{{Redirect|Marginalisation|the concept in probability|Marginal distribution|}} {{short description|Form of social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society}} {{essay|date=July 2016}} {{Community}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}} '''Social exclusion''' or '''social marginalisation''' is social disadvantage and relegation to the fringes of [[society]]. It is a term that has been used widely in [[Europe]] and was first used in [[France]] in the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.gsdrc.org/document-library/social-exclusion-and-social-solidarity-three-paradigms/ | title=Social Exclusion and Social Solidarity: Three Paradigms | vauthors = Silver H | journal=[[International Labour Review]] | year=1994 | volume=133 | issue=5–6 | pages=531–78 }}</ref> In the EU context, the [[European Commission]] defines it as "a situation whereby a person is prevented (or excluded) from contributing to and benefiting from economic and social progress".<ref>{{Cite web |title=social exclusion - European Commission |url=https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/european-migration-network-emn/emn-asylum-and-migration-glossary/glossary/social-exclusion_en |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=home-affairs.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> It is used across disciplines including [[education]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[Health care|healthcare]], [[politics]] and [[economics]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peace R | date = 2001 | title = Social exclusion: A concept in need of definition? | journal = Social Policy Journal of New Zealand | pages = 17–36 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253921414 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Donnell P, O'Donovan D, Elmusharaf K | title = Measuring social exclusion in healthcare settings: a scoping review | journal = International Journal for Equity in Health | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | article-number = 15 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29391016 | pmc = 5796599 | doi = 10.1186/s12939-018-0732-1 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

Social exclusion is the process in which individuals are blocked from (or denied full access to) various [[rights]], opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adler.edu/page/institutes/institute-on-social-exclusion/about|title=About|publisher=[[Adler University]] |work= Institute on Public Safety and Social Justice |date=26 February 2020}}</ref> (e.g. [[due process]]).

[[Social alienation|Alienation]] or [[disenfranchisement]] resulting from social exclusion can be connected to a person's [[social class]], race, skin color, religious affiliation, ethnic origin, [[caste]], [[education|educational status]], childhood relationships,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salvationarmy.org.uk/seeds|title= The Seeds of Exclusion (2008)|website=The Salvation Army |access-date=22 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827041209/http://www1.salvationarmy.org.uk/seeds|archive-date=27 August 2008}}</ref> [[Standard of Living|living standards]], political opinions, and/or appearance. Such exclusionary forms of [[discrimination]] may also apply to [[disability|disabled people]], [[minority group|minorities]], for [[LGBTQ+]] people, [[Recreational drug use|drug users]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ar2003.emcdda.europa.eu/en/page073-en.html|title=Social exclusion and reintegration|access-date=2014-12-29|archive-date=2014-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029201038/http://ar2003.emcdda.europa.eu/en/page073-en.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> institutional care leavers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thewhocarestrust.org.uk/pages/the-statistics.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091115203303/http://www.thewhocarestrust.org.uk/pages/the-statistics.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-11-15|title=The statistics}}</ref> [[Ageism|the elderly]] and the [[Youth Exclusion|young]]. Anyone who appears to deviate in any way from the [[Normative social influence|perceived norms]] of a population may thereby become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion.

The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Young IM | date = 2000 | chapter = Five faces of oppression. | veditors = Adams M | title = Readings for Diversity and Social Justice | pages = 35–49 | location = New York | publisher = Routledge }}</ref> This may result in resistance in the form of demonstrations, protests or lobbying from the excluded people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh T | year = 2006 | title = A right to inclusion? Homelessness, human rights, and social exclusion | journal = Australian Journal of Human Rights | volume = 12 | issue = 1| pages = 185–204 | doi=10.1080/1323238x.2006.11910818| s2cid = 150777458 | url = https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/81846 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> Some writers see marginalised existence as "precarious", i.e. creating risks of exclusion, poverty and ill-health.<ref>See reference to a "precariousness" lived "at the existential peripheries of the world" in [[Pope Leo XIV]]'s, [https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiv/en/apost_exhortations/documents/20251004-dilexi-te.html Dilexi te], paragraphs 78, published on 4 October 2025, accessed on 1 December 2025</ref>

The concept of social exclusion has led to researchers to conclude that in many European countries the impact of social disadvantages, which influence the well-being of all people, including those with [[special needs]], has an increasingly negative impact.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Marsela R |date=July 2014|title=Social inclusion and inclusive education|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277651118|journal=Academicus International Scientific Journal|volume=10|pages=181–191|doi=10.7336/academicus.2014.10.12|via=ResearchGate|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Most of the characteristics listed in this article are present together in studies of social exclusion, due to exclusion's multidimensionality.

Another way of articulating the definition of social exclusion is as follows:{{quotation|Social exclusion is a multidimensional process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and individuals from social relations and institutions and preventing them from full participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the society in which they live.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080306020946/http://www.shababinclusion.org/content/document/detail/558/1 Hilary Silver, ''Social Exclusion: Comparative Analysis of Europe and Middle East Youth,'' Middle East Youth Initiative Working Paper (September 2007), p.15]}}</ref>}}

