{{Short description|Wolf subspecies}} {{Subspeciesbox | image = Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) - cropped.jpg | image_caption = | status = VU | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1972-53_0.pdf|title=Wildlife Protection Act 1972|website=legislative.gov.in}}</ref> | genus = Canis | species = lupus | species_link = Wolf | subspecies = pallipes | authority = Sykes, 1831<ref name=sykes1831/> | range_map = Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) distribution.png | range_map_caption = ''Canis lupus pallipes'' distribution | synonyms = ''Canis pallipes pallipes'' }}
The '''Indian wolf''' ('''''Canis lupus pallipes''''') is a subspecies of gray wolf that ranges from Southwest Asia to the Indian subcontinent. It is intermediate in size between the Himalayan wolf and the Arabian wolf, and lacks the former's luxuriant winter coat due to it living in warmer conditions.<ref name="pocock1941"/> Within this subspecies, the "Indian plains wolf" is genetically basal to all other extant ''Canis lupus'' apart from the older-lineage Himalayan wolf, with both proposed as separate species.<ref name=sharma2004/><ref name=agga2007/> The Indian wolf travels in smaller packs and is less vocal than other variants of the gray wolf,<ref name="mivart1890"/> and has a reputation for being cunning.<ref name="blanford1888"/><ref name=walkingwithwolves>{{cite AV media |people=Hegde, S. (Director) |date=2016 |title=Walking with Wolves |medium=Motion picture |publisher=Krupakar-Senani Features |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Py6--X8C0xs |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/Py6--X8C0xs |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|access-date=1 January 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The Indian wolf is one of the most endangered populations of gray wolf in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hennelly|first1=Lauren M.|last2=Habib|first2=Bilal|last3=Modi|first3=Shrushti|last4=Rueness|first4=Eli K.|last5=Gaubert|first5=Philippe|last6=Sacks|first6=Benjamin N.|title=Ancient divergence of Indian and Tibetan wolves revealed by recombination-aware phylogenomics|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/mec.16127|journal=Molecular Ecology|year=2021|volume=30|issue=24|pages=6687–6700|language=en|doi=10.1111/mec.16127|pmid=34398980|bibcode=2021MolEc..30.6687H |s2cid=237147842|issn=1365-294X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==Taxonomy== The Indian wolf was first described to Western science in 1831 by the British ornithologist William Henry Sykes under the binomial ''Canis pallipes''.<ref name=sykes1831>{{cite journal|last1=Sykes |first1=William H. |author-link1=William Henry Sykes|year=1831 |url=https://archive.org/stream/lietuvostsrmoksl30liet#page/n113/mode/2up |title=Catalogue of the Mammalia of Dukun (Deccan); with observations on the habits, etc., and characters of new species. |journal=Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London 1830–1831|volume=I |page=101 |publisher=Zoological Society of London |location=London |access-date=28 December 2013}}</ref> In 1941, Reginald Pocock subordinated it to ''Canis lupus'' under the trinomial ''Canis lupus pallipes''.<ref name="pocock1941">Pocock, R. I. (1941), [https://archive.org/stream/PocockMammalia2/pocock2#page/n105/mode/2up ''Fauna of British India: Mammals volume 2''], Taylor & Francis, pp. 82-94</ref>
===''Canis indica''=== The Indian plains wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'', synonym ''Canis indica'') is formed by two closely related female lineage mitochondrial DNA haplotypes that fall within the ''Canis lupus pallipes'' subspecies of the gray wolf and is only found in the arid and semi-arid peninsular plains of India.<ref name=agga2007/> These lineages are genetically unique from all other wolf lineageses worldwide, including from other wolves forming ''C. l. pallipes''.<ref name=aggarwal2007b/><ref name=spotte2012/> The Indian gray wolf and the Himalayan wolf are phylogenetically basal to all other wolf subspecies and are closer to the African wolf. This indicates that these are the descendants of an ancient wolf distribution.<ref name=agga2007/><ref name=spotte2012/>
In April 2009, the Latin binomial ''Canis indica'' had been proposed for these two haplotypes as a nomenclatural and taxonomic split from ''Canis lupus'' as a new species through the Nomenclature Specialist on the CITES Animals Committee.<ref name=cites2009a/> The committee did not agree but recommended that the name be entered into the species database as a synonym of the name under which it was listed.<ref name=cites2009b/> The proposal was based on one study<ref name=agga2007/> that relied on only a limited number of museum and zoo samples that may not have been representative of the wild population, and a call for further fieldwork was made.<ref name=shrotriya2012/>{{rp|886}}
