{{short description|Vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power}} [[File:Delta_IV_launch_2013-08-28.jpg|thumb|375x375px|Hydrogen fuelled rockets include the [[Delta IV Heavy]].]] A '''hydrogen vehicle''' is a [[vehicle]] that uses [[hydrogen]] to [[propulsion|move]]. Hydrogen vehicles include some [[road vehicle]]s, [[rail vehicle]]s, [[space rocket]]s, [[forklift]]s, [[hydrogen-powered ship|ships]] and [[hydrogen-powered aircraft|aircraft]]. Motive power is generated by converting the [[chemical energy]] of hydrogen to [[mechanical energy]], either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a [[fuel cell]] to power [[electric motor]]s or, less commonly, by [[hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|hydrogen internal combustion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iphe.net/docs/Resources/Power_trains_for_Europe.pdf|title=A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis|website=iphe.net|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=15 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015151243/https://www.iphe.net/docs/Resources/Power_trains_for_Europe.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
Hydrogen burns cleaner than fuels such as gasoline or methane but is more difficult to store and transport because of the small size of the molecule. As of the 2020s hydrogen light duty vehicles, including passenger cars, have been sold in small numbers due to competition with [[battery electric vehicles]].<ref name=role/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Poor |first=William |date=2024-08-20 |title=What happened to the "hydrogen highway"? |url=https://www.theverge.com/c/2024/8/20/24195787/lost-highway |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=The Verge}}</ref> {{as of|2021||df=}}, there were two models of hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the [[Toyota Mirai]] (2014–), the first commercially produced dedicated [[Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle|fuel cell electric vehicle]] (FCEV),<ref name="wsj141215" /><ref name="jt150123" /><ref name="inf220516" /> and the [[Hyundai Nexo]] (2018–). The [[Honda CR-V (sixth generation)#CR-V e:FCEV|Honda CR-V e:FCEV]] became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024.<ref name=JV>Voelcker, John. [https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a41103863/hydrogen-cars-fcev "Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles: Everything You Need to Know"], ''Car and Driver'', April 29, 2024</ref>
As of 2019, 98% of [[Hydrogen production|hydrogen is produced]] by [[steam methane reforming]], which [[Greenhouse gas emissions|emits carbon dioxide]].<ref name=Realising/> It can be produced by [[electrolysis of water]], or by [[thermochemical]] or [[pyrolytic]] means using renewable [[feedstock]]s, but the processes are currently expensive.<ref name=Production>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821024845/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ |date=2014-08-21 }}, [[ThinkProgress]], August 5, 2014.</ref> Various technologies are being developed that aim to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|title=Wind-to-Hydrogen Project|date=September 2009|work=Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=7 January 2010|location=Golden, CO|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826043817/http://nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|archive-date=26 August 2009}}. See also [http://energy.gov/articles/energy-department-launches-public-private-partnership-deploy-hydrogen-infrastructure Energy Department Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen Infrastructure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607042446/http://energy.gov/articles/energy-department-launches-public-private-partnership-deploy-hydrogen-infrastructure |date=2014-06-07 }}, US Dept. of Energy, accessed November 15, 2014</ref>
Vehicles running on hydrogen technology benefit from a long range on a single refuelling, but are subject to several drawbacks including high carbon emissions when hydrogen is produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, high energy inputs in production and transportation, low energy content per unit volume at ambient conditions, production and compression of hydrogen, and the investment required to build [[Bunkering|refuelling infrastructure]] around the world to dispense hydrogen.<ref name="Berman2013">{{cite news| author=Berman, Bradley| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/automobiles/fuel-cells-at-center-stage.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&adxnnlx=1385313339-SWDXRwwueS6Exot9wFmA%20Q| title=Fuel Cells at Center Stage| work=[[The New York Times]]| date=2013-11-22| access-date=2013-11-26| archive-date=2014-11-07| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107163736/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/automobiles/fuel-cells-at-center-stage.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&adxnnlx=1385313339-SWDXRwwueS6Exot9wFmA%20Q| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Davies, Alex|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/honda-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-future-la-auto-show-2013-11|title=Honda Is Working On Hydrogen Technology That Will Generate Power Inside Your Car|work=The Business Insider|date=2013-11-22|access-date=2013-11-26|archive-date=2013-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125201804/http://www.businessinsider.com/honda-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-future-la-auto-show-2013-11|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cox2014">Cox, Julian. [http://cleantechnica.com/2014/06/04/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-about-not-clean "Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715023909/http://cleantechnica.com/2014/06/04/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-about-not-clean/ |date=July 15, 2014}}, CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014</ref> In addition, leaked hydrogen is an invisible, highly flammable gas and has a global warming potential 11.6 times stronger than CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=CICERO>Bjørnæs, Christian. [https://cicero.oslo.no/en/hydrogen-leaks-add-to-global-warming "Global warming potential of hydrogen estimated"], [[Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research]], June 7, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023</ref>
==Vehicles== [[File:FCX-Honda.JPG|thumb|[[Honda FCX]] and [[Toyota FCHV]], the world's first government-certified commercial fuel cell vehicles.<ref name="honda021203"/><ref name="jt021119"/>]]{{further|Fuel cell vehicle}}
=== Rationale and context=== The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation.<ref name="sustain">{{cite web |last = McCarthy |first = J. |title = Hydrogen |publisher = [[Stanford University]] |date = 31 December 1995 |url = http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html |access-date = 14 March 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314043136/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html |archive-date = 14 March 2008 |df = dmy-all}}</ref> This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited.
===Rockets=== [[File:Centaur Rocket Engine - GPN-2000-000387.jpg|thumb|[[Centaur (rocket stage)]] was the first to use liquid hydrogen]] Many large rockets use [[liquid hydrogen]] as fuel, with [[liquid oxygen]] as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high [[effective exhaust velocity]] compared to [[kerosene]]/[[LOX]] or [[UDMH]]/[[Nitrogen tetroxide|NTO]] engines. According to the [[Tsiolkovsky rocket equation]], a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the [[energy density]] of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel.<ref name="H2">College of the Desert, “Module 1, Hydrogen Properties”, Revision 0, December 2001 [http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf Hydrogen Properties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144015/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf |date=2017-07-01 }}. Retrieved 2015-10-05.</ref> LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen_fuel_of_choice.html|title=NASA - Liquid Hydrogen--the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration|website=www.nasa.gov|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208130412/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen_fuel_of_choice.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low cryogenic temperature required to maintain hydrogen as a liquid, which means bigger, insulated, and thus heavier, fuel tanks are needed compared to methane, although methane is more polluting.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-09-21 |title=Will hydrogen power the future of aerospace? {{!}} Hydrogen in space |url=https://wha-international.com/will-hydrogen-power-the-future-of-aerospace/ |access-date=2024-03-08 |website=WHA International, Inc.}}</ref> Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for [[ICBM]]s and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.<ref>Sutton, George P. and Oscar Biblarz. [http://web.mit.edu/e_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements.pdf ''Rocket Propulsion Elements''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102204553/http://web.mit.edu/e_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements.pdf |date=2013-01-02 }}, Seventh edition, John Wiley & Sons (2001), p. 257, {{ISBN|0-471-32642-9}}</ref>
LH2/LOX were also used in the [[Space Shuttle]] to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc_shuttle.html |title=Fuel cell use in the Space Shuttle |publisher=NASA |access-date=2012-02-17 |archive-date=2012-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125075553/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc_shuttle.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.