In an alternative conceptualization, social exclusion theoretically emerges at the individual or group level on four correlated dimensions: insufficient access to [[social rights]], material deprivation, limited [[social participation]] and a lack of normative integration. It is then regarded as the combined result of personal risk factors (age, gender, race); macro-societal changes (demographic, economic and labor market developments, technological innovation, the evolution of social norms); government legislation and social policy; and the actual behavior of businesses, administrative organisations and fellow citizens.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Joel-Gijsbers G, Vrooman C |title=Explaining Social Exclusion; A Theoretical Model tested in The Netherlands|url=http://www.scp.nl/English/Publications/Publications_by_year/Publications_2007/Explaining_Social_Exclusion#!|year=2007|publisher=[[The Netherlands Institute for Social Research/SCP]]|access-date=2019-09-10|archive-date=2019-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525085023/https://www.scp.nl/english/Publications/Publications_by_year/Publications_2007/Explaining_Social_Exclusion#!|url-status=dead}} {{ISBN|978 90 377 0325 2}}; {{cite journal | vauthors = Vrooman JC, Hoff SJ |date=June 2013 |title=The Disadvantaged Among the Dutch: A Survey Approach to the Multidimensional Measurement of Social Exclusion |journal=Social Indicators Research|volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=1261–1287 |issn= 0303-8300 |doi= 10.1007/s11205-012-0138-1|s2cid=144759218 }}</ref>

In some contexts social exclusion can have positive effects.<ref name="e616">{{cite journal | last=Felix | first=Cathrine Victoria | title=A Critique of the Inclusion/Exclusion Dichotomy | journal=Philosophies | volume=9 | issue=2 | date=24 February 2024 | issn=2409-9287 | doi=10.3390/philosophies9020030 | doi-access=free | page=30}}</ref>

== Origins == Initially, it is possible to directly link exclusion and exploitation. Thus, [[Anarchism|anarchists]]<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://biblioweb.hypotheses.org/2756 |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=biblioweb.hypotheses.org}}</ref>, [[Anti-globalization movement|anti-globalization]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Créons des médias alternatifs |url=https://www.revuesilence.net/IMG/pdf/silence332.pdf}}</ref> activists and, more generally, the [[Far-left politics|far left]], consider that social exclusion is produced by social exploitation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sedel |first=Julie |date=2021-10-18 |title=Construire l'indépendance en label de qualité:Le travail de singularisation des éditeurs de presse en ligne « indépendants » |url=https://shs.cairn.info/revue-politiques-de-communication-2021-1-page-13 |journal=Politiques de Communication |language=fr |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=13–51 |doi=10.3917/pdc.016.0013 |issn=2271-068X}}</ref>

==Individual exclusion== {{quotation|"The marginal man ... is one whom fate has condemned to live in two societies and in two, not merely different but antagonistic cultures....his mind is the crucible in which two different and refractory cultures may be said to melt and, either wholly or in part, fuse."<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Park RE | author-link1 = Robert E. Park | chapter = Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man | veditors = Stonequist EV | title = The Marginal Man | location = New York | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | date = 1937 }}</ref>}}

Social exclusion at the individual level results in an individual's exclusion from meaningful participation in society.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/1323238x.2006.11910818|title = A right to inclusion? Homelessness, human rights and social exclusion| journal=Australian Journal of Human Rights| volume=12| pages=185–204|date = December 2006| vauthors = Walsh T |s2cid = 150777458|url = https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:82248/HCA09UQ82248.pdf}}</ref> An example is the exclusion of [[single mother]]s from the [[Social welfare provision|welfare]] system prior to welfare reforms of the 1900s. The modern welfare system is based on the concept of entitlement to the basic means of being a productive member of [[society]] both as an organic function of society and as compensation for the socially useful labor provided. A single mother's contribution to society is not based on [[informal sector|formal employment]], but on the notion that provision of welfare for children is a necessary social expense. In some career contexts, caring work is devalued and [[motherhood]] is seen as a barrier to employment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lessa I | title=Discursive struggles within social welfare: Restaging teen motherhood | journal= [[The British Journal of Social Work]] | volume=36 | issue = 2 | pages=283–298 | doi=10.1093/bjsw/bch256 | date = February 2006 }}</ref> Single mothers were previously marginalized in spite of their significant role in the socializing of [[children]] due to views that an individual can only contribute meaningfully to society through "gainful" employment as well as a cultural bias against unwed mothers. When the father's sole task was seen as the breadwinner, his marginalization was primarily a function of class condition. Solo fatherhood brings additional trials due to society being less accepting of males 'getting away with' not working and the general invisibility/lack of acknowledgment of single fathers in society. Acknowledgment of the needs participatory fathers may have can be found by examining the changes from the original clinical report on the father's role published by the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] in May 2004.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coleman WL, Garfield C | title = Fathers and pediatricians: enhancing men's roles in the care and development of their children | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 113 | issue = 5 | pages = 1406–1411 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15121965 | doi = 10.1542/peds.113.5.1406 | doi-access = }}</ref> Eight week paternity leave is a good example of one social change. Child health care providers have an opportunity to have a greater influence on the child and family structure by supporting fathers and enhancing a father's involvement.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yogman M, Garfield CF | title = Fathers' Roles in the Care and Development of Their Children: The Role of Pediatricians | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 138 | issue = 1 | article-number = e20161128 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27296867 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2016-1128 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

More broadly, many women face social exclusion. Moosa-Mitha discusses the Western [[feminist movement]] as a direct reaction to the marginalization of white women in society.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Moosa-Mitha M | date = 2005 | chapter = Situating anti-oppressive theories within critical and difference-centred perspectives. | veditors = Brown L, Strega S | title = Research as Resistance | pages = 37–72 | location = Toronto | publisher = Canadian Scholars' Press }}</ref> Women were excluded from the labor force and their work in the home was not valued. Feminists argued that men and women should equally participate in the labor force, in the public and private sector, and in the home. They also focused on labor laws to increase access to employment as well as to recognize [[child-rearing]] as a valuable form of labor. In some places today, women are still [[Glass ceiling|marginalized]] from [[Executive (management)|executive]] positions and continue to earn less than men in [[Senior management|upper management]] positions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/equal-pay | work=[[whitehouse.gov]] | title=Did You Know That Women Are Still Paid Less Than Men? | via=[[NARA|National Archives]] | access-date=February 7, 2013 }}</ref>