Earlier, two studies had sequenced the mDNA of the Indian gray wolf and found that it is basal to all other extant ''Canis lupus'' haplotypes apart from the older-lineage Himalayan wolf.<ref name=sharma2004/><ref name=agga2007/> Later studies compared these sequences against worldwide wolf sequences and confirmed this basal position.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miklosi|first1=A. |title=Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=2nd |series=Oxford Biology|year=2015 |pages=106–107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VT-WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 |isbn=978-0-19-954566-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |pmid=17583509 |url=http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/pdfs/Koch%20papers/2007/Leonard%20et%2007%20CurBio%2017-1146.pdf |year=2007 |last1=Leonard |first1=J. A. |title=Megafaunal extinctions and the disappearance of a specialized wolf ecomorph |journal=Current Biology |volume=17 |issue=13 |pages=1146–1150 |last2=Vilà |first2=C. |last3=Fox-Dobbs |first3=K. |last4=Koch| first4 = P. L.| last5=Wayne |first5= R. K. |last6=Van Valkenburgh |first6=B. |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.05.072 |bibcode=2007CBio...17.1146L |hdl=10261/61282 |s2cid=14039133 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2015-08-27 |archive-date=2016-12-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228122803/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/pdfs/Koch%20papers/2007/Leonard%20et%2007%20CurBio%2017-1146.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-104 |pmid=20409299 |pmc=2873414 |title=Phylogeographic history of grey wolves in Europe |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=10 |page=104 |year=2010 |last1=Pilot |first1=M. G. |last2=Branicki |first2=W. |last3=Jędrzejewski |first3=W. O. |last4=Goszczyński |first4=J. |last5=Jędrzejewska |first5=B. A. |last6=Dykyy |first6=I. |last7=Shkvyrya |first7=M. |last8=Tsingarska |first8=E. |issue=1 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10..104P}}</ref> One study, based on a fossil record, estimated that the divergence between the coyote and the wolf lineages occurred 1 million years ago and with an assumed wolf mutation rate, estimated that the divergence of the Indian gray wolf from the wolf/dog ancestor occurred 400,000 years ago.<ref name=sharma2004/>{{rp|S2}} Another study, which expressed concerns about the earlier study, gave an estimate of 270,000 years ago.<ref name=agga2007/>{{rp|169}}
The Indian grey wolf resembles ''C. l. pallipes'' in its outer appearance (morphological features) and its social/reproductive behavior, but it is smaller in size, and genetically distinct. These findings suggest that the Indian gray wolf is not the ''pallipes'' found in the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref name=agga2007/>{{rp|169}} It was therefore proposed that the Indian gray wolf be reclassified as a separate species ''Canis indica''.<ref name=sharma2004/><ref name=agga2007/> In 2016, a study of the mDNA of both modern and ancient wolves indicated that the Indian gray wolf and the Himalayan wolf were genetically basal when compared with all other gray wolves.<ref name=ersmark2016>{{cite journal |doi=10.3389/fevo.2016.00134|title=From the Past to the Present: Wolf Phylogeography and Demographic History Based on the Mitochondrial Control Region |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|volume=4 |year=2016 |last1=Ersmark |first1=E. |last2=Klütsch|first2=C. F. C. |last3=Chan|first3=Y. L. |last4=Sinding|first4=M.-H. S.|last5=Fain|first5=S. R. |last6=Illarionova |first6=N. A.|last7=Oskarsson|first7=M. |last8=Uhlén|first8=M. |last9=Zhang|first9=Y.-P. |last10=Dalén|first10=L. |last11=S. |first11=P. |page=134 |bibcode=2016FrEEv...4..134E |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Cladogram|align=right|title=Phylogenetic tree for ''Canis lupus'' with timing in years{{refn|group=lower-alpha|name=mtdna_seq_desc|For a full set of supporting references refer to the note (a) in the phylotree at Evolution of the wolf#Wolf-like canids}} |cladogram={{clade | style = font-size:85%;line-height:80%;width:375px; |style1=background-color:#ccccff; |label1=250,000 |1={{clade |label1=120,000 |1={{clade |label1=80,000 |1={{clade |label1=31,000 |1={{clade |1=Dog 50 px |2=Holarctic gray wolf 50 px }} |2=Late Pleistocene wolf† 50 px }} |2='''Indian plains wolf''' 50 px }} |2=Himalayan wolf 50 px }} }} }}