===Automobiles=== [[File:Toyota Mirai (JPD20) IMG 5303.jpg|thumb|The [[Toyota Mirai]]]] {{as of|2021}}, there were two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the [[Toyota Mirai]] and the [[Hyundai Nexo]].<ref name=ihs2016>{{cite web|url=http://press.ihs.com/press-release/automotive/global-hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-vehicle-market-buoyed-oems-will-launch-1|title=Global Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Market Buoyed as OEMs Will Launch 17 Vehicle Models by 2027, IHS Says|publisher=[[IHS Inc.]]|date=4 May 2016|access-date=13 May 2016|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032701/https://news.ihsmarkit.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Honda Clarity]] was produced from 2016 to 2021.<ref name="HondaDiscontinued">{{cite web |date=June 16, 2021 |title=Honda discontinues hydrogen-fuelled Clarity FCV due to slow sales |url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry-news-manufacturing/honda-discontinues-hydrogen-fuelled-clarity-fcv-due-slow-sales |access-date=July 29, 2021}}</ref> [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|Hydrogen combustion cars]] are not commercially available.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} In the light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Yidan |url=https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Global-EV-sales-2022_FINAL.pdf |title=Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 |last2=Cui |first2=Hongyang |publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation |pages=2–3 |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref> compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles.<ref name=Outlook2023>{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 |date=26 April 2023 |publisher=IEA |pages=14–24 |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref> In 2023, 3,143 hydrogen cars were sold in the US compared with 380,000 battery electric vehicles.<ref>Woody, Todd. [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2024-04-04/california-s-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-lose-traction-against-battery-models "Few Stations and $200 to Fill Up: Life on California’s 'Hydrogen Highway'"], Bloomberg, April 4, 2024</ref> With the rapid rise of [[electric vehicle]]s and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.<ref name=role>{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=January 2022 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |s2cid=246465284 |issn=2520-1131|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Collins l_collins">{{Cite web |last=Collins (l_collins) |first=Leigh |date=2022-02-02 |title='Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/-hydrogen-unlikely-to-play-major-role-in-road-transport-even-for-heavy-trucks-fraunhofer/2-1-1162055 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Recharge}}</ref> John Max of ''Hydrogen Fuel News'' believes that hydrogen may, however, be used directly, or as a feedstock for efuel, to keep classic cars on the road.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Max |first=John |date=2022-11-14 |title=Hydrogen-powered Vehicles Include Classic Car Conversions - H2 News |url=https://www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-classic/8555907/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.hydrogenfuelnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-24 |title=Classic cars accelerate along the road to sustainability |url=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/content/in-depth/classic-cars-accelerate-along-the-road-to-sustainability/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=The Engineer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the future of muscle cars… |url=https://www.musclecarmag.com.au/feature/what-is-the-future-of-muscle-cars-583508 |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=Muscle Car Magazine (Australia)}}</ref>
The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by [[General Motors]] in 1966.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.carsguide.com.au/car-advice/the-history-of-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-85330|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129181457/https://www.carsguide.com.au/car-advice/the-history-of-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-85330|title=The history of hydrogen fuel cell cars|publisher=The Market Herald|date=29 December 2021|archive-date=29 January 2023}}</ref> The [[Toyota FCHV]] and [[Honda FCX]], which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles,<ref name="jt021119">{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota-to-lease-fuel-cell-cars-to-state/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308232938/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota-to-lease-fuel-cell-cars-to-state/|title=Toyota to lease fuel-cell cars to state|publisher=[[The Japan Times]]|date=19 November 2002|archive-date=8 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="honda021203">{{cite web|url=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203-fcx-eng.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308233714/https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203-fcx-eng.html|title=First Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles Delivered on Same Day in Japan and the U.S.|publisher=Honda|date=3 December 2002|archive-date=8 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen-powered-honda-achieves-world-first/#.XDN1-XZ_q3A|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107155311/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen-powered-honda-achieves-world-first/#.XDN1-XZ_q3A|title=Hydrogen-powered Honda achieves world first|publisher=[[The Japan Times]]|date=26 July 2002|archive-date=7 January 2019}}</ref> and the [[Honda Clarity|Honda FCX Clarity]], which began leasing in 2008, was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first-drive-2009-honda-fcx-clarity-worlds-first-series-produc/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729003834/https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first-drive-2009-honda-fcx-clarity-worlds-first-series-produc/|title=Honda FCX Clarity, world's first series production fuel cell car|publisher=Verizon Media|date=18 November 2007|archive-date=29 July 2021}}</ref> Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930034059/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/|title=Hydrogen-powered vehicles on horizon|website=[[The Washington Times]] |publisher=|date=24 August 2009|archive-date=30 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667_honda-sets-up-worlds-first-fuel-cell-dealer-network|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521025801/https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667_honda-sets-up-worlds-first-fuel-cell-dealer-network|title=Honda Sets Up World's First Fuel Cell Dealer Network|work=The Car Connection |date=16 June 2018|archive-date=21 May 2022}}</ref>
The 2013 [[Hyundai Tucson FCEV]], a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease-only vehicle,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai-ix35-fuel-cell-launching-in-2014-with-free-hydrogen-fuel/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706002038/https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai-ix35-fuel-cell-launching-in-2014-with-free-hydrogen-fuel/|title=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell launching in 2014 with free hydrogen fuel|publisher=Drive.com.au|date=22 November 2013|archive-date=6 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html |title=The Tucson Fuel Cell FAQ | HyundaiHydrogen.ca |access-date=2016-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324212819/http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html |archive-date=2016-03-24}}</ref> and [[Hyundai Motors]] claimed it was the world's first mass-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.<ref name="yonhap150615"/><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.hyundainews.com/en-us/releases/1624| title=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell| publisher=Hyundai| access-date=18 November 2018| archive-date=18 November 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118171602/https://www.hyundainews.com/en-us/releases/1624| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=552| title=The World's First Mass-Production of FCEV| access-date=18 November 2018| archive-date=18 November 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118164724/http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=552| url-status=live}}</ref> However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015.<ref name="yonhap150615">{{cite web|url=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621070638/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html|title=Hyundai Motor's fuel-cell car sales miss target|work=Yonhap News Agency |publisher=[[Yonhap News Agency]]|date=15 June 2015|archive-date=21 June 2015}}</ref> [[Hyundai Nexo]], which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the "safest SUV" by the Euro NCAP in 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.euroncap.com:443/en/ratings-rewards/best-in-class-cars/2018|title=Euro NCAP Best in Class 2018 - new award for best performing hybrid & electric car of 2018 | Euro NCAP|website=www.euroncap.com|access-date=2019-06-24|archive-date=2019-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624190214/https://www.euroncap.com/en/ratings-rewards/best-in-class-cars/2018|url-status=live}}</ref> but In October 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device".<ref name=Nexo2024>[https://www.boston.com/news/business/2024/10/18/hyundai-recalls-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-due-to-fire-risk-and-tells-owners-to-park-them-outdoors/ "Hyundai recalls hydrogen fuel cell vehicles due to fire risk and tells owners to park them outdoors"], Associated Press, via Boston.com, October 18, 2024</ref>
