy9110710|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Agron...9..710R |hdl=10807/143842|hdl-access=free}}</ref> IPM is a safer pest control framework than reliance on chemical pesticides, mitigating risks such as insecticide-induced resurgence, pesticide resistance<ref name="Charles" /><ref name="Gassmann" /> and (especially food) crop residues.<ref name="RPU">Bateman RP (2003) Rational Pesticide Use: spatially and temporally targeted application of specific products. In: ''Optimising Pesticide Use'' Ed. M. Wilson, Publ. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, UK; pp. 129-157.</ref><ref name="wright">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wright | first1 = M. G. | last2 = Hoffmann | first2 = M. P. | last3 = Kuhar | first3 = T. P. | last4 = Gardner | first4 = J. | last5 = Pitcher | first5 = S. A. | title = Evaluating risks of biological control introductions: A probabilistic risk-assessment approach | doi = 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.02.002 | journal = Biological Control | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 338–347 | year = 2005 | bibcode = 2005BiolC..35..338W }}</ref><ref name="PerringsWilliamson2000">{{cite book|author1=Charles Perrings|author2=Mark Herbert Williamson|author3=Silvana Dalmazzone|title=The Economics of Biological Invasions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afaQmFLomWEC|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84064-378-7}}</ref><ref name="clerq">{{Cite journal | last1 = Clercq | first1 = P. | last2 = Mason | first2 = P. G. | last3 = Babendreier | first3 = D. | doi = 10.1007/s10526-011-9372-8 | title = Benefits and risks of exotic biological control agents | journal = BioControl | volume = 56 | issue = 4 | pages = 681–698 | year = 2011 | bibcode = 2011BioCo..56..681D | s2cid = 39820823 }}</ref> Predictive models are useful tools in the implementation of IPM programs.<ref name="Rossi 710" />
== Principles == Integrated pest management relies on understanding the structure and functions of an ecosystem. Multiple techniques are dynamically combined and adjusted in response to changes in environmental, economic, and social conditions.<ref name="Gao">{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Yulin |last2=Alyokhin |first2=Andrei |last3=Prager |first3=Sean M. |last4=Reitz |first4=Stuart |last5=Huseth |first5=Anders |title=Complexities in the Implementation and Maintenance of Integrated Pest Management in Potato |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=28 January 2025 |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=45–63 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120523-023156 |pmid=39227134 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-120523-023156 |language=en |issn=0066-4170}}</ref> Programs developed in one region may need to be adapted before they can be successfully adopted in another region, to address differences in biological variation in pest ecosystems, environmental conditions, scale and capacity of response, regulatory environment, and cultural context.<ref name="Stastny">{{cite journal |last1=Stastny |first1=Michael |last2=Corley |first2=Juan C |last3=Allison |first3=Jeremy D |title=Regional adaptation of integrated pest management to control invasive forest insects |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=June 2025 |volume=23 |issue=5 |article-number=e2829 |doi=10.1002/fee.2829 |bibcode=2025FrEE...23e2829S |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2829 |language=en |issn=1540-9295}}</ref>
<gallery mode=nolines class=center widths=460px heights=350px> File:Images large ao4c06628 0007.jpg| File:Key components of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program.jpg|Key components of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program<ref name="Zhou"/> </gallery>
===Prevention=== ''Cultural practices''—The first line of defense for a garden or farm is to select varieties suited to local growing conditions such as resistant varieties and maintain healthy crops. Cultural practices may include techniques such as crop rotation and intercropping to promote healthy growing conditions.<ref name="Zhou"/>
''Sanitation'' practices are essential. When dealing with plants, one can quarantine or remove diseased plants and take preventive measures such as cleaning of equipment (e.g. pruning shears) and selective disposal of debris to prevent spread of infections and pests.<ref name="Zhou"/> Sanitation practices that remove sources of food, water, and shelter are essential to protect homes from pests.<ref name="Maley" /> Schools,<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to Integrated Pest Management : Managing pests in schools |url=https://www.epa.gov/ipm/introduction-integrated-pest-management |website=www.epa.gov |publisher=US EPA |access-date=12 May 2026 |language=en |date=3 October 2014}}</ref> health care facilities,<ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management in Health Care Facilities |url=https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-07/integrated-pest-management-toolkit-2021_5.pdf |website=www.epa.gov |publisher=US EPA |access-date=12 May 2026|date=2021}}</ref> food services and other businesses also require careful and ongoing sanitation practices.<ref>{{cite web |title=Commercial Kitchen Pest Control {{!}} Prevention That Works |url=https://www.gofoodservice.com/blog/useful-hints-for-keeping-your-commercial-kitchen-pest-free?srsltid=AfmBOorln9Acfd1OjxrIw9F-98qms6C68q3N18dupbh-BIYM3cX-WSMm |website=GoFoodservice |access-date=12 May 2026 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Armed Forces Pest Management Board Technical Guide No. 5 Integrated Pest Management for Food Service Managers |url=https://www.acq.osd.mil/eie/afpmb/docs/techguides/tg5.pdf |website=U.S. Department of War |publisher=Armed Forces Pest Management Board |access-date=12 May 2026|date=December 2018}}</ref>
If pests reach an unacceptable level, ''mechanical control'' methods can be used,<ref name="Zhou"/> such as simple hand-picking to remove insects, water spraying,<ref name="James">{{cite web |last1=James |first1=Melanie |title=Integrated Pest Management {{!}} IEUA |url=https://www.ieua.org/integrated-pest-management/ |website=Inland Empire Utilities Agency |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref> vacuuming,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pest Control: Resources for Housing Managers |url=https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/pest-control-resources-housing-managers |website=US EPA |access-date=11 May 2026 |language=en |date=30 January 2014}}</ref> barriers, and traps. Tillage can be detrimental to soil structure, but it is sometimes used in coordination with the life cycles of pests.<ref name="Frank">{{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=S. |last2=Bradley |first2=L.K. |last3=Moore |first3=K.A. |editor-last1=Moore |editor-first1=K.A. |editor-last2=Bradley |editor-first2=L.K. |title=North Carolina Extension Gardener Handbook|chapter=Integrated Pest Management, Chapter 8 |date=2022 |publisher=NC State Extension |location=Raleigh, NC |edition=2nd |url=http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/8-integrated-pest-management-ipm}}</ref>
===Monitoring=== ''Acceptable pest levels''—IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be expensive and unsafe. Emphasis is placed on ''control'', not ''eradication''.<ref name="Zhou" />
IPM programs identify acceptable pest levels or ''action thresholds'' based on estimated economic injury, and apply controls if those thresholds are exceeded.<ref name="Zhou" /> An economic injury level is the pest population level at which damage to a crop will be greater than the cost of treating the pest. An economic threshold is the population size at which action must be taken to prevent the pest population from reaching the economic injury level.<ref name="Zhou" /> Thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable to have a weed such at one site,<ref>{{cite web |title=Forage of the Month: White Clover (Rob Kallenbach) |url=https://ipm.missouri.edu/croppest/2011/11/Forage-of-the-Month-White-Clover/index.cfm |website=University of Missouri |publisher=Division of Plant Sciences |access-date=11 May 2026 |language=en}}</ref> but not at another site.<ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management of White Clover |url=https://content-hub.uidaho.edu/api/public/content/2925cefe09734777bc043b28c203ca5e?v=873df86a |website=University of Idaho |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref> For example, white clover may be acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course, but not in the fairway where it could interfere with play.<ref name=":0" />