In 2021, a study compared both the mitochondrial DNA and the nuclear DNA (from the cell nucleus) from the wolves of the Himalayas with those of the wolves from the lowlands of the Indian subcontinent. The genomic analyses indicate that the Himalayan wolf and the Indian lowland wolf were genetically distinct from one another. These wolves were also genetically distinct from – and genetically basal to – the other wolf populations across the northern hemisphere. These other wolves form a single mitochondrial clade, indicating that they originated from a single expansion from one region within the last 100,000 years. However, the nuclear analysis indicated that the Indian lowland wolf and the Himalayan wolf had separated from this lineage around 200,000 years ago, with the Indian lowland wolf being genetically basal to the Himalayan wolf. This nuclear DNA finding conflicts with mitochondrial DNA findings of the Himalayan wolf being the most basal, however the Himalayan wolf has admixed with a more basal but unidentified canid and this is what was being reflected in its mDNA. Wolves from Syria and Iran clustered with the other wolves, although these and the Indian lowland wolves are taxonomically classified together as the single subspecies ''Canis lupus pallipes''. The wolves of this subspecies share morphological characteristics due to their adaptation to arid environments.<ref name=Hennelly2021/> In 2022 whole-genome sequencing estimated the distinct gray wolf lineage living in the semi-arid lowland region of the Indian subcontinent diverged from other gray wolf populations around 110,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=M.-S. |last2=Thakur |first2=M. |last3=Jhala |first3=Y. |last4=Wang |first4=S. |last5=Srinivas |first5=Y. |last6=Dai |first6=S.-S. |last7=Liu |first7=Zheng-Xi |last8=Chen |first8=Hong-Man |last9=Green |first9=R. E. |last10=Koepfli |first10=K.-P. |last11=Shapiro |first11=B. |date=2022 |title=Genome Sequencing of a Gray Wolf from Peninsular India Provides New Insights into the Evolution and Hybridization of Gray Wolves |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=14 |issue=2 |article-number=evac012 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evac012 |pmc=8841465 |pmid=35137061}}</ref>
The taxonomic reference ''Mammal Species of the World'' (2005) does not recognize ''Canis indica'', however NCBI/Genbank does list ''Canis lupus indica''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canis lupus indica|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=242524}}</ref>
===Iranian wolf=== A study demonstrated minor morphological variations of the skull of Iranian wolves but these did not vary enough to classify them as being a separate subspecies, however their genetic lineage has not been verified.<ref name="khosravi2012"/>
==Description == thumb|upright=0.8|Skull specimen
The Indian wolf is similar in structure to the Eurasian wolf, but is smaller, more slightly built, and has shorter fur with little to no underfur.<ref name="blanford1888">{{cite book |author=Blanford, W. T. |year=1888 |title=Fauna of British India: Mammalia |place=London |publisher=Taylor and Francis |pages=137–140 |chapter=''Canis pallipes''. The Indian Wolf |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/89654#page/173/mode/1up}}</ref> It is typically around {{cvt|57-72|cm}} at shoulder height, with males ranging from {{cvt|19|to|25|kg}} and females {{cvt|17-22|kg}} in weight. Its length ranges from {{cvt|103|to|145|cm}} from nose to tail.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Studbook: Indian Wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') |url=http://cza.nic.in/uploads/documents/studbooks/english/nswolf.pdf |website=Central Zoo Authority, Government of India |publisher=Wildlife Institute of India |access-date=1 January 2020}}</ref> Like the Arabian wolf, it has short, thin fur in summer, though the hair on the back remains long even in summer, an adaptation thought to be against solar radiation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Harrington, F. H. |author2=Paquet, P. C. |year=1982 |title=Wolves of the World: Perspectives of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation |place=Park Ridge |publisher=N.J: Noyes Publications |isbn=0-8155-0905-7}}</ref> The fur is generally grayish-red to reddish-white with gray tones. The hairs are grizzled with black, particularly on the back, which sports a dark V-shaped patch around the shoulders. The limbs are paler than the body, and the underparts are almost completely white.<ref name="mivart1890">Mivart, G. (1890), ''[https://archive.org/stream/dogsjackalswolve00mivauoft#page/n69/mode/2up/search/pallipes Dogs, Jackals, Wolves and Foxes: A Monograph of the Canidæ]'', London: R.H. Porter : Dulau, pp. 9-10</ref>
Wolf pups are born sooty-brown, with a milk-white patch on the chest that fades with age.<ref name="blanford1888"/> Black specimens are rare, but have been recorded in India's Solapur district and two regions of Iran. In the latter country, the mutation was found to be naturally occurring, unlike in North American gray wolves, which have inherited the K<sup>b</sup> allele responsible for melanism from past interbreeding with dogs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lokhande |first1=A. S. |last2=Bajaru |first2=S. B. |year=2013 |title=First record of melanistic Indian Wolf ''Canis lupus pallipes'' from the Indian Subcontinent |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=110 |issue=3|pages=220–230}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khosravi |first1=R. |year=2014 |title=Is black coat color in wolves of Iran an evidence of admixed ancestry with dogs? |journal=Journal of Applied Genetics |volume=56|issue=1 |pages=97–105|doi=10.1007/s13353-014-0237-6 |pmid=25085671 |s2cid=15381375}}</ref>