[[File:Hyundai Nexo – f 16032019.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Hyundai Nexo]]]] [[Toyota]] launched the world's first dedicated mass-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the [[Toyota Mirai|Mirai]], in Japan at the end of 2014<ref name="wsj141215">{{cite web |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas-fuel-cell-powered-mirai-hits-showrooms/?guid=BL-JRTB-18738&dsk=y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526232252/https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas-fuel-cell-powered-mirai-hits-showrooms/?guid=BL-JRTB-18738&dsk=y |title=Toyota's Fuel-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale|publisher=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=15 December 2014|archive-date=26 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="jt150123">{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate-business/toyota-to-quadruple-production-of-mirai-fuel-cell-vehicles-by-2017/#.VZqmPXZ_q3B|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706160050/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate-business/toyota-to-quadruple-production-of-mirai-fuel-cell-vehicles-by-2017/#.VZqmPXZ_q3B|title=Toyota to quadruple production of Mirai fuel-cell vehicles by 2017|publisher=[[The Japan Times]]|date=23 January 2015 |archive-date=6 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="inf220516">{{cite web|url=https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota-mirai-hydrogen/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516151134/https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota-mirai-hydrogen |title=Toyota Mirai x Hydrogen: the world's first mass produced HFCV|date=20 January 2017 |archive-date=16 May 2022 |access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref> and began sales in California, mainly the [[Los Angeles metropolitan area|Los Angeles area]] and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/325606/european-sales-of-toyota-mirai-to-begin-this-september/|title=European Sales of Toyota Mirai to Begin This September|website=InsideEVs}}</ref> later in 2015.<ref name=Voelcker>Voelcker, John. [https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades-promises-dude-wheres-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-130000421.html "Decades of Promises: 'Dude, Where's My Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Car?'"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032700/https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades-promises-dude-wheres-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-130000421.html |date=2021-03-02 }}, Yahoo.com, March 31, 2015</ref> The car has a range of {{convert|312|mi|abbr=on}} and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000).<ref name="bloomberg.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-25/toyota-to-offer-69-000-car-as-musk-pans-fool-cells-.html/|title=Toyota to Offer $69,000 Car After Musk Pans 'Fool Cells'|newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=2014-06-25|access-date=2014-06-27|archive-date=2014-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627055520/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-25/toyota-to-offer-69-000-car-as-musk-pans-fool-cells-.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Former European Parliament President [[Pat Cox]] estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.<ref name=Cost2014>Ayre, James. [http://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold "Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103131510/https://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold/ |date=2015-01-03 }}, CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. [http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car/ "Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124221312/http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car/ |date=2014-11-24 }}, GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014</ref> At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production-sales-figures/202003.html?_ga=2.211351126.219919894.1589198585-1423135873.1589198585 | title=Sales, Production, and Export Results for March 2020 | Sales, Production, and Export Results | Profile | Company | access-date=2020-05-11 | archive-date=2021-03-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032735/https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production-sales-figures/202003.html?_ga=2.211351126.219919894.1589198585-1423135873.1589198585 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Realising>[https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy "Realising the hydrogen economy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105054643/https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy/ |date=2019-11-05}},''Power Technology'', 11 October 2019</ref> but in 2024 (through November), Toyota's worldwide sales fell to 1,702 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dnistran |first=Iulian |url=https://insideevs.com/news/745570/toyota-fcev-sales-november-2024/ |title=Toyota's Hydrogen Car Dream Is Falling Apart |work=Inside EVs |location=US |date=2024-12-27}}</ref> Many automobile companies introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see [[List of fuel cell vehicles]] and [[List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles]]).<ref name=Whoriskey>Whoriskey, Peter. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html "The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226082540/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html |date=2017-02-26 }}, ''Washington Post'', October 17, 2009</ref><ref>[[Riversimple]] plans to lease a vehicle to the public by 2018 [http://www.topgear.com/car-news/first-look/hydrogen-car-you-can-actually-afford "Hydrogen Car You Can Actually Afford"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306210051/http://www.topgear.com/car-news/first-look/hydrogen-car-you-can-actually-afford |date=2016-03-06 }}, TopGear.com</ref>
In 2013 [[BMW]] leased hydrogen technology from [[Toyota]], and a group formed by [[Ford Motor Company]], [[Daimler AG]], and [[Nissan]] announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford-daimler-and-nissan-commit-to-fuel-cells|title=Ford, Daimler, and Nissan Commit to Fuel Cells|first=Martin|last=LaMonica|website=technologyreview.com|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=9 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109042120/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford-daimler-and-nissan-commit-to-fuel-cells/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge to stimulate the market for hydrogen-powered vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/3654899/toyota-mirai-patents-hydrogen-power/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707054645/https://time.com/3654899/toyota-mirai-patents-hydrogen-power/|title=Toyota Wants Everyone to Know How It Made Its Hydrogen-Powered Car|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=5 January 2015|archive-date=7 July 2022}}</ref> By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development,<ref>Gordon-Bloomfield, Nikki. [https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-doomed-and-have-electric-cars-won "Are Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars Doomed – And Have Electric Cars Won?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406022441/https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-doomed-and-have-electric-cars-won/ |date=2017-04-06 }}, TransportEvolved.com, April 4, 2017</ref> and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.<ref>Williams, Keith. [https://seekingalpha.com/article/4103682-switch-hydrogen-electric-vehicles-continues-now-hyundai-makes-move "The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move"], ''[[Seeking Alpha]]'', September 1, 2017</ref> By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars.<ref name=Morris>Morris, Charles. [https://cleantechnica.com/2021/10/14/why-are-3-automakers-still-hyping-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles "Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?"], CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021</ref> The [[Honda CR-V (sixth generation)#CR-V e:FCEV|Honda CR-V e:FCEV]] became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024.<ref name=JV/> A significant number of the public hydrogen fuel stations in the California are not able to dispense hydrogen.<ref>[https://h2fcp.org/sites/default/files/Hydrogen-Distribution-and-Supply.pdf "Station Status"], ''Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership''. Retrieved October 17, 2024; and [https://h2fcp.org/sites/default/files/Hydrogen-Distribution-and-Supply.pdf "Southern California Retail Hydrogen Station Network Status in California"], ''Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership'', July 19, 2024</ref> In 2024, Mirai owners filed a [[class action]] lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty.<ref name=Martin2024>Martin, Polly. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/toyota-sued-over-lack-of-hydrogen-availability-for-fuel-cell-cars-in-california/2-1-1676965 "Toyota sued over lack of hydrogen availability for fuel cell cars in California"], ''Hydrogen Insight'', July 15, 2024</ref>