Allowing a pest population to survive at a reasonable threshold reduces selection pressure. This lowers the rate at which a pest develops resistance to a control, because if almost all pests are killed then those that have resistance will provide the genetic basis of the future population. Retaining a significant number of unresistant specimens dilutes the prevalence of any resistant genes that appear. Similarly, the repeated use of a single class of controls will create pest populations that are more resistant to that class, whereas alternating among classes helps prevent this.<ref name="Charles">{{cite news |last1=Charles |first1=Dan |title=The ever-tenuous success of plants engineered to kill insect foes |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/food-environment/2023/bt-crops-successes-failures |access-date=7 May 2026 |journal=Knowable Magazine |publisher=Annual Reviews |date=15 May 2023 |language=en |doi=10.1146/knowable-051523-3}}</ref><ref name="Gassmann">{{cite journal |last1=Gassmann |first1=Aaron J. |last2=Reisig |first2=Dominic D. |title=Management of Insect Pests with Bt Crops in the United States |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=23 January 2023 |volume=68 |issue= |pages=31–49 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120220-105502 |pmid=36170641 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-120220-105502 |access-date=7 May 2026 |language=en |issn=0066-4170}}</ref><ref name="Resistance: The Facts - History & overview of resistance">{{cite web |title=Resistance: The Facts - History & overview of resistance |url=https://www.debugpestcontrol.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Resistance-The-Facts.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314120657/https://www.debugpestcontrol.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Resistance-The-Facts.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 14, 2024 |publisher=IRAC |access-date=26 February 2020 }}</ref>
Regular observation is critically important for inspection, pest identification and ongoing monitoring. Scouting and sampling techniques such as visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and other methods are used to monitor pest levels. Automated systems using AI are also being developed for monitoring, but face obstacles in terms of their cost, effectiveness, mobility, and scalability to use in the field.<ref name="Zhou" />
Record-keeping is essential,<ref name="Hurley">{{cite web |last1=Hurley |first1=Janet |title=SPN: Recordkeeping one of the most important tasks of an IPM program. |url=https://schoolipm.tamu.edu/2020/01/26/spn-recordkeeping-one-of-the-most-important-tasks-of-an-ipm-program/ |website=School Integrated Pest Management |access-date=12 May 2026|date=26 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Record Keeping |url=https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/radicalbugs/index.php?page=record_keeping |website=Youth and Entomology |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> as is a thorough knowledge of target pest behavior and reproductive cycles. Insects are cold-blooded, so their physical development is dependent on area temperatures. Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree-days. The degree days of an environment determines the optimal time for a specific insect outbreak.<ref name="Scribner">{{cite journal |last1=Scribner |first1=Hazel F |last2=Murrell |first2=Ebony G |last3=Chérémond |first3=Nervah E |last4=Abshire |first4=Jennifer |last5=Castaldi |first5=Joseph |last6=Zhu |first6=Kun Yan |last7=Morrison |first7=William R |title=Developing a growing degree day model to guide integrated pest management of Eucosma giganteana, a pest of a novel perennial oilseed crop |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |date=29 August 2025 |volume=118 |issue=4 |pages=1711–1720 |doi=10.1093/jee/toaf107 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toaf107 |language=en |issn=0022-0493}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Agronomic Spotlight: Degree Days and Vegetable Pest Management |url=https://www.vegetables.bayer.com/ca/en-ca/resources/agronomic-spotlights/degree-days-and-vegetable-pest-management.html |website=Bayer |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Plant pathogens follow similar patterns of response to weather and season. However, these are increasingly disrupted by climate change.<ref name="Singh">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=BK |last2=Delgado-Baquerizo |first2=M |last3=Egidi |first3=E |last4=Guirado |first4=E |last5=Leach |first5=JE |last6=Liu |first6=H |last7=Trivedi |first7=P |title=Climate change impacts on plant pathogens, food security and paths forward. |journal=Nature reviews. Microbiology |date=October 2023 |volume=21 |issue=10 |pages=640-656 |doi=10.1038/s41579-023-00900-7 |pmid=37131070}}</ref>
===Biological controls=== Natural biological processes and materials can be used as biological control agents (BCAs), with acceptable environmental impact, often at low cost. The main approach is to promote beneficial insects or other predators that eat or parasitize target pests.<ref name="Vernimmen">{{cite news |last1=Vernimmen |first1=Tim |title=Natural pest control: Plants enlist their enemies' enemies |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/food-environment/2023/natural-pest-control-plants-enlist-enemies-enemies |journal=Knowable Magazine |publisher=Annual Reviews |date=14 June 2023 |language=en |doi=10.1146/knowable-061423-1}}</ref><ref name="Turlings">{{cite journal |last1=Turlings |first1=Ted C. J. |last2=Erb |first2=Matthias |title=Tritrophic Interactions Mediated by Herbivore-Induced Plant Volatiles: Mechanisms, Ecological Relevance, and Application Potential |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=7 January 2018 |volume=63 |issue= |pages=433–452 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043507 |pmid=29324043 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043507#right-ref-B106 |language=en |issn=0066-4170}}</ref> Augmentative biocontrol involves increasing natural enemies and pathogens such as predators, parasitoids or microbes, so that they can fight pests and diseases in an area on a timely basis. Conservation biocontrol uses farming practices to better support existing populations of natural enemies already in the environment, such as ladybugs, so that they increase. Classical biological control or importation biocontrol introduces new populations of natural enemies or pathogens which may not be native to an area.<ref name="Deiss">{{cite web |last1=Deiss |first1=Fanny |title=Types of biological control: augmentative, conservation and classical|date=October 10, 2025 |url=https://bioprotectionportal.com/resources/types-of-biological-control/ |website=CABI Bioprotection Portal |access-date=8 May 2026}}</ref><ref name="Zhou"/>
Beneficial fungi and bacteria produce bioactive compounds that can protect soil and crops from bacterial, fungal, and nematode diseases, reducing the need for fungicides. Beneficial bacteria can improve plant growth and control disease without harming the environment.<ref name="Ayaz">{{cite journal |last1=Ayaz |first1=M |last2=Li |first2=CH |last3=Ali |first3=Q |last4=Zhao |first4=W |last5=Chi |first5=YK |last6=Shafiq |first6=M |last7=Ali |first7=F |last8=Yu |first8=XY |last9=Yu |first9=Q |last10=Zhao |first10=JT |last11=Yu |first11=JW |last12=Qi |first12=RD |last13=Huang |first13=WK |title=Bacterial and Fungal Biocontrol Agents for Plant Disease Protection: Journey from Lab to Field, Current Status, Challenges, and Global Perspectives. |journal=Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) |date=21 September 2023 |volume=28 |issue=18 |page=6735 |doi=10.3390/molecules28186735 |doi-access=free |pmid=37764510 |pmc=10537577 }}</ref>