==Distribution and habitat== ===West Asia=== [[File:Iran-wolf.jpg|thumb|A miniature, depicting a wolf hunt in ancient Persia]] During the 19th century, the Indian wolf was widespread in many parts east and west of the Jordan River. However, the population declined considerably between 1964 and 1980, largely due to persecution by farmers.<ref>{{cite book |author=Qumsiyeh, M. B. |year=1996 |title=Mammals of the Holy Land |publisher=Texas Tech University Press |place=Lubbock |chapter=''Canis lupus'' Wolf |pages=146–148 |isbn=089672364X |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Amr2oLxnR10C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA146#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Currently, Israel's conservation policies and effective law enforcement maintain a moderately sized wolf population, which radiates into neighbouring countries. Turkey may play an important role in maintaining wolves in the region, due to its contiguity with Central Asia. The mountains of Turkey have served as a refuge for the few wolves remaining in Syria. A small wolf population of 80-100 occurs in the Golan Heights, and is well protected by the military activities there.<ref name="m326">Mech, L. David; Boitani, L, (2003). ''Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation.'' University of Chicago Press. p. 326-27. {{ISBN|0-226-51696-2}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reichmann |first1=A. |last2=Saltz |first2=D. |date=2005 |title=The Golan Wolves: The Dynamics, Behavioral Ecology, and Management of an Endangered Pest |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1560/1BLK-B1RT-XB11-BWJH |journal=Israel Journal of Zoology. |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=87–133 |doi=10.1560/1blk-b1rt-xb11-bwjh |doi-broken-date=12 July 2025|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Making peace in the Golan Heights—between humans and wolves |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/golan-heights-peace-with-wolves |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422175140/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/golan-heights-peace-with-wolves |archive-date=April 22, 2021 |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=Animals}}</ref> Although Turkish wolves have no legal protection, they may number about 7,000 individuals.<ref name="Turkish Wolf">{{cite journal |last1=Zuppiroli |first1=P. |last2=Donnez |first2=L. |year=2006 |title=An Interview with Ozgun Emre Can on the Wolves in Turkey |journal=UKWCT |volume=26 |pages=8–9 |url=http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Regions/Turkey/EMRE_WP_emre_interview.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727195624/http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Regions/Turkey/EMRE_WP_emre_interview.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-27}}</ref>
Little is known of current wolf populations in Iran, which once occurred throughout the country in low densities during the mid-1970s.<ref name="m326" /> Although widespread throughout the country, being absent only in the central desert and Dasht-e Lut, there is no reliable estimation on the wolf's population size there. Wolves in Iran continue to suffer from habitat loss, unregulated hunting and loss of prey.<ref name="khosravi2012">{{cite journal |author1=Khosravi, R. |author2=Kaboli, M. |author3=Imani, J. |author4=Nourani, E. |year=2012 |title=Morphometric variations of the skull in the Gray Wolf (''Canis lupus'') in Iran |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=361–369|doi=10.1007/s13364-012-0089-6 |s2cid=15443927}}</ref><ref name="khosravi2013">{{cite journal |author1=Khosravi, R. |author2=Rezaei, H.R. |author3=Kaboli, M. |year=2013 |title=Detecting hybridization between Iranian wild wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') and free-ranging domestic dog (''Canis familiaris'') by analysis of microsatellite markers |journal=Zoological Science |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=27–34 |doi=10.2108/zsj.30.27|pmid=23317363 |s2cid=23083465}}</ref>
===Indian subcontinent=== [[File:Genome Sequencing of a Gray Wolf from Peninsular India (2022) fig. 1A.png|thumb|Indian wolf from Peninsular India]] The northern regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan are strongholds for the Indian wolf.<ref name=m326/> In India, the Indian wolf population is concentrated in the Pir Panjal Range of the Indian Himalayan Region and has been estimated at about 300 individuals in approximately {{cvt|60000|km2}} of Jammu and Kashmir, and 50 more in Himachal Pradesh.<ref name=m326/> The Indian wolf also occurs in the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jhala, Y. V. |title=The Status and Conservation of the Wolf in Gujarat and Rajasthan, India |author2=Giles, R. H. Jr. |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=5 |issue=4 |date=1991 |pages=476–483 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1991.tb00354.x |jstor=2386069 |bibcode=1991ConBi...5..476J}}</ref>