=== Heavy trucks === The International Energy Agency's 2022 net-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cozzi |first1=Laura |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Gould |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=148}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>
[[United Parcel Service]] began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups-begins-testing-hydrogen-fuel-cell-delivery-truck/|title=UPS begins testing hydrogen fuel-cell delivery truck - Roadshow|work=Roadshow|access-date=May 7, 2017|archive-date=May 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503195209/https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups-begins-testing-hydrogen-fuel-cell-delivery-truck/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]] began commercial production of its [[Hyundai Xcient|Xcient]] fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to [[Switzerland]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ryu|first=Jung|date=2020-07-07|title=Hyundai Starts Mass Production of Hydrogen Trucks|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792.html|access-date=2020-09-26|website=The Chosun Ilbo|archive-date=2020-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925082413/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell Heads to Europe for Commercial Use|url=https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=Hyundai Media Newsroom|archive-date=2020-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925040152/https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=World's First Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Truck, Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell, Heads to Europe for Commercial Use - Hyundai Motor Group TECH|url=https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press-release/worlds-first-fuel-cell-heavy-duty-truck-hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com|archive-date=2020-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810162444/https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press-release/worlds-first-fuel-cell-heavy-duty-truck-hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell [[Truck classification#Class 8|class 8]] trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' [[Townsville]] mine to the [[Port of Townsville]], Queensland, to be shipped around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen powered prime movers to roll into Townsville |url=https://arena.gov.au/blog/hydrogen-powered-prime-movers-to-roll-into-townsville/ |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=Australian Renewable Energy Agency|date=10 November 2021 }}</ref>
===Aeroplanes=== {{Main|Hydrogen planes}} [[File:Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator AB1.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Boeing]] Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell]] [[File:2023-10-19 Clean Hydrogen Ladder 5.0.png|thumb|Hydrogen Ladder: Ranking of hydrogen applications and uses in the medium term.<ref name=shippingproj/><ref name=jetplaneproj/>]] Some publications project hydrogen may be used in shipping<ref name=shippingproj>{{Cite web |last= |title=Potential of hydrogen as fuel for shipping |url=https://www.emsa.europa.eu/publications/reports/item/5062-potential-of-hydrogen-as-fuel-for-shipping.html |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.emsa.europa.eu}}</ref> and jetplanes,<ref name=jetplaneproj>{{Cite web |title=Towards the world's first hydrogen-powered commercial aircraft |url=https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/low-carbon-aviation/hydrogen/zeroe |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.airbus.com|date=24 June 2021 }}</ref> while others predict that biofuels and batteries will have more commercial success.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barnard |first=Michael |date=2023-10-22 |title=What's New On The Rungs Of Liebreich's Hydrogen Ladder? |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/10/22/whats-new-on-the-rungs-of-liebreichs-hydrogen-ladder/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=CleanTechnica}}</ref> Companies such as [[Boeing]], [[Lange Aviation]], and the [[German Aerospace Center]] are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested.<ref>{{cite web |date=2009-10-15 |title=Ion tiger hydrogen UAV |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221131439/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350.htm |archive-date=2010-12-21 |access-date=2010-12-12 |publisher=Sciencedaily.com}}</ref> For large passenger aeroplanes, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."<ref name="Apr08Times">{{cite news |author=David Robertson |date=3 April 2008 |title=Boeing tests first hydrogen powered plane |newspaper=The Times |location=London |url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article3675188.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=3 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612042658/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article3675188.ece |archive-date=12 June 2011}}</ref>
In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered [[Boeing Phantom Eye|Phantom Eye]] [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]], powered by two Ford internal-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.<ref name="The Register">{{cite web |date=2010-07-13 |title=Boeing's 'Phantom Eye' Ford Fusion powered stratocraft |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom_eye_rollout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714220048/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom_eye_rollout/ |archive-date=2010-07-14 |access-date=2010-07-14 |website=The Register}}</ref>
===Ships=== {{Main|Hydrogen-powered ship}} {{As of|2019}} hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long-distance ships but are being considered as a range-extender for smaller, short-distance, low-speed electric vessels, such as ferries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ship.nridigital.com/ship_mar19/could_fuel_cells_soon_be_used_in_ship_propulsion|title=Could fuel cells soon be used in ship propulsion?|date=2019-03-07|website=Ship Technology|access-date=2019-06-18|archive-date=2019-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724190243/https://ship.nridigital.com/ship_mar19/could_fuel_cells_soon_be_used_in_ship_propulsion|url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrogen in [[ammonia]] is being considered as a long-distance fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018_11_Roadmap_decarbonising_European_shipping.pdf|title=Roadmap to decarbonizing European shipping|last=Abbasov|first=Faig|date=November 2018|website=Transportenvironment.org|access-date=June 18, 2019|archive-date=June 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625210807/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018_11_Roadmap_decarbonising_European_shipping.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Buses=== {{Main|Fuel cell bus}} [[File:Solaris Urbino 12 hydrogen 2.jpg|thumb|A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in [[Bolechowo, Greater Poland Voivodeship|Bolechowo, Poland]]]] Fuel-cell buses were [[Fuel cell bus trial|trialed]] in [[Ursus Factory|Ursus]] Lublin in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.ursus.com.pl/|title=Ursus Lublin|access-date=2017-04-06|archive-date=2017-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501214643/http://en.ursus.com.pl/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Solaris Bus & Coach]] introduced its [[Solaris Urbino 12 hydrogen|Urbino 12 hydrogen]] electric buses in 2019. Several dozen were ordered.<ref>[https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415-solaris.html "Connexxion orders 20 Solaris hydrogen buses for South Holland"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626081233/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415-solaris.html |date=2020-06-26 }}, Green Car Congress, 15 April 2020</ref> The first city in the U.S. to have a fleet of hydrogen powered buses was [[Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area|Champaign]], Illinois, when in 2021 the [[Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District]] ordered two New Flyer XHE60 articulated hydrogen fuel cell buses, with 10 more New Flyer XHE40 buses added in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District |url=https://mtd.org/ |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=MTD}}</ref>
In 2022, the city of [[Montpellier]], France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that "the cost of operation for hydrogen [buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity".<ref>Hanley, Steve. [https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/11/french-city-cancels-hydrogen-bus-contract-opts-for-electric-buses "French City Cancels Hydrogen Bus Contract, Opts for Electric Buses"], CleanTechnica.com, January 11, 2022</ref> By 2025, most hydrogen bus programs in Europe had been cancelled or fuel cell bus purchases discontinued.<ref>Barnard, Michael. [https://cleantechnica.com/2025/04/14/hydrogen-vs-battery-buses-a-european-transit-reality-check "Hydrogen vs. Battery Buses: A European Transit Reality Check"], CleanTechnica, April 14, 2025</ref>