Another example of individual marginalization is the exclusion of individuals with [[disabilities]] from the [[Labour (economics)|labor]] force. Grandz discusses an employer's viewpoint about hiring individuals living with disabilities as jeopardizing [[productivity]], increasing the rate of [[absenteeism]], and creating more accidents in the workplace.<ref name="Leslie (2003)">{{cite book | vauthors = Leslie DR, Leslie K, Murphy M | date = 2003 | chapter = Inclusion by design: The challenge for social work in workplace accommodation for people with disabilities. | veditors = Shera W | title = Emerging perspectives on anti-oppression practice | pages = 157–169 | location = Toronto | publisher = Canadian Scholar's Press }}</ref> Cantor also discusses employer concern about the excessively high cost of accommodating people with disabilities.<ref name="Leslie (2003)" /> The marginalization of individuals with disabilities is prevalent today, despite the legislation intended to prevent it in most western countries, and the academic achievements, skills and training of many disabled people.<ref name="Leslie (2003)" />

There are also exclusions of [[Sexual minority|sexual minorities]] because of their [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]], and/or [[sexual characteristics]]. [[Incel]]s were found to be socially excluded resulting in [[loneliness]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sparks |first1=Brandon |last2=Zidenberg |first2=Alexandra M. |last3=Olver |first3=Mark E. |date=2024-01-01 |title=One is the loneliest number: Involuntary celibacy (incel), mental health, and loneliness |journal=Current Psychology |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=392–406 |doi=10.1007/s12144-023-04275-z |issn=1936-4733|doi-access=free |pmid=36747916 |pmc=9892684 }}</ref> The [[Yogyakarta Principles]] require that the states and communities abolish any [[stereotype]]s about LGBT people as well as stereotyped [[gender role]]s.

{{quotation|"Isolation is common to almost every vocational, religious or cultural group of a large city. Each develops its own sentiments, attitudes, codes, even its own words, which are at best only partially intelligible to others."<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Thrasher F | author1-link = Frederic Thrasher | title = The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 1927 }}</ref>}}The popularity of a TikTok trend in which men call their friends to say good night has been attributed to a widespread longing for platonic connection.<ref name="t580">{{cite web |last=Cherelus |first=Gina |date=2025-05-24 |title=On TikTok, Men Are Calling Each Other to Say Good Night |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/24/style/good-night-calls-men-tiktok.html |access-date=2025-06-04 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> In a 2021 US survey, less than one-third of men said they had a private conversation, involving sharing feelings with a friend, within the previous week. Just under one-half of women reported doing so.<ref name="t580" />

==Community exclusion== Many communities experience social exclusion, such as racial (e.g. [[Black people|black]] or [[Romani people|Romani]]), caste (e.g. [[Untouchable (social system)|untouchables]] or [[dalits]] in some regions in India), and economic communities.

One example is the [[Australian Aborigines|Aboriginal]] community in Australia. The marginalization of Aboriginal communities is a product of [[colonization]]. As a result of [[colonialism]], Aboriginal communities lost their land, were forced into destitute areas, lost their sources of livelihood, were excluded from the labor market and were subjected to widespread unpunished [[List of massacres of Indigenous Australians|massacres]]. Additionally, Aboriginal communities lost their culture and values through [[forced assimilation]] and lost their rights in society.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Baskin C | date = 2003 | chapter = Structural social work as seen from an Aboriginal Perspective. | veditors = Shera W | title = Emerging perspectives on anti-oppressive practice | pages = 65–78 | location = Toronto | publisher = Canadian Scholar's Press }}</ref> Today, various Aboriginal communities continue to be marginalized from society due to the development of practices, policies and programs that, according to J. Yee, "met the needs of white people and not the needs of the marginalized groups themselves".<ref name=" Yee (2005)">{{cite book | vauthors = Yee J | date = 2005 | chapter = Critical anti-racism praxis: The concept of whiteness implicated. | veditors = Hick S, Fook J, Pozzuto R | title = Social work, a critical turn | pages = 87–104 | location = Toronto | publisher = Thompson }}</ref> Yee also connects marginalization to [[Minority group|minority]] communities, when describing the concept of [[Whiteness studies|whiteness]] as maintaining and enforcing dominant norms and discourse.<ref name="Yee (2005)" /> [[Poverty|Poor people]] living in [[sink estate|run-down council estates]] and areas with high crime can be locked into [[social deprivation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radical.org.uk/barefoot/socex.htm|title=Social Exclusion: A Social Worker's View| vauthors = Searing H }}</ref>

==Contributors== Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors generating social exclusion include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location; personal habits, appearance, or interests (i.e., a favorite hobby, sports team, or music genre); education, religion, and political affiliation.