Genetic pest control introduces genetically modified organisms to reduce pest populations. For example, the sterile insect technique (SIT) releases sterilized males of a given species so that matings will be infertile. By targeting the reproductive capacity of the target pest, population size is reduced to non-critical levels. Other genetic approaches manipulate sex determination genes, increase the occurrence of dominant lethal genes, or skew sex ratios in the population. Genetic control programs' success depends on the dispersal rate, longevity, and mating success of introduced pests.<ref name="Häcker">{{cite journal |last1=Häcker |first1=I |last2=Bartsch |first2=D |last3=Choo |first3=A |last4=Marec |first4=F |title=Editorial: Genetic control of insect pest species-achievements, challenges, and perspectives. |journal=Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology |date=2023 |volume=11 |article-number=1208677 |doi=10.3389/fbioe.2023.1208677 |doi-access=free |pmid=37214284 |pmc=10196624 }}</ref><ref name="Zhou"/>
===Chemical controls=== Synthetic pesticides, which include insecticides,<ref name="Pecenka">{{cite journal |last1=Pecenka |first1=JR |last2=Ingwell |first2=LL |last3=Foster |first3=RE |last4=Krupke |first4=CH |last5=Kaplan |first5=I |title=IPM reduces insecticide applications by 95% while maintaining or enhancing crop yields through wild pollinator conservation. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2 November 2021 |volume=118 |issue=44 |article-number=e2108429118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2108429118 |doi-access=free |pmid=34697238 |pmc=8612243 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11808429P }}</ref> fungicides,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adkar-Purushothama |first1=CR |last2=Chettimada |first2=A |last3=Murali |first3=TS |last4=Muthusamy |first4=A |last5=Bouarab |first5=K |last6=Perreault |first6=JP |title=Non-chemical control of fungal pathogens in crops: a one-health perspective on strategies, mechanisms, and future directions. |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2025 |volume=16 |article-number=1746521 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2025.1746521 |doi-access=free |pmid=41602541 |pmc=12833398 }}</ref> and herbicides,<ref name="Zilnik">{{cite journal |last1=Zilnik |first1=G |last2=Bergeron |first2=PE |last3=Chuang |first3=A |last4=Diepenbrock |first4=L |last5=Hanel |first5=A |last6=Middleton |first6=E |last7=Moretti |first7=E |last8=Schmidt-Jeffris |first8=R |title=Meta-Analysis of Herbicide Non-Target Effects on Pest Natural Enemies. |journal=Insects |date=26 September 2023 |volume=14 |issue=10 |page=787 |doi=10.3390/insects14100787 |doi-access=free |pmid=37887799 |pmc=10607068 }}</ref> have been shown to have a wide range of negative effects on non-target as well as target organisms.<ref name="Wan">{{cite journal |last1=Wan |first1=NF |last2=Fu |first2=L |last3=Dainese |first3=M |last4=Kiær |first4=LP |last5=Hu |first5=YQ |last6=Xin |first6=F |last7=Goulson |first7=D |last8=Woodcock |first8=BA |last9=Vanbergen |first9=AJ |last10=Spurgeon |first10=DJ |last11=Shen |first11=S |last12=Scherber |first12=C |title=Pesticides have negative effects on non-target organisms. |journal=Nature Communications |date=13 February 2025 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=1360 |doi=10.1038/s41467-025-56732-x |pmid=39948065 |pmc=11825942 |bibcode=2025NatCo..16.1360W }}</ref> Responsible use of pesticides involves using them only as required and often only at specific times in a pest's life cycle.<ref name="Zhou"/>
Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (''e.g.''—''Bt'', entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fall in the category of chemical controls.<ref name="Zhou" /><ref name="Ayaz" /> Many newer pesticides are derived from plants or naturally occurring substances (''e.g.''—nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone analogues), but the toxophore or active component may be altered to provide increased biological activity or stability.<ref name="RPU" /> Chemical controls also include horticultural oils.<ref name="Kesraoui">{{cite journal |last1=Kesraoui |first1=S |last2=Andrés |first2=MF |last3=Berrocal-Lobo |first3=M |last4=Soudani |first4=S |last5=Gonzalez-Coloma |first5=A |title=Direct and Indirect Effects of Essential Oils for Sustainable Crop Protection. |journal=Plants (Basel, Switzerland) |date=18 August 2022 |volume=11 |issue=16 |page=2144 |doi=10.3390/plants11162144 |doi-access=free |pmid=36015446 |pmc=9416161 |bibcode=2022Plnts..11.2144K }}</ref>
Applications of pesticides must reach their intended targets and avoid harming nontarget species. The application technique must be matched to the crop, the pest, and the pesticide.<ref name="Danielson">{{cite news |last1=Danielson |first1=Betsy |title=Target practice: 5 guidelines for accurate pesticide application |url=https://www.farmprogress.com/crop-protection/target-practice-5-guidelines-for-accurate-pesticide-application |access-date=11 May 2026 |work=Farm Progress |date=March 31, 2025}}</ref> For example, the use of low-volume spray equipment can reduce overall pesticide use and operational costs.<ref name="RPU" /><ref name="Chavda">{{cite journal |last1=Chavda |first1=D.B. |last2=Mehta |first2=T.D. |last3=Dulawat |first3=M.S. |last4=Gaadhe |first4=S.K. |last5=Bandhiya |first5=R.D. |title=The Role of Uav Sprayers in Modern Agriculture: Advances, Efficacy and Challenges: A Review |journal=Plant Archives |date=11 January 2025 |volume=25 |issue=SI |doi=10.51470/PLANTARCHIVES.2025.SP.ICTPAIRS-071 |url=https://www.plantarchives.org/article/71-%20The%20Role%20of%20UAV%20Sprayers%20in%20Modern%20Agriculture%20Advances,%20Efficacy%20and%20Challenges%20A%20Review%20497-506%20(Sp-93).pdf}}</ref> Taking all recommended precautions is critical.<ref name="Danielson" /> IPM is an alternative to calendar-based pest control approaches which are becoming less effective, in part due to climate change.<ref name="Fand">{{cite journal |last1=Fand |first1=Babasaheb B. |last2=Azrag |first2=Abdelmutalab G. A. |last3=Adhikari |first3=Vivek |last4=Ganesh |first4=Boini |last5=Suroshe |first5=Sachin S. |last6=Choudhary |first6=Jaipal Singh |last7=Behere |first7=G. T. |last8=Waghmare |first8=V. N. |title=Pest-smart strategies for climate-smart agriculture: Solutions for shaping a smarter future |journal=Crop Protection |date=1 May 2026 |volume=203 |article-number=107569 |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2026.107569 |bibcode=2026CrPro.20307569F |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0261219426000359 |issn=0261-2194}}</ref>
IPM practices known as resistance management are essential in preventing and slowing the development of resistance to chemical controls, including biological insecticides.<ref name="Charles" /><ref name="Gassmann" /><ref name="UC-IPM-flowers" /><ref name="NETF" /><ref name="CropLife" />
=== Process === Using these components, integrated pest management becomes an ongoing process that can be thought of in terms of six repeatable steps:<ref name="steps">{{cite web |title=The Steps of IPM |url=https://www.northeastipm.org/schools/the-steps-of-ipm/ |website=New York State IPM Program at Cornell University |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- |Step 1 |Sample for Pests (Inspect and Monitor) |Is there a real problem? |- |Step 2 | Proper Identification |Is it really the pest you think it is? |- |Step 3 |Learn the Pest Biology |Will it be a long-term problem or will it be gone next week? |- |Step 4 |Determine an Action Threshold |Do you need to act? |- |Step 5 |Choose Tactics |What’s the best treatment? |- |Step 6 |Evaluate |How did it work?<ref name="steps"/> |}