===Fork trucks=== A [[hydrogen internal combustion engine]] (or "HICE") [[forklift]] or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, [[internal combustion engine]]-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and [[transport]]ing materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in [[Hannover]] on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, {{convert|43|kW|abbr=on}} diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and [[fuel injection#Direct injection systems|direct injection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-35668015_ITM |title=Hydrogen engines get a lift |publisher=Accessmylibrary.com |date=2008-10-01 |access-date=2010-12-12}}</ref><ref name="HyICE">[https://www.hfpeurope.org/uploads/700/836/2005_HFP_Brussels_HyICE.pdf HyICE]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
In 2013 there were over 4,000 [[fuel cell forklift]]s used in [[material handling]] in the US.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130821025808/http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf Press release: "Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground"], fuelcells.org, July 9, 2013</ref> As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.<ref>Barnard, Michael. [https://cleantechnica.com/2024/01/02/on-hydrogen-forklifts-bitcoin-mining-and-green-fertilizer "On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer"], ''CleanTechnica'', January 2, 2024</ref>
Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.<ref name=Report>[http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html "Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014-2016"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020439/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html |date=2014-11-29 }}, Research and Markets, November 6, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104928/http://www2.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems|archive-date=February 17, 2013}}</ref> Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop-in replacements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html|title=Fuel cell technology|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104905/http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html|archive-date=3 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx|title=Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years|work=GrafTech International|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206072419/http://www.graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx|archive-date=6 December 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
===Trams and trains=== {{Main|Hydrogen train}} [[File:India’s first hydrogen-powered train.webm|thumb|India's first Hydrogen train, showing the Hydrogen storage module, battery stacks and fuel cell.]] In the [[International Energy Agency]]’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022 |title=World energy outlook 2022 |date=27 October 2022 |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=150}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>
In March 2015, [[CSR Corporation Limited|China South Rail Corporation]] (CSR) demonstrated a hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china-worlds-first-hydrogen-fueled-tram.htm# |title=China Presents the World's First Hydrogen-Fueled Tram|date=21 March 2015|access-date=6 May 2015|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906125005/http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china-worlds-first-hydrogen-fueled-tram.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Tracks for the new vehicle were built in seven Chinese cities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-25/china-s-hydrogen-powered-future-starts-in-trams-not-cars|title=China's Hydrogen-Powered Future Starts in Trams, Not Cars|newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=March 25, 2015|via=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=2017-03-07|archive-date=2016-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125010057/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-25/china-s-hydrogen-powered-future-starts-in-trams-not-cars|url-status=live}}</ref> In northern Germany in 2018 fuel-cell powered [[Coradia iLint]] trains were first placed into service; excess power is stored in [[Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train "Germany launches world's first hydrogen-powered train"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170608/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train |date=2018-09-17 }}, ''The Guardian'', September 17, 2018</ref>
By 2025, hydrogen powered trains had also been introduced in France and Sweden; in India, a Hydrogen train with 1200 hp, capable of carrying 2,600 passengers, is set to run between Sonipat and Jind in Haryana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kesari |first=Manohar |date=2025-08-17 |title=India beats China with first hydrogen powered train |url=https://sundayguardianlive.com/news/india-beats-china-with-first-hydrogen-powered-train-137317 |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=The Sunday Guardian |language=en}}</ref> However, the same year there was bad news for some of Europe's hydrogen train companies: France's [[Alstom]] announced that it is halting development of hydrogen trains and redeploying some research staff with the withdrawal of government funding, and in Germany, Rhine-Main Transport Authority withdrew its 18 hydrogen-powered trains after "repeated technical issues with the hydrogen fuel cells"; [[Siemens Mobility]] has also had problems with its hydrogen trains.<ref>Haydock, David. [https://www.railjournal.com/technology/alstom-shelves-hydrogen-development "Alstom shelves hydrogen development"], ''[[International Railway Journal]]'', November 26, 2025</ref>
===Bicycles and stand-up scooters=== [[Image:Hydrogen bicycle.jpg|thumb|[[PHB (bicycle)|PHB]] hydrogen bicycle]] In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of [[Shanghai]], China, demonstrated a [[PHB (bicycle)|PHB]] hydrogen bicycle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese-company-plans-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike.html|title=Chinese Company Plans Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike|last=Fisher|first=Sean|website=[[TreeHugger]]|date=September 10, 2007|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese-company-plans-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike-298773|title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike|website=[[Gizmodo]]|date=November 9, 2007|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141432/https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike-298773|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, Australian scientists from the [[University of New South Wales]] presented their Hy-Cycle model.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy-cycle-is-australia-s-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bicycle-motorcycles-next-maybe-video-86720.html|title=Hy-Cycle Is Australia's First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bicycle. Motorcycles Next, Maybe?|last=Tibu|first=Florin|website=autoevolution.com|date=September 18, 2014|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141433/https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy-cycle-is-australia-s-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bicycle-motorcycles-next-maybe-video-86720.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The same year, [[Canyon Bicycles]] started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future-tech-canyon-s-eco-speed-hydrogen-powered-e-bike-concept-82|title=Future Tech: Canyon's Eco Speed hydrogen powered e-bike concept|last=Arthur|first=David|website=ebiketips.road.cc|date=January 30, 2016|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future-tech-canyon-s-eco-speed-hydrogen-powered-e-bike-concept-82|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma-industries-alpha-hydrogen-bicycle-03-2017|title=Pragma Industries' alpha model is a powerful hydrogen-fueled bike|last=Chaya|first=Lynn|website=[[Designboom]]|date=November 3, 2017|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141427/https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma-industries-alpha-hydrogen-bicycle-03-2017/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, "Alpha Bike", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km, and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the [[45th G7 summit]] in [[Biarritz]], France.<ref>Coxworth, Ben. [https://newatlas.com/alter-fuel-cell-bike-range-boost/61035 "World's first fuel-cell e-bike gets a big boost in range"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815023344/https://newatlas.com/alter-fuel-cell-bike-range-boost/61035/ |date=2019-08-15 }}, NewAtlas.com, August 13, 2019</ref>
In 2020, Alles over Waterstof<ref>{{Cite web |title=HydroRange Waterstof Range Extender |url=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrorange/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Alles over Waterstof |language=nl-NL}}</ref> developed a 2-wheel hydrogen powered stand-up scooter. The stand-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo-bike, using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HydroCargo 'Last Mile' bakfiets |url=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrocargo/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Alles over Waterstof |language=nl-NL}}</ref>