===Global and structural=== [[Globalization]] (global capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and the company [[outsourcing]] have contributed to [[job insecurity]] and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Globalization sets forth a decrease in the role of the state with an increase in support from various "corporate sectors resulting in gross inequalities, injustices and marginalization of various vulnerable groups" (p.&nbsp;1).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alphonse M, George P, Moffat K | title = Redefining social work standards in the context of globalization: Lessons from India. | journal = International Social Work | date = March 2008 | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–158 | doi = 10.1177/0020872807085855}}</ref> Companies are outsourcing, jobs are lost, the [[cost of living]] continues to rise, and the land is being [[expropriate]]d by large companies. Material goods are made in large abundances and sold at cheaper costs, while in India for example, the [[poverty line]] is lowered in order to mask the number of individuals who are actually living in poverty as a result of globalization. Globalization and structural forces aggravate poverty and continue to push individuals to the margins of society, while governments and large corporations do not address the issues.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}

Certain language and the meaning attached to language can cause universalizing discourses that are influenced by the Western world, which is what describes by Sewpaul as the "potential to dilute or even annihilate local cultures and traditions and to deny context-specific realities".<ref name=":0">Sewpaul (2006) p.&nbsp;421-422</ref> What this is implying is that the effect of dominant global discourses can cause individual and cultural displacement, as well as sex safety are jeopardized. Insecurity and fear of an unknown future and instability can result in displacement, exclusion, and forced [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] into the dominant group. For many, it further pushes them to the margins of society or enlists new members to the outskirts because of global-capitalism and dominant discourses.<ref name=":0" />

With the prevailing notion of globalization, we now see the rise of [[immigration]] as the world gets smaller and smaller with millions of individuals relocating each year. This is not without hardship and struggle of what a newcomer thought was going to be a new life with new opportunities. Immigration has had a strong link to the access of welfare support programs.<ref name = "Ferguson_2005">{{cite book | vauthors = Ferguson I, Lavalette M, Whitmore E | date = 2005 | title = Globalization, Global Justice and Social Work. | location = London and New York | publisher = Routledge Taylor & Francis Group }} </ref> Newcomers are constantly bombarded with the inability to access a country's resources because they are seen as "undeserving foreigners" (p.&nbsp;132). With this comes a denial of access to [[public housing]], [[health care]] benefits, [[employment]] support services, and [[social security]] benefits.<ref name = "Ferguson_2005" /> Newcomers are seen as undeserving, or that they must prove their [[Entitlement (psychology)|entitlement]] in order to gain access to basic support necessities. It is clear that individuals are [[Exploitation of labor|exploited]] and marginalized within the country they have emigrated.<ref name = "Ferguson_2005" />

[[Welfare state]]s and social policies can also exclude individuals from basic necessities and support programs. Welfare payments were proposed to assist individuals in accessing a small amount of [[material wealth]] (Young, 2000). Young (2000) further discusses how "the provision of the welfare itself produces new injustice by depriving those dependent on it of rights and freedoms that others have...marginalization is unjust because it blocks the opportunity to exercise capacities in socially defined and recognized way" (p.&nbsp;41). There is the notion that by providing a minimal amount of welfare support, an individual will be free from marginalization. In fact, welfare support programs further lead to injustices by restricting certain behaviour, as well the individual is mandated to other agencies. The individual is forced into a new system of rules while facing social stigma and [[stereotypes]] from the dominant group in society, further marginalizing and excluding individuals (Young, 2000). Thus, social policy and welfare provisions reflect the dominant notions in society by constructing and reinforcing categories of people and their needs. It ignores the unique-subjective human essence, further continuing the cycle of dominance.<ref name = "Wilson_2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson A, Beresford P |year=2000 |title=Anti-oppressive practice': Emancipation or appropriation? |journal=British Journal of Social Work |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=553–573 |doi=10.1093/bjsw/30.5.553}}</ref>

===Unemployment=== {{see also|Blacklisting|Involuntary unemployment}} Whilst recognising the multi-dimensionality of exclusion, policy work undertaken in the [[European Union]] focused{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} on [[unemployment]] as a key cause of, or at least correlating with, social exclusion. This is because, in modern societies, paid work is not only the principal source of income with which to buy services but is also the fount of individuals' identity and feeling of self-worth. Most people's social networks and a sense of embeddedness in society also revolve around their work. Many of the indicators of extreme social exclusion, such as poverty and homelessness, depend on monetary income which is normally derived from work. Social exclusion can be a possible result of long-term unemployment, especially in countries with weak welfare safety nets.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Furlong A | title = Youth Studies: An Introduction | publisher = Routledge | date = 2013 | page = 31 }}</ref> Much policy to reduce exclusion thus focuses on the labour market: * On the one hand, to make individuals at risk of exclusion more attractive to employers, i.e. more "employable". * On the other hand, to encourage (and/or oblige) employers to be more inclusive in their employment policies.

The EU's [[EQUAL Community Initiative]] investigated ways to increase the inclusiveness of the labor market. Work on social exclusion more broadly is carried out through the [[Open Method of Coordination]] (OMC) among the Member State governments. The United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 10]] is also an example of global initiatives aimed at promoting social inclusion for all by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 10 targets|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalities/targets.html|access-date=2020-09-23|website=UNDP|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127140337/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalities/targets.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Politics=== [[Viewpoint discrimination]] and the political [[Cordon sanitaire (politics)|cordon sanitaire]] can contribute to social exclusion.<ref name="y853">{{cite journal | last1=Bolin | first1=Niklas | last2=Dahlberg | first2=Stefan | last3=Blombäck | first3=Sofie | title=The stigmatisation effect of the radical right on voters' assessment of political proposals | journal=West European Politics | volume=46 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=0140-2382 | doi=10.1080/01402382.2021.2019977 | pages=100–121 | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01402382.2021.2019977 | access-date=2026-04-12| hdl=11250/2985600 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Mullaly (2007) describes how "the personal is political" and the need for recognizing that social problems are indeed connected with larger structures in society, causing various forms of oppression amongst individuals resulting in marginalization.<ref name="Mullaly_2007">{{Cite book|title=The New Structural Social Work| vauthors = Mullaly B |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0195419061|pages=252–286}}</ref> It is also important for the social worker to recognize the intersecting nature of oppression. A non-judgmental and unbiased attitude is necessary on the part of the social worker. The worker may begin to understand [[oppression]] and marginalization as a systemic problem, not the fault of the individual.<ref name="Mullaly_2007" />

Working under an anti-oppression perspective would then allow the social worker to understand the lived, subjective experiences of the individual, as well as their cultural, historical and social background. The worker should recognize the individual as political in the process of becoming a valuable member of society and the structural factors that contribute to oppression and marginalization (Mullaly, 2007).<ref name="Mullaly_2007" /> Social workers must take a firm stance on naming and labeling global forces that impact individuals and communities who are then left with no support, leading to marginalization or further marginalization from the society they once knew (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007).