== Applications == IPM is used in a wide range of application areas, each of which may have specific concerns and recommended techniques. These include agriculture,<ref name="Zhou"/><ref name="CropLife">{{cite web | access-date=2022-09-26 | year=2020 | website=CropLife International | url=https://croplife.org/crop-protection/stewardship/resistance-mangement/ | title=Resistance Management | archive-date=2022-09-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926134704/https://croplife.org/crop-protection/stewardship/resistance-mangement/ | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Scott‐Brown">{{cite journal |last1=Scott-Brown |first1=Alison S. |last2=Rial-Lovera |first2=Karen |last3=Giannitsopoulos |first3=Michail L. |last4=Rickson |first4=Jane R. |last5=Staton |first5=Tom |last6=Walters |first6=Keith F. A. |last7=Burgess |first7=Paul J. |title=Farmland trees and integrated pest management: A review of current knowledge and developing strategies for sustainable systems |journal=Ecological Solutions and Evidence |date=July 2025 |volume=6 |issue=3 |article-number=e70087 |doi=10.1002/2688-8319.70087 |bibcode=2025EcoSE...670087S |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70087 |language=en |issn=2688-8319}}</ref> horticulture,<ref name="Maddox">{{cite journal |last1=Maddox |first1=Mike |title=Integrated Pest Management |url=https://wisc.pb.unizin.org/foundationsinhorticulture/chapter/integrated-pest-management/ |website=University of Wisconsin-Madison |access-date=11 May 2026 |language=en}}</ref> forestry,<ref name="Scott‐Brown"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coleman |first1=Tom W |last2=Graves |first2=Andrew D |last3=Oblinger |first3=Brent W |last4=Flowers |first4=Robbie W |last5=Jacobs |first5=James J |last6=Moltzan |first6=Bruce D |last7=Sky Stephens |first7=Stephanie |last8=Rabaglia |first8=Robert J |title=Evaluating a decade (2011–2020) of integrated forest pest management in the United States |journal=Journal of Integrated Pest Management |date=1 January 2023 |volume=14 |issue=1 |article-number=23 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmad020 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article/14/1/23/7317488}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Definition, How It Works, Usages, Benefits and Challenges |url=https://www.atlantaarbor.com/blog/integrated-pest-management/ |website=Atlanta Arbor Tree Care|date=January 21, 2026 |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management and Silviculture |url=https://sncc.forestry.oregonstate.edu/integrated-pest-management-and-silviculture |website=Swiss Needle Cast Cooperative |publisher=Oregon State University |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref><ref name="NETF">{{cite web | access-date=2022-09-26 | year=2018 | website=New England Tree Fruit Management Guide | title=Resistance Management | url=https://netreefruit.org/ipm/resistance-management}}</ref> human habitations<ref name="Maley"/>, preventive conservation of cultural property<ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management |url=https://www.amnh.org/research/science-conservation/preventive-conservation/agents-of-deterioration/integrated-pest-management |website=American Museum of Natural History|date=Sep 23, 2022 |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref><ref name="Coleman">{{cite web |last1=Coleman |first1=Paul |title=Pests |url=https://aiccm.org.au/wiki/pests/ |website=Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material |access-date=11 May 2026 |language=en-AU}}</ref> and general pest control, including structural pest management,<ref name="Peterson">{{cite web |last1=Peterson |first1=Hillary |title=Structural Pest Management IPM |url=https://www.maine.gov/dacf/php/integrated_pest_management/documents/2023-structural-pest-management-ipm.pdf |website=Maine Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Forestry|date=April 11, 2023 |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref> turf pest management<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Michael G. |last2=Gaussoin |first2=Roch E. |last3=Puntel |first3=Laila A. |title=A review of precision management for golf course turfgrass |journal=Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management |date=January 2022 |volume=8 |issue=2 |article-number=e20183 |doi=10.1002/cft2.20183 |bibcode=2022CFTM....820183C |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/cft2.20183 |language=en |issn=2374-3832}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Pest Management for Turf Publication 845 |date=June 30, 2023 |url=https://www.ontario.ca/files/2023-06/omafra-integrated-pest-management-for-turf-pub-845-en.pdf |website= Government of Ontario, Canada |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref><ref name="Espevig">{{cite web |editor-last1=Espevig |editor-first1=Tatsiana |title=Golf Course 2030 Integrated Management of Turfgrass Diseases and Pests Study on European golf courses|date=11 January 2024 |url=https://sterf.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/IntegratedManagementofTurfgrassDiseases-k.pdf |website=Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref> and ornamental pest management.<ref name="UC-IPM-flowers">{{cite web | access-date=2022-09-22 | id=3392 | date=March 2009 | url=https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/floriculture-and-ornamental-nurseries/Managing-Pesticide-Resistance/ | title=Floriculture and Ornamental Nurseries Pest Management Guidelines | website=UC Integrated Pest Management (UC IPM) | publisher=UC Agriculture (UC ANR)}}</ref><ref name="McDonald">{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Rachel |last2=Pantuliano |first2=Beth |title=Behind the scenes: integrated pest management in a public garden |journal=Journal of Integrated Pest Management |date=1 January 2024 |volume=15 |issue=1 |article-number=42 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmae034 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmae034 |language=en |issn=2155-7470}}</ref>
=== Residential pest management === Integrated Pest Management (IPM) can be an effective approach for dealing with pests in one's home or yard. Pests such as cockroaches, mice, and rats are harmful to human health. They worsen indoor air quality and can trigger asthma and allergy attacks. Pest problems can be addressed in a sustainable way using information about specific pests, their environment, and safe pest control methods.<ref name="Maley">{{cite book |last1=Maley |first1=Mary |last2=Taisey |first2=Allison |last3=Koplinka-Loehr |first3=Carrie |title=Integrated pest management: A guide for affordable housing |date=2014 |publisher=Cornell |url=https://www.stoppests.org/stoppests/assets/File/IPM-Guide-for-Affordable-Housing.pdf}}</ref>
In homes, it is essential to understand and control access to food, water, and hiding places, all of which pests need to survive. IPM focuses on prevention, sanitation, and exclusion of pests rather than chemical controls. It involves identifying pests, sealing entry points, and removing food and water sources. IPM prioritizes low-toxicity methods to create a healthy home environment.<ref name="Maley"/>
The first step is ''monitoring'' to identify the pest and where it is living. Check regularly for pest activity. ''Sanitation'' is essential to remove sources of food and water: keep your house dry and clean, fix leaks, store food (including pet food) in sealed containers, clean up crumbs and spills by sweeping and washing floors and counters, don't leave food about, and dispose of recyclables and trash properly. ''Exclusion'' prevents pests from gaining access to your home: seal cracks both indoors and outdoors, fix holes or gaps in walls, floors, and ceilings, repair window screens, and use door sweeps to ensure that doors fit tightly. Keep plants and objects clear of the foundation of your house.<ref name="Maley"/>
Capture rodents by using trapping devices. If chemicals are necessary for dealing with pests, select the least toxic, most targeted options. Use chemicals (including baits) carefully, to protect sensitive individuals from chemical exposure. Keep them out of reach of children and pets.<ref name="Maley"/>
=== Agricultural pest management === IPM is the selection and use<ref name="Rossi 710"/> of pest control actions to achieve favourable economic, ecological and social consequences. A formal IPM process starts with monitoring, which includes inspection and identification.<ref name="Mallis"/>
Monitoring begins immediately, before the pest's activity becomes significant. Monitoring of agricultural pests includes tracking soil/planting media fertility and water quality. Overall plant health and resistance to pests is greatly influenced by pH, alkalinity, of dissolved mineral and oxygen reduction potential. Many diseases are waterborne, spread directly by irrigation water and indirectly by splashing.