Lloyd Alter of [[TreeHugger]] responded to the announcement, asking "why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e-bike [or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. [If] you were a captive fleet operator, why [not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?"<ref>Alter, Lloyd. [https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen-powered-e-bike-cranked-93-mile-range.html "Hydrogen-powered e-bike cranked up to 93 mile range"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815064811/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen-powered-e-bike-cranked-93-mile-range.html |date=2019-08-15 }}, [[TreeHugger]], August 14, 2019</ref>
===Military vehicles=== [[General Motors]]' military division, [[GM Defense]], focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/gm-military-defense-contractor |title=General Motors establishing new military defense division |publisher=AutoNews.com |date=October 9, 2017 |access-date=October 16, 2018 |archive-date=October 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009220738/https://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/general-motors-establishing-new-military-defense-division |url-status=live }}</ref> Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017, the U.S. Army has been testing the commercial [[Chevrolet Colorado]] ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006-fuel-cell-platform.html |title=GM Outlines Possibilities for Flexible, Autonomous Fuel Cell Electric Platform |publisher=GM Media Release |date=October 6, 2017 |access-date=October 16, 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412202210/https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006-fuel-cell-platform.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Motorcycles and scooters=== [[ENV]] develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the [[Crosscage]] and [[Biplane (motorcycle)|Biplane]]. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter_than_air-scooting/the-graf-scooter-278441.php |title=Hydrogen scooter by vectrix |publisher=Jalopnik.com |date=2007-07-13 |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2009-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603172511/http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter_than_air-scooting/the-graf-scooter-278441.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Finally, hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-hybrid scooters are being made such as the [[Suzuki Burgman|Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen-vehicles/suzuki-burgman-fuel-cell-scooter-to-rollout-within-months/ |title=Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter |publisher=Hydrogencarsnow.com |date=2009-10-27 |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2011-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126134224/http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen-vehicles/suzuki-burgman-fuel-cell-scooter-to-rollout-within-months/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[FHybrid]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=b679efb4-ec62-4a49-96c8-eaf3839d6480&lang=en |title=Fhybrid fuel cell-electric hybrid scooter |publisher=Io.tudelft.nl |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604151714/http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=b679efb4-ec62-4a49-96c8-eaf3839d6480&lang=en |archive-date=2009-06-04 }}</ref> The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter/index.html|title=SUZUKI - BURGMAN Fuel-Cell Scooter|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-date=10 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310073140/http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apfct.com/article_cat.php?act=view&no=26|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130101222331/http://www.apfct.com/article_cat.php?act=view&no=26|url-status=dead|title=Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd. --fuel cell systems and fue…|date=1 January 2013|archive-date=1 January 2013|website=apfct.com|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref>
===Auto rickshaws=== Hydrogen [[auto rickshaw]] concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thecityfix.com/blog/india-showcases-hydrogen-fuel-auto-rickshaws/|title=India Showcases Hydrogen Fuel Auto-Rickshaws ||date=February 21, 2012|access-date=September 21, 2019|archive-date=September 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920170327/https://thecityfix.com/blog/india-showcases-hydrogen-fuel-auto-rickshaws/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/transportation/shipping-/-transport/iit-delhi-scientists-develop-autos-that-run-on-hydrogen-cause-negligible-pollution/articleshow/11858081.cms|title=IIT-Delhi scientists develop autos that run on hydrogen; cause negligible pollution|first=Jayashree|last=Nandi|newspaper=The Economic Times|access-date=2019-09-21|archive-date=2019-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921074423/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/transportation/shipping-/-transport/iit-delhi-scientists-develop-autos-that-run-on-hydrogen-cause-negligible-pollution/articleshow/11858081.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Quads and tractors=== H-Due, made by [[Autostudi S.r.l]], is a hydrogen-powered quad capable of transporting 1-3 passengers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest-of-em-rides-piemonte-h-due-concept/ |title=Autostudi S.r.l. H-Due |publisher=Ecofriend.org |date=2008-04-15 |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209090937/http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest-of-em-rides-piemonte-h-due-concept/ |archive-date=2012-12-09 }}</ref> A concept for a hydrogen-powered tractor has been proposed.<ref>[http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new-holland-wins-gold-for-energy-independent-farm-concept.html New Holland Wins Gold for Energy Independent Farm Concept] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120728155828/http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new-holland-wins-gold-for-energy-independent-farm-concept.html |date=2012-07-28 }} or [http://www.terre-net.fr/materiel-agricole/tracteur-quad/article-new-holland-hydrogene-pile-a-combustible-nh2-harris-ihrig-tracteur-hydrogene-prototype-hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered-tractor-207-53740.html Hydrogen-powered tractor in an Energy Independent Farm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702035628/http://www.terre-net.fr/materiel-agricole/tracteur-quad/article-new-holland-hydrogene-pile-a-combustible-nh2-harris-ihrig-tracteur-hydrogene-prototype-hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered-tractor-207-53740.html |date=2009-07-02 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cummins and Versatile partner to bring 15L hydrogen engines to ag market |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/08/20220830-m15h.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=Green Car Congress}}</ref>
====Auto racing==== A record of {{convert|207.297|mph}} was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel_saving_vehicles_hybrids/ |title=New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford |publisher=Motorsportsjournal.com |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209034212/http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel_saving_vehicles_hybrids/ |archive-date=2010-12-09 }}</ref> The land-speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle of {{convert|286.476|mph}} was set by [[Ohio State University]]'s [[Buckeye Bullet|Buckeye Bullet 2]], which achieved a "flying-mile" speed of {{convert|280.007|mph}} at the [[Bonneville Salt Flats]] in August 2008.
In 2007, the [[Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation]] was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500-mile race.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation looks to revolutionize motorsports |url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen-electric-racing-federation-looks-revolutionize-motorsports/ |website=Autoweek |access-date=17 June 2020 |date=9 January 2007 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617081459/https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen-electric-racing-federation-looks-revolutionize-motorsports/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Internal combustion vehicle==<!-- This section is linked from [[Ford Motor Company]] --> {{Main|Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles}} Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|hydrogen internal combustion car]] is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline [[internal combustion engine]] car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in [[Exhaust gas#Passenger car emissions summary|emissions]] of mostly [[carbon dioxide]] and water, plus trace amounts of [[carbon monoxide]], {{NOx}}, particulates and unburned hydrocarbons,<ref>[https://www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide "Emission Standards Reference Guide for On-road and Nonroad Vehicles and Engines"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011104349/https://www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide |date=2020-10-11 }}, US EPA (2012), accessed October 9, 2020</ref> while the main exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor.