===Religion=== {{see also|Shunning#in religion|Apostasy|Exclusivism#Religious exclusivism|Normalization of antisemitism}} Some religious traditions recommend [[excommunication]] of individuals said to deviate from religious teaching, and in some instances [[shunning]] by family members. Some religious organizations permit the censure of critics.

Across societies, individuals and communities can be socially excluded on the basis of their religious beliefs. Social hostility against religious minorities and [[communal violence]] occur in areas where governments do not have policies restricting the religious practise of minorities. A study by the [[Pew Research Center]] on international [[religious freedom]] found that<ref name="prc-1">{{cite web |title=Global Restrictions on Religion (Executive summary)|publisher=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life|date=December 2009|url=http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=491|access-date=29 December 2009}}</ref><ref name="prc-2">{{cite web|title=Global Restrictions on Religion (Full report)|publisher=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life|date=December 2009|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/12/restrictions-fullreport.pdf|access-date=12 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223318/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/12/restrictions-fullreport.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> 61% of countries have social hostilities that tend to target religious minorities.<ref name="pew2013"/> The five highest social hostility scores were for [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Iraq]], and [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stage.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Issues/Government/RisingTide-SHI.pdf|title=Table: Social Hostilities Index by country|year=2012|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121005033805/http%3A//stage.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Issues/Government/RisingTide%2DSHI.pdf|archive-date=2012-10-05}}</ref> In 2015, Pew published that social hostilities declined in 2013, but harassment of Jews increased.<ref name="pew2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/02/26/religious-hostilities/|title=Latest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities|work=Pew Forum|date=26 Feb 2015}}</ref>

"I h8 Jews", written in the sand on a New Jersey beach and texted to a group chat of high school students, led to a state investigation described in the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]''.<ref name="w836">{{cite web |last=Otterman |first=Sharon |date=2020-03-04 |title=She Was Excited for a New School. Then the Anti-Semitic 'Jokes' Started. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/04/nyregion/new-jersey-antisemitism-high-school.html |access-date=2025-01-01 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> The article noted that "schools often treat bias incidents as one-offs, minimizing or even ignoring them", according to a 2019 report by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].<ref name="h908">{{cite web |date=2019-05-02 |title=Hate at School |url=https://www.splcenter.org/20190502/hate-school |access-date=2025-01-01 |website=Southern Poverty Law Center}}</ref> Anti-Jewish hate crimes in the US were the largest category of hate crimes between October 2023 and December 2023, at 971 crimes.<ref name="x374">{{cite web |title=Hate Crime in the United States Incident Analysis |url=https://cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=FBI Crime Data Explorer}}</ref> The shift of anti-Jewish hate from fringe to mainstream has been described as '[[normalization of antisemitism]]'.<ref name="i148">{{cite web |last=Adediran |first=Karese |date=2022-12-07 |title=The Normalization Of Antisemitism |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/exploring-hate/2022/12/07/the-normalization-of-antisemitism/ |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Exploring Hate}}</ref>

Parts of [[2024 Summer Olympics opening ceremony]] were criticized by some people as divisive, due to singling out one particular religion (Christianity).<ref name="w629">{{cite web | title=Drag performance resembling Last Supper at Olympic opening ceremony rankles conservatives | website=NBC News | date=27 July 2024 | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/drag-performance-resembling-last-supper-olympics-opening-ceremony-rcna163927 | access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref>

== Areas of Social Exclusion == The multidimensional nature of social exclusion manifests in different areas, influencing life scenarios that are often interconnected. Although there is no unifying consensus on what these dimensions or areas are, they include economic, educational or training, social, cultural, health or socio-health, personal, citizenship and participation, and spatial or housing. Each area presents characteristics, factors, and features that allow us to determine the existence of social exclusion, which serve as indicators to prevent such situations or to improve the well-being and quality of life of society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vulnerabilidad y exclusión en la Infancia: hacia un sistema de información temprana sobre la infancia en exclusión |url=https://www.observatoriodelainfancia.es/oia/esp/documentos_ficha.aspx?id=4161 |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=www.observatoriodelainfancia.es |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subirats |first=J. |date=2006-01-01 |title=¿Es el territorio urbano una variable significativa en los procsos de exclusión e inclusión social? |url=https://portalrecerca.uab.cat/es/publications/es-el-territorio-urbano-una-variable-significativa-en-los-procsos/ |journal=Tecnología para la Organización |pages=1}}</ref>

==Consequences==

===Health=== {{See also|Social determinants of health|Social determinants of health in poverty|Social determinants of mental health}} In [[gay men]], results of psycho-emotional damage from marginalization from a heteronormative society include [[suicide]] and drug addiction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crossley ML | title = Making sense of 'barebacking': gay men's narratives, unsafe sex and the 'resistance habitus' | journal = The British Journal of Social Psychology | volume = 43 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 225–244 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15285832 | doi = 10.1348/0144666041501679 }}</ref>