Once the pest is known, knowledge of its lifecycle provides the optimal intervention points.<ref name=Metcalf>{{cite book|title=Introduction to Insect Pest Management|year=1994|publisher=John Wiley and Sons, Inc.|location=New York|page=266|first1=Robert Lee |last1=Metcalf|first2=William Henry |last2=Luckmann<!-- |access-date=13 March 2012 -->}}</ref> For example, weeds reproducing from last year's seed can be prevented with mulches and pre-emergent herbicide.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
Mistaken identification of a pest may result in ineffective actions. E.g., plant damage due to over-watering could be mistaken for fungal infection, since many fungal and viral infections arise under moist conditions.
Monitoring is followed by the establishment of economic injury levels. Economic Injury level is the pest population level at which crop damage exceeds the cost of treatment of pest. The economic injury levels determine the economic threshold level, the population level at which action should be taken to prevent the pest population from increasing beyond acceptable levels. Action threshold levels can also be established based on outcomes other than economic damage.<ref name="Mallis">{{cite book |last1=Mallis |first1=Arnold |editor-last1=Hedges |editor-first1=Stoy A. |editor-first2=Dan |editor-last2=Moreland |title=Handbook of pest control: the behavior, life history and control of household pests |date=2011 |publisher=The Mallis Handbook Company |location=Richfield, Ohio |isbn=978-1890561024 |pages=1499-1500 |edition=Tenth}}</ref> Economic injury levels are more common in classic agricultural pest management, and action thresholds in structural pest management. Green pest management IPM programs may additionally prioritize goals such as reducing contamination, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, and conserving biodiversity in addition to economic goals.<ref name="Han">{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=P |last2=Rodriguez-Saona |first2=C |last3=Zalucki |first3=MP |last4=Liu |first4=SS |last5=Desneux |first5=N |title=A theoretical framework to improve the adoption of green Integrated Pest Management tactics. |journal=Communications Biology |date=18 March 2024 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=337 |doi=10.1038/s42003-024-06027-6 |pmid=38499741 |pmc=10948852 }}</ref>
Risk assessment usually includes four issues: 1) characterization of biological control agents, 2) health risks, 3) environmental risks and 4) efficacy.<ref name=consoli>{{cite book|first1=Fernando L. |last1=Consoli|first2=José Roberto Postali |last2=Parra|first3=Roberto Antônio |last3=Zucchi|title=Egg Parasitoids in Agroecosystems with Emphasis on ''Trichogramma''|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtlhlYFH9RgC|date=28 September 2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-9110-0}}</ref> An example of differing action thresholds based on risk assessment would be that one fly in a barn would be acceptable, but one fly in a hospital operating room would not be acceptable. Once a threshold has been crossed by the pest population action steps need to be taken to reduce and control the pest.
Pest-tolerant crops such as soybeans may not warrant interventions unless the pests are numerous or rapidly increasing. Intervention is warranted if the expected cost of damage by the pest is more than the cost of control. Specific sites may also have varying requirements.<ref>Purdue University Turf Pest Management Correspondence Course, Introduction, 2006</ref>
[[Image:IPMtrap4854.JPG|right|thumb|An IPM boll weevil trap in a cotton field (Manning, South Carolina)]] Integrated pest management employs a variety of actions including cultural controls, physical barriers, mechanical interventions, biological controls such as adding and conserving natural predators and enemies of the pest, and finally chemical controls or pesticides. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing waste or diseased plants, flooding, sanding, and the use of disease-resistant crop varieties. Mechanical/physical controls include picking pests off plants, or using netting or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures.<ref name=Sandler>{{cite journal|last=Sandler|first=Hilary A.|title=Integrated Pest Management|journal=Cranberry Station Best Management Practices|year=2010|volume=1|issue=1|pages=12–15}}</ref> Biological controls are numerous. They include conservation of natural predators, augmentation of natural predators, and sterile insect technique (SIT).<ref name=Klassen />
IPM can include the use of livestock. Animals like goats, chickens and ducks can be used to control weeds, insects and other unwanted organisms. Goats are able to eat poison ivy, a plant that is toxic to other species. Chickens are often used in orchards to scratch away at leaf litter where they eat insects, weed seeds and larva. Livestock IPM reduces the need for chemical alternatives. There are many benefits, one being a producer of manure and improving soil fertility. Live stock can be incredibly effective when monitored carefully <ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-26 |title=Agriculture and food {{!}} ontario.ca |url=http://www.ontario.ca/page/agriculture-and-food |access-date=2026-04-08 |website=www.ontario.ca |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Please enter a search term {{!}} ontario.ca |url=https://www.ontario.ca/search/search-results/?query=IPM+livestock&search_type=manual |access-date=2026-04-08 |website=www.ontario.ca}}</ref>
Augmentation, inoculative release and inundate release are different methods of biological control that affect the target pest in different ways. Augmentative control includes the periodic introduction of predators.<ref name="linda">{{cite book|first1=Linda |last1=Thomson |first2=David |last2=Bennett |first3=DeAnn |last3=Glenn |first4=Ary |last4=Hoffman |chapter=Chapter 4: Developing Trichogramma as a Pest Management Tool |editor1=Opender Koul|editor2=G. S. Dhaliwal|title=Predators and Parasitoids|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94PQj47SEVsC|date=2 September 2003|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-30256-9}}</ref><ref name="mills">Mills NJ, Daane KM (2005) Biological and cultural controls . . . Nonpesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests. California Agriculture 59.</ref><ref name="up">{{cite book|author1=Rajeev K. Upadhyay|author2=K.G. Mukerji|author3=B. P. Chamola|title=Biocontrol Potential and its Exploitation in Sustainable Agriculture: Volume 2: Insect Pests|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7Nqhe_T_6EC&pg=PA261|date=30 November 2001|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-46587-1|pages=261–}}</ref><ref name="knuston">Knutson A (2005) 'The Trichogramma Manual: A guide to the use of Trichogramma for Biological Control with Special Reference to Augmentative Releases for Control of bollworm and Budworm in Cotton.' (Texas Agricultural Extension Service).</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Seaman|first=Abby|title=Integrated Pest Management|url=http://www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/ecbtrich.htm|publisher=University of Connecticut|access-date=13 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220121402/http://www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/ecbtrich.htm|archive-date=20 February 2012}}</ref> With inundative release, predators are collected, mass-reared and periodically released in large numbers into the pest area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thepestgenius.com/understanding-integrated-insect-management-method |title=Understanding Integrated Insect Management Method |publisher=James Giner |access-date=2013-01-19 |archive-date=2014-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223092833/http://thepestgenius.com/understanding-integrated-insect-management-method/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Cook">{{cite journal|last=Cook|first=R. James |author2=William L. Bruckart |author3=Jack R. Coulson |author4=Mark S. Goettel |author5=Richard A. Humber |author6=Robert D. Lumsden |author7=Joseph V. Maddox |author8=Michael L. McManus |author9=Larry Moore |author10=Susan F. Meyer |author11=Paul C. Quimby Jr |author12=James P. Stack |author13=James L. Vaughn |title=Safety of Microorganisms Intended for Pest and Plant Disease Control: A Framework for Scientific Evaluation|journal=Biological Control|year=1996|volume=7|issue=3 |pages=333–351|doi=10.1006/bcon.1996.0102|bibcode=1996BiolC...7..333C |s2cid=84340306 }}</ref><ref name="van">{{cite book|author=J. C. van Lenteren|title=Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents: Theory and Testing Procedures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qm4Z8uuTowUC|year=2003|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-0-85199-836-7}}</ref> This is used for an immediate reduction in host populations, generally for annual crops, but is not suitable for long run use.