The Indian wolf mainly occurs outside protected areas and feeds mainly on livestock, such as goats or sheep. However, in areas where natural prey is still abundant, as in Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar or Panna Tiger Reserve, natural prey species are still preferred. <ref>{{cite journal |title=Distribution, status and conservation of Indian gray wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') in Karnataka, India |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00103.x |year=2006 |author1=Singh, M. |author2=Kumara, H. N. |journal=Journal of Zoology |pages=164–169 |volume=270 |issue=1}}</ref> Mahuadanr Wolf Sanctuary in the state of Jharkhand is the only wolf sanctuary in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/english/national/bharat/counting-of-wolves-to-begin-in-jharkhands-mahuadanr-wolf-sanctuary-from-january-next-year/na20211217214406051 |title=Counting of wolves to begin in Jharkhand's Mahuadanr Wolf Sanctuary from January next Year |work=etvbharat |date=2021 |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref>
The Indian wolf is protected since 1972 and classified as Endangered, with many populations lingering in low numbers or living in areas increasingly used by humans. Its population was estimated at 2,000-3,000 individuals in 2004,<ref name=sharma2004/> and there was an estimated 3,100 Indian wolves were in India in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Wolves As Endangered As Tigers In India; Only 3,100 Left |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/wolves-as-endangered-as-tigers-in-india-only-3-1k-left/articleshow/90553678.cms |work=Times of India |date=2022|access-date=25 January 2025}}</ref> In March 2023, ten captive-bred wolves were released in Gujarat, a first for India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kateshiya |first=G. B. |date=2023 |title=In a first, Gujarat to release in the wild 10 wolves bred in captivity — after training |work=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/rajkot/in-a-first-gujarat-to-release-in-the-wild-10-wolves-bred-in-captivity-after-training-8490042/ |access-date=2023-03-13}}</ref>
Hindus traditionally considered the hunting of wolves, even dangerous ones, as taboo, for fear of causing a bad harvest. The Santals, however, considered them fair game, as with every other forest-dwelling animal.<ref name="Children">{{cite book |last1=Maclean |first1= C. |title=The Wolf Children |location=Harmondsworth, Eng.; New York |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1980 |isbn=0-14-005053-1 |page=336}}</ref> During British India, wolves were not considered game species, and were killed primarily in response to them attacking game herds, livestock, and people. In 1876, in the North-Western Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) and Bihar State, 2,825 wolves were killed in response to 721 fatal attacks on humans.<ref name="knight">Knight, J. (2004). ''Wildlife in Asia: Cultural Perspectives.'' Psychology Press, pp. 219–221, {{ISBN|0700713328}}</ref> Two years later, 2,600 wolves were killed in response to attacks leaving 624 humans dead.<ref name=maneaters>{{cite book |author1=Bright, M. |title=Man-Eaters |year=2002 |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Paperbacks |isbn=0-312-98156-2 |page=304}}</ref> By the 1920s, wolf extermination remained a priority in the NWP and Awadh. Overall, over 100,000 wolves were killed for bounties in British India between 1871 and 1916.<ref name="knight"/>
== Behaviour and ecology == thumb|A pack of Indian gray wolves
The Indian wolf's habits are similar to those of other grey wolf subspecies, though the Indian wolf generally lives in smaller packs rarely exceeding 6-8 individuals, and is relatively less vocal,<ref name="blanford1888"/> having rarely been known to howl.<ref name="mivart1890"/> Indian wolf vocalization includes howls, howl-barks, whimper, social squeals, and whines with howls an average fundamental frequency of 422 Hz and whines 906 Hz.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sadhukhan |title=Characterising the harmonic vocal repertoire of the Indian wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |date=2019 |issue=10 |article-number=e0216186 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0216186 |pmid=31671161 |pmc=6822943 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1416186S |doi-access=free}}</ref> There is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nair |first1=M. V. |last2=Panda |first2=S. K. |year=2013 |title=Just Friends |url=http://www.sanctuaryasia.com/magazines/features/9390-just-friends.html |journal=Sanctuary Asia |volume=XXXIII |issue=3 |access-date=2014-12-28 |archive-date=2019-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724195645/https://www.sanctuaryasia.com/magazines/features/9390-just-friends.html }}</ref> It tends to breed from mid-October to late December, and whelp in holes or ravines.