Scientists have been studying the [[race and health|impact of racism on health]]. [[Amani Nuru-Jeter]], a social [[Epidemiology|epidemiologist]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and other doctors have been hypothesizing that exposure to [[chronic stress]] may be one way racism contributes to [[health disparities]] between racial groups.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/11/11/562623815/scientists-start-to-tease-out-the-subtler-ways-racism-hurts-health|title=Scientists Start To Tease Out The Subtler Ways Racism Hurts Health|work=NPR.org|access-date=2018-01-30|language=en}}</ref> [[Arline Geronimus]], a research professor at the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research and a professor at the School of Public Health, and her colleagues found that [[psychosocial]] stress associated with living in extreme poverty can cause early onset of age-related diseases.<ref name="Geronimus_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geronimus AT, Pearson JA, Linnenbringer E, Schulz AJ, Reyes AG, Epel ES, Lin J, Blackburn EH | title = Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample | journal = Journal of Health and Social Behavior | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 199–224 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25930147 | pmc = 4621968 | doi = 10.1177/0022146515582100 }}</ref> The 2015 study titled, "Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample" was conducted in order to determine the impact of living conditions on health and was performed by a multi-university team of social scientists, cellular biologists and community partners, including the Healthy Environments Partnership (HEP) to measure the [[telomere]] length of poor and moderate-income people of White, African-American and Mexican race.<ref name="Geronimus_2015" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://home.isr.umich.edu/releases/biological-process-linked-early-aging-death-among-poor-detroit/|title=Biological process linked to early aging, death among poor in Detroit|work=University of Michigan Institute for Social Research|access-date=2018-01-30|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2006, there was research focused on possible connections between exclusion and brain function.<ref name="UGA Today_2006">{{Cite news|url=https://news.uga.edu/study-social-exclusion-changes-brain-function-can-lead-to-poor-decision-mak/|title=Study: Social exclusion changes brain function, can lead to poor decision-making|date=2006-11-20|work=UGA Today|access-date=2018-11-02|publisher=University of Georgia|language=en-US}}</ref> Studies published by both the University of Georgia and San Diego State University found that exclusion can lead to diminished brain functioning and poor decision making.<ref name="UGA Today_2006" /> Such studies corroborate with earlier beliefs of sociologists. The effect of social exclusion have been hypothesized in various past research studies to correlate with such things as substance abuse and addiction, and crime.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Seddon T |date=2005-08-30|title=Drugs, Crime and Social Exclusion|url=https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article-abstract/46/4/680/457883?redirectedFrom=fulltext|journal=The British Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=680–703|doi=10.1093/bjc/azi079|issn=1464-3529|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/12/uk-poverty-inequality-prisons-sex-workers-drug-users|title=Britain's socially excluded '10 times more likely to die early'| vauthors = Townsend M |date=2017-11-12|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

=== Economics === The problem of social exclusion is usually tied to that of [[equal opportunity]], as some people are more subject to such exclusion than others. [[Marginalisation]] of certain groups is a problem in many economically more developed countries where the majority of the population enjoys considerable economic and social opportunities.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Christiano T | date = 1996 | title = The Rule of the Many: Fundamental Issues in Democratic Theory | location = Boulder | publisher = Westview Press }}</ref>

==In philosophy== The marginal and the processes of marginalisation attract specific interest in [[postmodernism|postmodern]] and [[postcolonialism|post-colonial]] philosophy and social studies.<ref name="McInnis">{{cite web | vauthors = McInnis G | url = http://www.postcolonialweb.org/poldiscourse/mcinnis1.html | title = The Struggle of Postmodernism and Postcolonialism | publisher = Laval University | location = Canada }}</ref> Postmodernism questions the "center" about its authenticity, and postmodern sociology and cultural studies research marginal cultures, behaviours, societies, the situations experienced by marginalized or "sidelined" individuals.<ref name="McInnis" />

==Social inclusion== {{redirect|Inclusivity|the concept in linguistics|Clusivity}} {{See also|Inclusivism}} Social inclusion is the converse of social exclusion. As the [[World Bank]] states, social inclusion is the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and worthiness of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for Shared Prosperity|year=2013|publisher=World Bank|location=Washington, DC|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0010-8 |hdl=10986/16195 |isbn=978-1-4648-0010-8|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/16195}}</ref> The [[World Bank]]'s 2019 [[World Development Report]] on ''The Changing Nature of Work''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf |title=World Bank World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007041636/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> suggests that enhanced social protection and better investments in [[human capital]] improve equality of opportunity and social inclusion. Social inclusion can be measured individually.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Coombs |first1=Tim |last2=Nicholas |first2=Angela |last3=Pirkis |first3=Jane |date=2013 |title=A review of social inclusion measures |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0004867413491161 |journal=Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |language=en |volume=47 |issue=10 |pages=906–919 |doi=10.1177/0004867413491161 |pmid=23737598 |issn=0004-8674|hdl=11343/58506 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Social Inclusion ministers have been appointed, and special units established, in a number of jurisdictions around the world. The first [[Minister for Social Inclusion (South Australia)|Minister for Social Inclusion]] was Premier of South Australia [[Mike Rann]], who took the portfolio in 2004. Based on the UK's [[Social Exclusion Unit]], established by Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] in 1997, Rann established the Social Inclusion Initiative in 2002. It was headed by Monsignor [[David Cappo]] and was serviced by a unit within the department of Premier and Cabinet. Cappo sat on the executive committee of the [[South Australian Cabinet]] and was later appointed Social Inclusion Commissioner with wide powers to address social disadvantage. Cappo was allowed to roam across agencies given that most social disadvantage has multiple causes necessitating a "joined up" rather than a single agency response.<ref>{{cite web | work = ABC News | date = 28 April 2006 | title = Cappo appointed Social Inclusion Commissioner | url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2006-04-28/cappo-appointed-social-inclusion-commissioner/1740772}}</ref> The Initiative drove a big investment by the South Australian Government in strategies to combat [[homelessness]], including establishing Common Ground, building high quality inner city apartments for "rough sleeping" homeless people, the Street to Home initiative<ref>Street to Home, sacommunity.org</ref> and the ICAN flexible learning program designed to improve school retention rates. It also included major funding to revamp mental health services following Cappo's "Stepping Up" report, which focused on the need for community and intermediate levels of care<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mifa.org.au|title=Home}}</ref> and an overhaul of disability services.<ref>ABC News 20 Oct 2012</ref> In 2007, Australian Prime Minister [[Kevin Rudd]] appointed [[Julia Gillard]] as the nation's first [[Social Inclusion Minister]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Julia Gillard: before office|url=https://www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/julia-gillard/before-office|access-date=2020-09-23|website=National Archives of Australia}}</ref>