<ref name="smith">{{cite journal | doi=10.1146/annurev.en.41.010196.002111 | title=Biological Control with ''Trichogramma'': Advances, Successes, and Potential of Their Use | date=1996 | last1=Smith | first1=Sandy M. | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | volume=41 | pages=375–406 | pmid=15012334 }}</ref>
With inoculative release a limited number of beneficial organisms are introduced at the start of the growing season. This strategy offers long term control as the organism's progeny affect pest populations throughout the season and is common in orchards.<ref name="smith" /><ref name="vanlet">{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Lenteren | first1 = J. C. | title = Implementation of biological control | doi = 10.1017/S0889189300002265 | journal = American Journal of Alternative Agriculture | volume = 3 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 102–109 | year = 2009 | url = https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/implementation-of-biological-control }}</ref> With seasonal inoculative release the beneficials are collected, mass-reared and released seasonally to maintain the beneficial population. This is commonly used in greenhouses.<ref name="vanlet" /> In America and other western countries, inundative releases are predominant, while Asia and the eastern Europe more commonly use inoculation and occasional introductions.<ref name="smith" />
The sterile insect technique (SIT) is an area-wide IPM program that introduces sterile male pests into the pest population to trick females into (unsuccessful) breeding encounters, providing a form of birth control and reducing reproduction rates.<ref name=Klassen>{{cite book|title=Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and Practice in Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management|year=2005|publisher=Springer|location=Netherlands|pages=4–28|author=W. Klassen|author2=C.F. Curtis|editor=V.A. Dyck |editor2=J. Hendrichs |editor3=A.S. Robinson|chapter=1.1}}</ref> The biological controls mentioned above only appropriate in extreme cases, because in the introduction of new species, or supplementation of naturally occurring species can have detrimental ecosystem effects. Biological controls can be used to stop invasive species or pests, but they can become an introduction path for new pests.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Babendreier|first=Dirk|title=Biological Invasion: Pros and Cons of Biological Control|journal=Ecological Studies|year=2007|volume=193|issue=7|pages=403–414|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-36920-2_23}}</ref>
Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM appropriate for organic farming (excluding synthetic pesticides). These may or may not include materials listed on the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI)<ref>Organic Materials Review Institute, "The OMRI Product List," http://www.omri.org/OMRI_about_list.html approved product list.</ref> Although the pesticides and particularly insecticides used in organic farming and organic gardening are generally safer than synthetic pesticides, they are not always more safe or environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause harm.<ref name="pot">Pottorff LP. [http://www.colostate.edu/Dept/CoopExt/4DMG/VegFruit/organic.htm Some Pesticides Permitted in Organic Gardening]. Colorado State University Cooperative Extension.</ref> For conventional farms IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
Pesticides can be classified by their modes of action. Rotating among materials with diverse modes of action minimizes pest resistance.<ref name="Sandler" />
Evaluation is the process of assessing whether the intervention was effective, whether it produced unacceptable side effects, whether to continue, revise or abandon the program.{{sfn|Bennett|Owens|Corrigan|2010|p=12}}
== United States (History)== Early cultural practices in pest management like handpicking insects and pulling weeds likely date to 10,000 to 16,000 years ago, with the beginnings of agriculture, the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gray |first1=Michael E. |last2=Ratcliffe |first2=Susan T. |last3=Rice |first3=Marlin E. |title=Integrated Pest Management: Concepts, Tactics, Strategies and Case Studies |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87595-0 |pages=1–13 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511626463.002 |chapter=The IPM paradigm: concepts, strategies and tactics}}</ref> Prior to World War II, the chemicals that were known and used for pest control were derived from plants and inorganic compounds like cyanide and arsenic.<ref name="Rusnak">{{cite news |last1=Rusnak |first1=Paul |title=History of Pests and Their Management |url=https://www.growingproduce.com/crop-protection/history-pests-management/ |access-date=11 May 2026 |work=Growing Produce |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> The development of synthetic chemical insecticides was heavily driven by wartime research into both pest control and chemical weapons.<ref name="Von Hippel">{{cite book |last1=Von Hippel |first1=Frank A. |title=The chemical age: how chemists fought famine and disease, killed millions, and changed our relationship with the earth |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago ; London |isbn=978-0226697246}}</ref><ref name="Keiner">{{cite journal |last1=Keiner |first1=Christine |title=Wartime rat control, rodent ecology, and the rise and fall of chemical rodenticides |journal=Endeavour |date=1 September 2005 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=119–125 |doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2005.07.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160932705000785 |issn=0160-9327}}</ref>
In the United States, the idea that "biological and chemical control are considered as supplementary to one another" was stated as early as 1939, in an influential paper by California entomologists William Muriece Hoskins, Arthur D. Borden, and Abraham E. Michelbacher. The work of early entomologists who advocated for an ecological approach to agricultural pest control influenced a generation of scientists who were key to the development of integrated pest management. They included Ray F. Smith, Harold T. Reynolds, Robert van den Bosch, and Perry Adkisson, among others.<ref name="Olsen">{{cite book |last1=Olsen |first1=Larry |last2=Zalom |first2=Frank |last3=Adkisson |first3=Perry |title=Integrated pest management in the global arena|chapter=Chapter 20 Integrated Pest Management in the USA |date=2003 |publisher=CABI |location=Wallingford |isbn=978-0851996523 |pages=249-271 |url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20073012762}}</ref><ref name="Hoskins">{{cite journal |last1=Hoskins |first1=W.M. |last2=Borden |first2=A.D. |last3=Michelbacher |first3=A.E. |title=Recommendations for a more discriminating use of insecticides |journal=Proceedings of the sixth Pacific Science Congress of the Pacific Science Association |date=1939 |issue=5 |pages=119–23}}</ref>