<ref name="mivart1890"/> It typically preys on antelopes, rodents, and hares.<ref name=predation>{{cite journal |jstor=2386819 |title=Predation on Blackbuck by Wolves in Velavadar National Park, Gujarat, India |author1=Jhala, Y.V. |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=7 |issue=4 |date=1993 |pages=874–881 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.740874.x|bibcode=1993ConBi...7..874J |author1-link=Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala}}</ref> It usually hunts in pairs when targeting antelopes, with one wolf acting as a decoy while the other attacks from behind.<ref name="blanford1888"/> The range of the Indian wolf overlaps with the golden jackal, sloth bear, leopard, Bengal fox, brown bear, Asiatic lion and Bengal tiger.<ref name="Geptner1972">{{cite book |author1=Heptner, V. G. |author2=Sludskij, A. A. |orig-date=1972 |year=1992 |title=Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola |trans-title=Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats) |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation |location=Washington DC |chapter=Lion |pages=82–93 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/mammalsofsov221992gept#page/83/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="Negi">{{cite book |last=Negi |first=S. S. |title=Handbook of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves in India |edition=Third |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYFmoOWfmX8C&pg=PA151 |year=2002 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-128-3 |page=151}}</ref>
===Hunting=== [[File:Indian Wolves eating Blackbuck Kill.png|thumb|Indian wolves consuming a blackbuck in Velavadar]]
Indian wolves are nocturnal and hunt from dusk to dawn, using different strategies for their various prey animals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Wolf |url=https://www.wolfworlds.com/indian-wolf/ |website=Wolf Worlds |access-date=1 January 2020}}</ref> These wolves are said to be exceptional in speed and endurance.<ref name="mivart1890"/> An Indian wolf pack will spread themselves out when hunting Indian hares and various rodents, in contrast to coordinating when their target is the swift blackbuck antelope. The blackbuck is the major prey animal for wolves in Nannaj and Blackbuck National Park and constitute up to 88% of Indian wolf biomass consumption.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jhala |first1=Y, V. |author-link1=Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala |title=Predation on Blackbuck by Wolves in Velavadar National Park, Gujarat, India |url=http://wolfology1.tripod.com/id171.htm |website=Wolves: Wolf History, Conservation, Ecology and Behavior |access-date=1 January 2020}}</ref> Because the antelope is faster, Indian wolves will usually chase it toward ravines, bushes or hollows, where more wolves wait in ambush.<ref name="blanford1888"/><ref name =ecologykumar /> In addition to leading antelopes into an ambush, Indian wolves can chase blackbucks down hills for a short-term burst in speed. Indian wolves may also select a sick or injured animal and separate it from the herd, pursuing it to exhaustion. This strategy is commonly seen in gray wolves, and often proves successful. Finally, when they close the distance and attack, a single wolf would grab the snout to asphyxiate the antelope while others attack the rear.<ref name =ecologykumar>{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |title=Ecology and Behavior of Indian Grey Wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'' Sykes, 1831) in the Deccan Grasslands of Solapur, Maharashtra |url=http://ir.amu.ac.in/859/1/T%205038.pdf |website=AMU Repository |access-date=1 January 2020}}</ref> Indian wolves are also reported to use curiosity to lure antelopes in for a kill. One story remarks that a wolf rolled over, legs upright, when the blackbucks were feeding. When the antelope accidentally disturbed this wolf, two others sprung up for the kill.<ref name="blanford1888"/>
==Relationships with humans== ===Attacks on humans=== Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called "child-lifting". In 1878, 624 people were killed by wolves in Uttar Pradesh, and 14 were killed in Bengal.<ref name="rajpurohit1999">{{cite journal | last1 = Rajpurohit | first1 = K.S. | year = 1999 | title = Child lifting: Wolves in Hazaribagh, India | journal = Ambio | volume = 28 | pages = 162–166 }}</ref> In 1900, 285 people were killed in the Central Provinces.<ref name="attacks">Burton, R.G. (1991). ''A Book of Man Eaters.'' Mittal Publications.</ref> Between 1910 and 1915, 115 children were killed by wolves in Hazaribagh, and 122 were killed in the same area in 1980–1986. In Jaunpur, Pratapgarh and Sultanpur in Uttar Pradesh, wolves killed 21 children and mauled 16 others from March 27, 1996, to July 1, 1996. Between April 1993 and April 1995, five wolf packs attacked 80 children, 20 of whom were rescued, in Hazaribagh, West Koderma and Latehar Forest Divisions. The children were taken primarily in the summer during the evening hours, and often within human settlements.<ref name="rajpurohit1999"/>