In [[Japan]], the concept and term "social inclusion" went through a number of changes over time and eventually became incorporated in community-based activities under the names {{Nihongo|2=包摂|3=hōsetsu}} and {{Nihongo|2=包括|3=hōkatsu}}, such as in the {{Nihongo|"Community General Support Centres"|地域包括支援センター|chiiki hōkatsu shien sentā}} and {{Nihongo|"Community-based Integrated Care System"|地域包括ケアシステム|chiiki hōkatsu kea shisutemu}}.<ref name="Dahl 2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dahl N |date=March 2018 |title=Social inclusion of senior citizens in Japan: an investigation into the 'Community-based Integrated Care System' |journal=Contemporary Japan |volume=30 |issue=1|pages=43–59 |doi=10.1080/18692729.2018.1424069 |s2cid=158466875 }}</ref>

The social worker should be constantly [[reflexivity (social theory)|reflexive]], work to raise the consciousness, [[Empowerment|empower]], and understand the lived subjective realities of individuals living in a fast-paced world, where fear and insecurity constantly subjugate the individual from the collective whole, perpetuating the dominant forces, while silencing the oppressed.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Sakamoto I, Pitner RO |date=June 2005|title=Use of Critical Consciousness in Anti-Oppressive Social Work Practice: Disentangling Power Dynamics at Personal and Structural Levels|url=https://academic.oup.com/bjsw/article-abstract/35/4/435/1716745|journal=The British Journal of Social Work|volume= 35| issue = 4|pages=435–452|doi=10.1093/bjsw/bch190|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Some individuals and groups who are not professional social workers build relationships with marginalized persons by providing [[relational care]] and support, for example, through [[homeless ministry]]. These relationships validate the individuals who are marginalized and provide them a meaningful contact with the mainstream.

==In law== There are countries, [[Italy]] for example, that have a legal concept of ''social exclusion''. In Italy, "{{Lang|it|esclusione sociale}}" is defined as poverty combined with social alienation, by the [[statute]] n. 328 (11-8-2000), that instituted a state investigation commission named "{{Lang|it|Commissione di indagine sull'Esclusione Sociale}}" (CIES) to make an annual report to the government on legally expected issues of social exclusion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lavoro.gov.it/Lavoro/CIES/|title=''Commissione di Indagine sull'Esclusione Sociale'', accessed February 07, 2013|website=lavoro.gov.it|access-date=22 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117133555/http://www.lavoro.gov.it/Lavoro/CIES/|archive-date=17 January 2013}}</ref>

The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, a document on [[international human rights instruments]] affirms that "[[extreme poverty]] and social exclusion constitute a violation of [[human dignity]] and that urgent steps are necessary to achieve better knowledge of extreme poverty and its causes, including those related to the program of development, in order to promote the human rights of the poorest, and to put an end to extreme poverty and social exclusion and promote the enjoyment of the fruits of social progress. It is essential for States to foster participation by the poorest people in the [[decision making]] process by the community in which they live, the promotion of human rights and efforts to combat extreme poverty."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(symbol)/a.conf.157.23.en|title=unhchr.ch|website=www.unhchr.ch|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref>

== Empirical measurements of social exclusion == Alongside the more theoretical studies on social exclusion, there are now a number of attempts to investigate and measure it empirically, especially within the European Union. Hilary Silver published a very useful review of these empirical studies in 2007, which will serve as the basis for describing its findings here.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The process of social exclusion: the dynamics of an evolving concept |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/128271/CP_2006_Silver.pdf}}</ref>

== International human rights law == The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action affirms that extreme poverty and social exclusion constitute a violation of human dignity and that immediate action is needed to better understand the phenomenon of extreme poverty and its causes, to end extreme poverty and social exclusion, and to better ensure that all people may have the enjoyment of the fruits of social progress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Déclaration et Programme d'action de Vienne |url=https://www.ohchr.org/fr/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/vienna-declaration-and-programme-action |access-date=2026-01-19 |website=OHCHR |language=fr}}</ref>

== Digital capital and social exclusion == In contemporary sociology, social exclusion is increasingly linked to the distribution of "digital capital". According to researchers Massimo Ragnedda and Maria Laura Ruiu, digital exclusion goes beyond mere access to hardware, representing a "third digital divide" where individuals lack the ability to convert online activities into offline social, economic, and political benefits. This perspective suggests that digital capital consists of both internalized skills and external resources that, when unevenly distributed, reinforce existing social marginalization by limiting access to essential digital services, labor markets, and social networks.<ref>Ragnedda, M., & Ruiu, M. L. (2020). ''Digital Capital: A Bourdieusian Perspective''. Emerald Publishing.</ref> Expanding on this, Ragnedda, Ruiu, and Addeo (2022) introduced the concept of the "Inequality Loop" to describe how social and digital inequalities reinforce each other over time. In this self-reinforcing cycle, an individual's initial social position determines their level of digital capital; this capital then dictates the quality of their digital engagement and the tangible benefits they can extract from it. Ultimately, these digital outcomes feed back into their social position, either improving it or, in the case of marginalized groups, further entrenching their social exclusion. This "loop" suggests that digital inequality is not a static gap but a dynamic process that actively reproduces and amplifies traditional social stratifications.<ref>Ragnedda, M., Ruiu, M. L., & Addeo, F. (2022). ''The self-reinforcing effect of digital and social exclusion: The inequality loop''. Telematics and Informatics, 72, 101852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101852</ref>