In 1949, Ray F. Smith and Gordon L. Smith reported on a three year project on the northwest side of the San Joaquin Valley in which "supervised control of insects" was used to control pests on alfalfa. Insect control was "supervised" by qualified entomologists based on periodic monitoring of pest and natural-enemy populations.<ref name="Naranjo">{{cite journal |last1=Naranjo |first1=SE |last2=Ellsworth |first2=PC |title=Fifty years of the integrated control concept: moving the model and implementation forward in Arizona. |journal=Pest management science |date=December 2009 |volume=65 |issue=12 |pages=1267-86 |doi=10.1002/ps.1861 |pmid=19834884}}</ref><ref name=Smith&Smith>{{cite journal|last=Smith|first=R.F.|author2=Smith, G.L.|title=Supervised control of insects: Utilizes parasites and predators and makes chemical control more efficient|journal=California Agriculture|date=May 1949|volume=3|issue=5|pages=3–12|url=https://www.megabeepestcontrol.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/ca305p3-71369.pdf}}</ref>
Supervised control provided a conceptual basis for the concept of "integrated control", articulated by Smith, Michelbacher and others in the 1950s.<ref name="Kogan"/><ref name="Naranjo"/><ref name="classic"/> The term "integrated control" was introduced to entomological literature by Michelbacher and Bacon in 1952.<ref name="Olsen"/><ref name="Kogan">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243| title = Integrated Pest Management: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Developments| journal = Annual Review of Entomology| volume = 43| pages = 243–270| year = 1998| last1 = Kogan | first1 = M.| pmid=9444752}}</ref><ref name="Michelbacher">{{cite journal |last1=Michelbacher |first1=A. |last2=Bacon |first2=O. |title=Spider mites on walnuts: Continued experiments in northern California groves indicate insect control program to keep mites in check |journal=California Agriculture: The Journal of UC Agriculture and Natural Resources |date=1 June 1952 |volume=6 |issue=6 |url=https://californiaagriculture.org/article/114551-spider-mites-on-walnuts-continued-experiments-in-northern-california-groves-indicate-insect-control-program-to-keep-mites-in-check |language=en}}</ref> The first discussion of the concept of integrated control was presented by R.F. Smith and W.W. Allen in 1954.<ref name="Olsen"/> It was followed by the foundational publication "The Integrated Control Concept" in ''Hilgardia'' in October 1959. In this publication, Vernon M. Stern, Ray Smith, Robert van den Bosch, and Kenneth Sverre Hagen described in detail the fundamental ideas of integrated control, economic injury levels and economic thresholds.<ref name="Olsen"/><ref name="classic">{{cite journal |title=This week's citation classic |journal=Current Contents |date=October 21, 1985 |url=https://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1985/A1985ASA4600002.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Stern">{{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=V M |last2=Smith |first2=R F |last3=van den Bosch |first3=K |last4=Hagen |first4=K S. |title=The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: the integrated control concept |journal=Hilgardia |date=1959 |volume=29 |pages=81-101}}</ref>
In 1956, entomologist Perry Adkisson completed his Ph.D. at Kansas State University and joined the entomology department at the University of Missouri. In 1958 he moved to Texas A&M University in the US Cotton Belt. There he worked with the U.S. Department of Agriculture to develop and implement an effective integrated control program for the pink bollworm. He later developed an integrated approach that prevented the spread of the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) in cotton in the High Plains of Texas, leading to its eradication in almost all parts of the U.S.A.<ref name="Riddiford">{{cite book |last1=Adkisson |first1=Perry Lee |last2=Riddiford |first2=Lynn M. |title=Perry L. Adkisson, Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2022 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |url=http://biographicalmemoirs.org/pdfs/adkisson-perry.pdf}}</ref><ref name="WFP2020">{{cite web |title=The World Food Prize Foundation Pays Tribute to 1997 Laureate Perry Adkisson |url=https://www.worldfoodprize.org/index.cfm/87428/47807/the_world_food_prize_foundation_pays_tribute_to_1997_laureate_perry_adkisson |website=The World Food Prize Foundation |access-date=11 May 2026 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="entsoc">{{cite web |title=Perry L. Adkisson, ESA Fellow (1984) {{!}} Entomological Society of America |url=https://www.entsoc.org/fellows/adkisson |website=Entomological Society of America |access-date=12 May 2026 |language=en |date=1 April 2026}}</ref> After their first meeting in the 1960s, Adkisson often collaborated with Ray Smith, developing and promoting integrated pest management. They were involved in national projects such as the Huffaker Project in 1972, in which nearly 300 scientists developed pest management programs for six major crops, and the Adkisson Project, in which scientists at 18 universities focused on apples, alfalfa, cotton, and soybeans.<ref name="Olsen"/><ref name="Riddiford"/> Working with the Consortium for International Crop Protection, they presented their ideas throughout the developing world.<ref name="Riddiford"/> For their many contributions to the development and use of IPM, Adkisson and Smith received the 1997 World Food Prize.<ref name="WFP2020"/>
Entomologists and ecologists have urged the adoption of IPM pest control in the United States since the 1970s.<ref name="knipling">{{cite journal | last1 = Knipling | first1 = EF | year = 1972 | title = Entomology and the Management of Man's Environment | journal = Australian Journal of Entomology | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 153–167 | doi=10.1111/j.1440-6055.1972.tb01618.x| doi-access = free }}</ref> IPM was formulated into national policy in February 1972 as directed by President Richard Nixon. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating Committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices.<ref>{{cite web|last=Acosta|first=EW|title=The History of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)|year=1995–2006|publisher=BioControl Reference Center|url=http://www.biconet.com/reference/IPMhistory.html|access-date=2007-09-01|archive-date=2008-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807131454/http://www.biconet.com/reference/IPMhistory.html|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls for a given insect pest. Chemical insecticides were to be used in the manner least disruptive to biological control. The term "integrated" was thus synonymous with "compatible." Chemical controls were to be applied only after regular monitoring indicated that a pest population had reached a level that required treatment (the economic threshold) to prevent the population from reaching a level at which economic losses would exceed the cost of the control measures (the economic injury level).{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded to include all tactics. Controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control, but these now had to be compatible with tactics for all classes of pests. Other tactics, such as host-plant resistance and cultural manipulations, became part of the IPM framework. IPM combined entomologists, plant pathologists, nematologists and weed scientists.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
== Southeast Asia ==