In 1807 [[François Isaac de Rivaz]] designed [[De Rivaz engine|the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h2cars.de/1_cardata/c214.htm|title=H2Mobility - Hydrogen Vehicles - netinform|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032740/http://www.lbst.de/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1965, Roger E. Billings, then a high school student, converted a [[Ford Model A (1927–1931)|Model A]] to run on hydrogen.<ref>[http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/1807-1986 "Hydrogen Fuel Cars 1807–1986"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331160336/http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/1807-1986/ |date=2016-03-31 }}, Hydrogen Cars Now, accessed April 7, 2016</ref> In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite patent|country=US|number=3844262|pubdate=1974-10-29|title=Vaporization of exhaust products in hydrogen-oxygen engine|inventor1-last=Dieges|inventor1-first=Paul Bertrand}}</ref>
Mazda has developed [[Wankel engine]]s burning hydrogen, which are used in the [[Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE]]. The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsroom.mazda.com/en/publicity/release/2006/200602/060215.html|title=MAZDA NEWSROOM｜ Mazda Starts Leasing Rotary Hydrogen Vehicles｜NEWS RELEASES|website=Mazda News Releases|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=2020-08-30|archive-date=2021-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072915/https://newsroom.mazda.com/en/publicity/release/2006/200602/060215.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Fuel cell== {{Further|Fuel cell}}
===Fuel cell cost=== Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances, such as [[platinum]], as a [[catalyst]].<ref name=RSC2>{{cite web|title=Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484|last1=Eberle|first1=Ulrich|first2=Bernd|last2=Mueller|first3=Rittmar|last3=von Helmolt|publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]]|date=2012-07-15|access-date=2013-01-08|archive-date=2014-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209172012/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484_Fuel_cell_electric_vehicles_and_hydrogen_infrastructure_status_2012?ev=prf_pub|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, former European Parliament President [[Pat Cox]] estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.<ref name=Cost2014/> In 2020, researchers at the University of Copenhagen's Department of Chemistry are developing a new type of catalyst that they hope will decrease the cost of fuel cells.<ref>{{Cite web|last=University of Copenhagen|date=24 August 2020|title=Fuel cells for hydrogen vehicles are becoming longer lasting|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-08-fuel-cells-hydrogen-vehicles-longer.html|access-date=2020-09-18|website=phys.org|archive-date=2020-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927171704/https://phys.org/news/2020-08-fuel-cells-hydrogen-vehicles-longer.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This new catalyst uses far less platinum because the platinum nano-particles are not coated over carbon which, in conventional hydrogen fuel cells, keeps the nano-particles in place but also causes the catalyst to become unstable and denatures it slowly, requiring even more platinum. The new technology uses durable nanowires instead of the nano-particles. "The next step for the researchers is to scale up their results so that the technology can be implemented in hydrogen vehicles."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rossmeisl|first=Jan|date=24 August 2020|title=Hydrogen vehicles might soon become the global norm|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-08/uoc-hvm082120.php|access-date=2020-09-18|website=EurekAlert!|archive-date=2020-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101020931/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-08/uoc-hvm082120.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Freezing conditions=== The problems in early fuel-cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "cannot be seen as show-stoppers anymore".<ref>Telias, Gabriela ''et al.'' [http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49105.pdf RD&D cooperation for the development of fuel cell hybrid and electric vehicles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903115906/http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49105.pdf |date=2014-09-03 }}, NREL.gov, November 2010, accessed September 1, 2014</ref> Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles continue to operate in temperatures below zero without significantly reducing range.<ref>LeSage, Jon. [http://green.autoblog.com/2014/02/06/toyota-says-freezing-temps-pose-zero-problems-for-fuel-cell-vehi/ Toyota says freezing temps pose zero problems for fuel cell vehicles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140801084210/http://green.autoblog.com/2014/02/06/toyota-says-freezing-temps-pose-zero-problems-for-fuel-cell-vehi/ |date=2014-08-01 }}, Autoblog.com, February 6, 2014</ref> Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold-start indicate ice formation in the cathode,<ref>Mishler, Jeff, Yun Wang, Partha P. Mukherjee, Rangachary Mukundan, and Rodney L. Borup, "Subfreezing operation of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Ice formation and cell performance loss", ''Electrochimica Acta'', 65 (2012) pp. 127–133</ref> three stages in cold start<ref>Wang, Y. "Analysis of the Key Parameters in the Cold Start of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells", ''J. Electrochem. Soc.'', 154 (2007) pp. B1041–B1048</ref> and Nafion ionic conductivity.<ref>Wang, Y, P. P. Mukherjee, J. Mishler, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, “Cold start of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Three-stage startup characterization”, ''Electrochimica Acta'', 55 (2010) pp. 2636–2644</ref> A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability.<ref>Mishler, J., Y. Wang, R. Lujan, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, "An Experimental Study of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Operation at Sub-Freezing Temperatures", ''Journal of the Electrochemical Society'', 160 (6) pp. F514–F521 (2013)</ref>
===Service life=== The [[service life]] of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress07/v_0_introduction.pdf |title=EERE Service life 5000 hours |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2010-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527213934/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress07/v_0_introduction.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Clarify|reason=a ship lasts 20 to 30 years which is much more hours than mentioned|date=May 2022}} [[proton-exchange membrane|Polymer-electrolyte membrane]] (PEM) fuel cell service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/epact_743_fuel_cell_school_bus.pdf |title=Fuel Cell School Buses: Report to Congress |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2010-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224140725/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/epact_743_fuel_cell_school_bus.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Hydrogen== {{Further|Hydrogen economy}}
Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like [[fossil fuel]]s or [[helium]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uky.edu/KGS/rocksmineral/core-month-10-2018.php |title=Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky |access-date=2018-12-12 |archive-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215223700/https://www.uky.edu/KGS/rocksmineral/core-month-10-2018.php |url-status=live }}</ref> It is produced from feedstocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water.<ref name=zmorris>David Z. Morris. "[http://fortune.com/2015/10/21/japan-hydrogen-fuel/ Why Japan wants to transform into a 'hydrogen society'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404123538/http://fortune.com/2015/10/21/japan-hydrogen-fuel/ |date=2016-04-04 }}" ''[[Fortune (magazine)]]'', 21 October 2015. Quote: "Unlike gasoline, solar, or nuclear, hydrogen isn’t an energy source—just a method of energy storage. “Hydrogen is an energy carrier in the same sense that electricity is,” says David Keith"</ref> A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors.<ref name=Schultz>Schultz, M.G., Thomas Diehl, Guy P. Brasseur, and Werner Zittel. [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5645/624 "Air Pollution and Climate-Forcing Impacts of a Global Hydrogen Economy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828182004/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5645/624 |date=2007-08-28 }}, ''Science'', October 24, 2003 302: 624-627</ref> However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from [[methane]]. It can be produced by thermochemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feedstocks, but that is an expensive process.<ref name=Production/>
Renewable electricity can however be used to power the conversion of water into hydrogen: Integrated wind-to-hydrogen ([[power to gas]]) plants, using [[electrolysis of water]], are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|title=Wind-to-Hydrogen Project|date=September 2009|work=Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=7 January 2010|location=Golden, CO|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826043817/http://nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|archive-date=26 August 2009}}</ref> The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include its storage on board the vehicle. As of September 2023, hydrogen cost $36 per kilogram at public fueling stations in California, 14 times as much per mile for a Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3.<ref>Agatie, Cristian. [https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hydrogen-cars-are-dead-as-projects-are-scrapped-and-refueling-prices-go-through-the-roof-221373.html "Hydrogen Cars Are Dead as Projects Are Scrapped and Refueling Prices Go Through the Roof"], ''Auto Evolution'', September 20, 2023</ref>