In Iran, wolf attacks have been reported for millennia. As with India, many cases of wolves making off with small children have been reported. Adults have been attacked on occasion, including an incident in which a policeman was killed and partially eaten by three wolves after dismounting from his horse to relieve himself.<ref>{{ cite web |publisher=Abundant Wildlife Society of North America|last1=Mader |first1=T. R. |url=http://www.aws.vcn.com/wolf_attacks_on_humans.html |title=Wolf Attacks on Humans |access-date=28 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529160435/http://www.aws.vcn.com/wolf_attacks_on_humans.html |archive-date=29 May 2007 }}</ref> On January 2, 2005, in the village of Vali Asr, near the town of Torbat Heydariya, northeastern Iran, a wolf pack attacked a homeless man in front of witnesses. Although the police intervened, the man died of his wounds.<ref>[http://www.iranfocus.com/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1150:homeless-man-eaten-by-wolves-in-iran&catid=4:iran-general&Itemid=26 Homeless man eaten by wolves in Iran]. Iranfocus (2005-01-04)</ref>
===Predation on livestock=== [[File:Wolf on the savannah.jpg|thumb|Indian wolf occupy dry grasslands where they may prey on livestock ]]
Indian wolves will feed on livestock when natural prey is scarce. This causes human-wolf conflicts and wolf persecution since human population density is high in these areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://projectwaghoba.in/docs/roopa_krithivasan_indian_wolf_report_2009.pdf|title=Human-Wolf Conflict in human dominated landscapes of Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra & Possible Mitigation Measures|last1=Krithivasan|first1=R. |last2=Athreya|first2=V. R.|website=Project Waghoba|last3=Odden|first3=M. |access-date=2020-01-03|archive-date=2021-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009213508/http://www.projectwaghoba.in/docs/roopa_krithivasan_indian_wolf_report_2009.pdf}}</ref> Grass is quickly grazed by livestock in unprotected grasslands that cannot sustain a blackbuck population afterward.<ref name =ecologykumar /> Among domestic animals, goats are the primary target for Indian wolves, comprising 66% of wolf attacks around the Jhelum district, with sheep following at 27%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saad |first1=M. |last2=Anwar |first2=M. |last3=Waseem |first3=M. |last4=Salim |first4=M. |last5=Ali |first5=Z. |title=Distribution range and population status of Indian grey wolf (''Canis lupus pallipes'') and Asiatic jackal (''Canis aureus'') in Lehri Nature Park, District Jhelum, Pakistan |journal=Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences |date=2015 |volume=25 |issue=3 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282328876 |access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> Wolves are also more prone to preying on livestock during denning periods and with pups below 5–6 months old.<ref name =ecologykumar /> It is not uncommon for locals to exaggerate the magnitude of Indian wolf depredation and tell tales of their predatory wiles, contributing to hatred of the animal.<ref name="blanford1888"/><ref name=walkingwithwolves /><ref name =ecologykumar />
Human–wildlife conflict has emerged as a major threat to the survival of the Indian wolf, particularly where human settlement and agriculture expansion coincides with its territory. With increasing grasslands and scrublands being converted into agricultural lands or cities, Indian wolves have no other option but to venture into villages in search of food. It most commonly leads to livestock predation, especially where wild prey is scarce.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=S. |last2=Wikenros |first2=C. |last3=Borg |first3=B. |last4=Jhala |first4=Y. |last5=Bump |first5=J. |date=2023 |title=Editorial: New century wolf conservation and conflict management |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=11 |article-number=1174661 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2023.1174661 |bibcode=2023FrEEv..1174661C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Wolf population are poisoned, trapped or killed in retaliation by organized groups in local communities. In contrast to such more charismatic or safeguarded species as tigers or elephants, the Indian wolf lacks substantial legal protection under Indian wildlife law and is thus more liable to persecution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karanth |first1=K. K. |last2=Gopalaswamy |first2=A. M. |last3=DeFries |first3=R. |last4=Ballal |first4=N. |date=2012 |title=Assessing Patterns of Human-Wildlife Conflicts and Compensation around a Central Indian Protected Area. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=12 |article-number=e50433 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0050433 |doi-access=free |pmc=3515612 |pmid=23227173|bibcode=2012PLoSO...750433K }}</ref> Additionally, myths and negative perceptions about the Indian wolf provide additional fuel for conflict since, at times, it is perceived as dangerous or not worthy of protection. To mitigate this conflict, community education and improved practice in livestock management, along with legal protection of the ecological function of the Indian wolf, is necessary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ashish |first1=K. |last2=Ramesh |first2=T. |last3=Kalle |first3=R. |last4=Arumugam |first4=R. |date=2022 |title=Generalization of threats attributed to large carnivores in areas of high human–wildlife conflict |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=36 |issue=5 |article-number=e13974 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13974 |pmc=9805120 |pmid=35796039 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022ConBi..36E3974A }}</ref>
===In culture=== {{Further information|Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology}} Like the fox and the coyote, the Indian wolf has a reputation for being clever. There are many stories of their stratagems told by locals, observers and shepherds.<ref name="blanford1888"/><ref name=walkingwithwolves /> The people of Maharashtra would sing ''labad landga dhong kartay'', in Marathi which translates to "Wolves are clever animals and will fool you with their devilish methods."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Banerjee |first1=Ananda |title=India's disregarded wolves |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/indias-disregarded-wolves-46355 |website=DownToEarth |date=15 September 2014 |access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref>
Wolves are occasionally mentioned in Hindu mythology. In the ''Harivamsa'', Krishna, to convince the people of Vraja to migrate to Vrindavan, creates hundreds of wolves from his hairs, which frighten the inhabitants of Vraja into making the journey.<ref>Wilson, H. H., Hall, F. (1868). ''The Vishńu Puráńa: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition''. Trubner</ref> In the ''Rig Veda'', Rijrsava is blinded by his father as punishment for having given 101 of his family's sheep to a she-wolf, who in turn prays to the Ashvins to restore his sight.<ref name="murthy" /> Bhima, the voracious son of the god Vayu, is described as ''Vrikodara'', meaning "wolf-stomached".<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic |first1=W. J. |last1=Wilkins |location=S.l |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=0-7661-8881-7}}</ref>
The wolf has an ambivalent reputation in Iranian culture, being demonised in the Avestas as a creation of Ahriman,<ref name="murthy">Krishna Murthy, K. (1985). ''Mythical animals in Indian art''. Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|0-391-03287-9}}</ref> and still features in contemporary cautionary tales told to misbehaving children.<ref name="humphreys1999">Humphreys, P. & Kahrom, E. (1999). ''Lion and Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran''. I.B.Tauris. pp. 88-9. {{ISBN|1860642292}}</ref>
Indian wolves take a central role in Rudyard Kipling's ''The Jungle Book'' series, in which a pack in the Seoni area of Madhya Pradesh adopts the feral child Mowgli, and teaches him how to survive in the jungle while protecting him from the Bengal tiger Shere Khan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Slater |first1=John |title=Seeonee: The Site of Mowgli's Jungle? |url=http://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/rg_junglebook_location.htm |publisher=The Kipling Society |access-date=14 December 2017 |date=23 March 2007 |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908160005/http://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/rg_junglebook_location.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Hotchkiss, Jane|title=The jungle of Eden: Kipling, wolf boys, and the colonial imagination|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|year=2001|volume=29|issue=2|page=440|doi=10.1017/s1060150301002108|s2cid=162409338}}</ref>
== Notes == {{notelist}}
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==External links== {{Wikispecies|Canis lupus pallipes}} {{Commons category|Canis lupus pallipes}} * [https://www.banglanews24.com/climate-nature/news/bd/720406.details Wolf killed in the] Bengali Sundarbans (in Bengali)
{{grey wolf subspecies}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q855921}}
Category:Mammals of India Category:Mammals of Pakistan Category:Mammals of Bangladesh Category:Mammals of South Asia Wolf, Indian Category:Subspecies of Canis lupus Category:Wolves Category:Mammals described in 1831