The Green Revolution of the 1960s and '70s introduced sturdier plants that could support the heavier grain loads resulting from intensive fertilizer use. Pesticide imports by 11 Southeast Asian countries grew nearly sevenfold in value between 1990 and 2010, according to FAO statistics, with disastrous results. Rice farmers become accustomed to spraying soon after planting, triggered by signs of the leaf folder moth, which appears early in the growing season. It causes only superficial damage and doesn't reduce yields. In 1986, Indonesia banned 57 pesticides and completely stopped subsidizing their use. Progress was reversed in the 2000s, when growing production capacity, particularly in China, reduced prices. Rice production in Asia more than doubled. But it left farmers believing more is better—whether it's seed, fertilizer, or pesticides.<ref name=s1308>{{Cite journal | last1 = Normile | first1 = D. | title = Vietnam Turns Back a 'Tsunami of Pesticides' | doi = 10.1126/science.341.6147.737 | journal = Science | volume = 341 | issue = 6147 | pages = 737–738 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23950527| bibcode = 2013Sci...341..737N }}</ref>
The brown planthopper, ''Nilaparvata lugens'', the farmers' main target, has become increasingly resistant. Since 2008, outbreaks have devastated rice harvests throughout Asia, but not in the Mekong Delta. Reduced spraying allowed natural predators to neutralize planthoppers in Vietnam. In 2010 and 2011, massive planthopper outbreaks hit 400,000 hectares of Thai rice fields, causing losses of about $64 million. The Thai government is now pushing the "no spray in the first 40 days" approach.<ref name=s1308/>
By contrast early spraying kills frogs, spiders, wasps and dragonflies that prey on the later-arriving and dangerous planthopper and produced resistant strains. Planthoppers now require pesticide doses 500 times greater than originally. Overuse indiscriminately kills beneficial insects and decimates bird and amphibian populations. Pesticides are suspected of harming human health and became a common means for rural Asians to commit suicide.<ref name=s1308/>
In 2001, 950 Vietnamese farmers tried IPM. In one plot, each farmer grew rice using their usual amounts of seed and fertilizer, applying pesticide as they chose. In a nearby plot, less seed and fertilizer were used and no pesticides were applied for 40 days after planting. Yields from the experimental plots were as good or better and costs were lower, generating 8% to 10% more net income. The experiment led to the "three reductions, three gains" campaign, claiming that cutting the use of seed, fertilizer and pesticide would boost yield, quality and income. Posters, leaflets, TV commercials and a 2004 radio soap opera that featured a rice farmer who gradually accepted the changes. It didn't hurt that a 2006 planthopper outbreak hit farmers using insecticides harder than those who didn't. Mekong Delta farmers cut insecticide spraying from five times per crop cycle to zero to one.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
The Plant Protection Center and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) have been encouraging farmers to grow flowers, okra, and beans on rice paddy banks, instead of stripping vegetation, as was typical. The plants attract bees and wasps that eat planthopper eggs, while the vegetables diversify farm incomes.<ref name=s1308/>
Agriculture companies offer bundles of pesticides with seeds and fertilizer, with incentives for volume purchases. A proposed law in Vietnam requires licensing pesticide dealers and government approval of advertisements to prevent exaggerated claims. Insecticides that target other pests, such as ''Scirpophaga incertulas'' (stem borer), the larvae of moth species that feed on rice plants allegedly yield gains of 21% with proper use.<ref name=s1308/>
== See also == {{columns-list|colwidth=30em| * Agroecology * Agronomy * Biodynamic agriculture * Endangered arthropod * Forest integrated pest management * Integrated pest management (cultural property) *UAV-IQ * International Organization for Biological Control * Pesticide application * Physical pest control * Professional Landcare Network (PLANET) * Push-pull technology * Rodentology * Soil contamination * Sustainable agriculture }}
== Further reading == ===Books=== * {{cite book|author-first1=Gary W. |author-last1=Bennett|author-first2=John M. |author-last2=Owens|author-first3=Robert M.|author-last3=Corrigan|title=Truman's Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fv9jtwAACAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Purdue University|isbn=978-0-9793986-1-2 }} * {{cite book|author-first=Steve H. |author-last=Dreistadt|title=Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NEOLaUHPVdwC|year=2004|publisher=UCANR Publications|isbn=978-1-879906-61-7}} photos, reference tables, diagrams, 1st edition; 3rd edition, January 1, 2016. * {{cite book |last1=Dyck |first1=Victor A. |title=Sterile Insect Technique: Principles And Practice In Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management |date=2021 |publisher=Taylor & Francis CRC Press [Imprint] |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar |isbn=978-0367474348}} * {{cite book |last1=Mallis |first1=Arnold |editor-last1=Hedges |editor-first1=Stoy A. |editor-first2=Dan |editor-last2=Moreland |title=Handbook of pest control: the behavior, life history and control of household pests |date=2011 |publisher=The Mallis Handbook Company |location=Richfield, Ohio |isbn=978-1890561024 |pages=1499-1500 |edition=Tenth}}; 11th edition, 2025. * {{cite book|author-first1=Robert F.|author-last1= Norris|author-first2=Edward P. |author-last2=Caswell-Chen|author-first3=Marcos |author-last3=Kogan|title=Concepts in integrated pest management|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAUpAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Prentice Hall PTR|isbn=978-0-13-087016-2}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Ryder |editor-first1=Suzanne |editor-last2=Crossman |editor-first2=Amy |title=Integrated pest management for collections: proceedings of 2021: A Pest Odyssey, The Next Generation |date=2022 |publisher=Archetype Publications |location=London |isbn=9781909492837}}
===Papers=== * {{cite journal |last1=Hajjar |first1=M. Jamal |last2=Ahmed |first2=Nazeer |last3=Alhudaib |first3=Khalid A. |last4=Ullah |first4=Hidayat |title=Integrated Insect Pest Management Techniques for Rice |journal=Sustainability |date=2 March 2023 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=4499 |doi=10.3390/su15054499 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Sust...15.4499H |language=en |issn=2071-1050}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Hassanali | first1 = A. | last2 = Herren | first2 = H. | last3 = Khan | first3 = Z. R. | last4 = Pickett | first4 = J. A. | last5 = Woodcock | first5 = C. M. | title = Integrated pest management: the push-pull approach for controlling insect pests and weeds of cereals, and its potential for other agricultural systems including animal husbandry | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2007.2173 | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 363 | issue = 1491 | pages = 611–21 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17652071 | pmc = 2610173 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Mabitsela |first1=Mosima M. |last2=Motsi |first2=Hamond |last3=Phiri |first3=Ethel E. |title=Management of pests and diseases in African indigenous crops: A systematic review |journal=Journal of Underutilised Crops Research |date=2025 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=30 |doi=10.4102/jucr.v4i1.30 |hdl=10520/ejc-jucr_v4_n1_a30 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-jucr_v4_n1_a30}} * {{cite journal |last1=Pegalepo |first1=E |last2=Bocco |first2=R |last3=Onaga |first3=G |last4=Nwilene |first4=F |last5=Tamò |first5=M |last6=Togola |first6=A |last7=Katiyar |first7=SK |title=Sustainable Insect Pest Management Options for Rice Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. |journal=Insects |date=18 November 2025 |volume=16 |issue=11 |page=1175 |doi=10.3390/insects16111175 |doi-access=free |pmid=41302920 |pmc=12653844 }}
== References == {{Reflist|30em}}
{{pesticides}} {{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Integrated Pest Management}} Category:Agronomy Category:Biological pest control Category:Pest control techniques Category:Phytopathology Category:Soil chemistry