== See also == {{Portal|Philosophy}} {{columns-list|colwidth=18em| * [[Ageism]] * [[Antisemitism]] * [[Anti-Zionism]] * [[Apartheid]] * [[Basic income]] * [[Blacklisting]] * [[Cancel culture]] * [[Closure (sociology)]] * [[Cordon sanitaire (international relations)]] * [[Distribution of wealth]] * [[Exclusionism]] * [[Guaranteed minimum income]] * [[Environmental racism]] * [[Hate speech]] * [[Heterosexism]] * [[Homophobia]] * [[In-group favoritism]] * [[Isolation to facilitate abuse]] * [[Korenizatsiia]] * [[List of banned political parties]] * [[Lumpenproletariat]] * [[Ostracism]] * [[Peer pressure]] * [[Poverty]] * [[Racism]] * [[Relational mobility]] * [[Reserve army of labour]] * [[Second-class citizen]] * [[Sex segregation]] * [[Silent treatment]] * [[Social alienation]] * [[Social control]] * [[Social death]] * [[Social firm]] * [[Social invisibility]] * [[Social rejection]] * [[Social stigma]] * [[Social vulnerability]] * [[The Disinformation Project]] * [[Transport divide]] * [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] * [[Yogyakarta Principles]] * [[Youth exclusion]] }}

== References == {{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | vauthors = Giddens A, Applebaum RP, Carr D, Duneier M, Mitchell GA | title = Introduction to Sociology | edition = Seventh | date = 2011 }} * {{cite book | vauthors = Deleuze G | author-link1 = Gilles Deleuze | title = [[A Thousand Plateaus]] | date = 1980 }} * {{cite book | vauthors = Giddens A | title = Introduction to Sociology. | location = New York | publisher = W.W. Norton | date = 2009 }} * [[Karl Marx]], ''[[Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844]]'' * {{cite book |title=The globalized city: economic restructuring and social polarization in European cities |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-926040-9 |edition=Reprinted}} * {{cite book | vauthors = Mullaly B | date = 2007 | chapter = Oppression: The focus of structural social work. | veditors = Mullaly B | title = The new structural social work | pages = 252–286 | location = Don Mills | publisher = Oxford University Press }} * {{cite book | vauthors = Power A, Wilson WJ | date = 2000 | title = Social Exclusion and the Future of Cities | publisher = Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, London School of Economics | location = London }} * {{cite book | vauthors = Rawls J |title=A theory of justice |date=2005 |publisher=Belknap Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-674-01772-6 |edition=Orig., reprint}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Sakamoto I, Pitner RO |year=2005 |title=Use of critical consciousness in anti-oppressive social work practice: disentangling power dynamics at personal and structural levels |journal=British Journal of Social Work |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=435–452 |doi=10.1093/bjsw/bch190}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Sewpaul V | title = The global–local dialectic: Challenges for African scholarship and social work in a post-colonial world. | journal = British Journal of Social Work | date = April 2006 | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 419–434 | doi = 10.1093/bjsw/bcl003 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Silver H | date = 1994 | title = Social Exclusion and Social Solidarity: Three Paradigms | journal = International Labour Review | volume = 133 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 531–578 }} * University of Georgia (2006, November 9). Social Exclusion Changes Brain Function And Can Lead To Poor Decision-making. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2006/11/061108154256.htm * URSPIC: An EU Research Project to measure impacts of urban development projects on social exclusion * {{cite book | vauthors = van Parijs P | author-link1 = Philippe Van Parijs |title=Real freedom for all: what (if anything) can justify capitalism? |date=2003 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-829357-6 |edition=Repr}} * {{cite book | vauthors = Yee JY, Dumbrill GC | date = 2003 | chapter = Whiteout: Looking for Race in Canadian Social Work Practice | veditors = Al-Krenawi A, Graham JR | title = Multicultural Social Work in Canada: Working with Diverse Ethno-Racial Communities | pages = 98–121 | location = Toronto | publisher = Oxford Press }} * {{cite book |last1=Li Y |title=The structure and evolution of Chinese social stratification |date=2005 |publisher=University Press of America |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-7618-3331-4}} {{refend}}

== External links == *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060822092414/http://www.cepr.net/publications/social_exclusion_2006_08.pdf ''Is the U.S. a Good Model for Reducing Social Exclusion in Europe?''] Center for Economic and Policy Research, August 2006 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150110000755/http://est1.lebenslanges-lernen.at/est/product_show.php?id_project=2012-1-IT2-GRU06-37589-0&id_product=JOINT_26 ''"Inclutivities" - A Collection of Games, Exercises and Activities for Use in Art Therapy and Training Programmes for Groups of Marginalised and Excluded Persons''] EU Project "Against Exclusion", 2014

{{Segregation by type}} {{Deprivation Indicators}} {{Social class}} {{Bullying}} {{Discrimination}} {{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Social Exclusion}} [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Political philosophy]] [[Category:Urban decay]] [[Category:Harassment and bullying]] [[Category:Sociological terminology]] [[Category:Shunning]] [[Category:Social inequality]] [[Category:Social rejection]] [[Category:Segregation]] [[Category:Discrimination]]