===Production=== {{Further|Hydrogen production}} The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing [[natural gas]], [[coal]] (by a process known as coal gasification), [[liquefied petroleum gas]], [[biomass]] ([[biomass gasification]]), by a process called [[thermolysis]], or as a microbial waste product called [[biohydrogen]] or [[biological hydrogen production (Algae)|Biological hydrogen production]]. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas.<ref name=Stupendous>Suplee, Curt. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/16/AR2009111602668.html "Don't bet on a hydrogen car anytime soon"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604113305/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/16/AR2009111602668.html |date=2011-06-04 }}. ''Washington Post'', November 17, 2009</ref> Hydrogen can be produced from water by [[electrolysis]] at working efficiencies of 65–70%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hyweb.de/Knowledge/w-i-energiew-eng3.html#3.4 |title= Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis |work=HyWeb: Knowledge – Hydrogen in the Energy Sector |author= Werner Zittel |author2= Reinhold Wurster |publisher= Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH |date= 8 July 1996 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070207080325/http://www.hyweb.de/Knowledge/w-i-energiew-eng3.html#3.4 |archive-date= 7 February 2007}}</ref> Hydrogen can be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.<ref>L. Soler, J. Macanás, M. Muñoz, J. Casado. Journal of Power Sources 169 (2007) 144-149</ref> Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the [[higher heating value]] of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.<ref name="Kreith">[[Frank Kreith|F. Kreith]], "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Utilization" in ''Journal of Energy Resources Technology'' (2004), 126: 249–257.</ref>
Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from [[fossil energy]] resources include the emission of [[greenhouse gases|greenhouse gasses]], a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen.<ref name="EFCF">Bossel, Ulf. [http://www.efcf.com/reports/E21.pdf "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724184256/http://www.efcf.com/reports/E21.pdf|date=2008-07-24}} Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006</ref> Hydrogen production using [[renewable energy]] resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.<ref name=DOE>{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer/txt/ptb1101.html |title=US Energy Information Administration, "World Primary Energy Production by Source, 1970–2004" |publisher=Eia.doe.gov |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2010-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602065736/http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer/txt/ptb1101.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, [[Iceland]] is using [[geothermal power]] to produce hydrogen,<ref>[http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120724042846/http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm |date=2012-07-24 }}. Retrieved 17-July-2007.</ref> and [[Denmark]] is using [[Wind power|wind]].<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926231034/http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=48873 First Danish Hydrogen Energy Plant Is Operational]}}. Retrieved 17-July-2007.</ref>
===Storage=== {{Further|Hydrogen storage}} [[Image:Blue diamond compressed hydrogen.jpg|thumb|upright|Compressed hydrogen storage mark]] Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology.<ref name=store>{{cite web|title=Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484|last1=Eberle|first1=Ulrich|first2=Bernd|last2=Mueller|first3=Rittmar|last3=von Helmolt|publisher=[[Energy & Environmental Science]]|access-date=2014-12-19|archive-date=2014-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209172012/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484_Fuel_cell_electric_vehicles_and_hydrogen_infrastructure_status_2012?ev=prf_pub|url-status=live}}</ref>
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric [[energy density]] at ambient conditions, compared with gasoline and other vehicle fuels.<ref name=lanz>{{cite web | url = http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf | title = Hydrogen Properties | last = Lanz | first = Walter | date = December 2001 | website = U.S. Department of Energy | publisher = College of the Desert | at = Energy Density | access-date = 2015-10-05 | quote = On this basis, hydrogen’s energy density is poor (since it has such low density) although its energy to weight ratio is the best of all fuels (because it is so light). | archive-date = 2017-07-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144015/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super-cooled liquid or as highly compressed gas, which require additional energy to accomplish.<ref name=zubrin121>{{cite book | last= Zubrin | first= Robert |author-link= Robert Zubrin | year= 2007 | title= Energy Victory: Winning the War on Terror by Breaking Free of Oil | location= Amherst, New York | publisher= Prometheus Books | page= 121 | isbn= 978-1-59102-591-7}}</ref> In 2018, researchers at [[CSIRO]] in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology. Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen.<ref>Mealey, Rachel. [http://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/worldtoday/automotive-hydrogen-membranes-huge-breakthrough-for-cars/10089510 ”Automotive hydrogen membranes-huge breakthrough for cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610103856/https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/worldtoday/automotive-hydrogen-membranes-huge-breakthrough-for-cars/10089510 |date=2019-06-10 }}, [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]], August 8, 2018</ref>
===Infrastructure===<!-- This section is linked from [[Hydrogen economy]] -->
{{Further|Hydrogen infrastructure}} [[File:Hydrogen refueling.jpg|thumb|The refueling of a Hydrogen-powered vehicle. The vehicle is a [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]] [[Hyundai Nexo|Nexo]]. [[Condensation]] around the handle due to the hydrogen gas expanding, caused the handle to freeze.]] To enable the delivery of hydrogen fuel to transport end-users, a broad range of investments are needed, including, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the "construction and operation of new port infrastructure, buffer storage, pipelines, ships, [[hydrogen station|refueling stations]] and plants to convert the hydrogen into a more readily transportable commodity (and potentially back to hydrogen)".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cozzi |first1=Laura |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Gould |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=400}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref> In particular, the IEA notes that refueling stations will be needed in locations that are suitable for long‐distance trucking such as industrial hubs and identifies the need for investment in airport infrastructure for the storage and delivery of hydrogen. The IEA deems the infrastructure requirements for hydrogen in shipping more challenging, drawing attention to the "need for major investments and co‐ordinated efforts among fuel suppliers, ports, shipbuilders and shippers".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Laura |first1=Cozzi |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Goild |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=148–149}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>
{{as of|2024}}, there were 53 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 52 of which were [[California Hydrogen Highway|located in California]] (compared with 65,000 electric charging stations).<ref name=afdc>[https://afdc.energy.gov/stations/states Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315024543/http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/stations_counts.html |date=2016-03-15}}, ''Alternative Fuels Data Center'', accessed July 21, 2024</ref><ref>Jones, Nicola. [http://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/whatever-happened-to-the-hydrogen-highway/Content?oid=2283903 "Whatever happened to the hydrogen highway?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312095018/http://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/whatever-happened-to-the-hydrogen-highway/content?oid=2283903 |date=2016-03-12 }}, ''Pique'', February 9, 2012, accessed March 17, 2016</ref> By 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.<ref name="auto">Voelcker, John. [http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1110239_energy-use-for-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-higher-than-electrics-even-hybrids-analysis "Energy use for hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles: higher than electrics, even hybrids (analysis)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032704/https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1110239_energy-use-for-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-higher-than-electrics-even-hybrids-analysis |date=2021-03-02 }}, ''Green Car Reports'', May 4, 2017</ref> In 2024, Mirai owners filed a [[class action]] lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty.<ref name=Martin2024/>
===Codes and standards=== Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for [[hydrogen safety]] and the [[hydrogen storage|storage of hydrogen]], have been an institutional barrier to deploying [[hydrogen technologies]]. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/codes_standards.html |title=DOE codes and standards |publisher=Hydrogen.energy.gov |access-date=2011-01-31 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719104208/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/codes_standards.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Official support==
===U.S. initiatives=== Fuel cell buses are supported.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GSA's Transit Bus Program Awards Include First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Bus Offerings |url=https://www.gsa.gov/about-us/newsroom/news-releases/gsas-transit-bus-program-awards-include-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-bus-offerings-12212021 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=www.gsa.gov|date=21 December 2021 }}</ref>
The [[New York State Energy Research and Development Authority]] (NYSERDA) has created incentives for hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks and buses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Hydrogen Laws and Incentives in New York |url=https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/laws/HY?state=ny |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=afdc.energy.gov}}</ref>
==Criticism of hydrogen cars== Critics argue that implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen in cars is unlikely during at least the next several decades<ref name="TechRev">{{cite web | url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2007/03/01/226486/hell-and-hydrogen/ | work=MIT Technology Review | title=Hell and Hydrogen | date=1 March 2007 | publisher=MIT | access-date=5 June 2020 | archive-date=31 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731213257/https://www.technologyreview.com/2007/03/01/226486/hell-and-hydrogen | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Meyers1">Meyers, Jeremy P. [http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/wtr/wtr08/wtr08_p36-39.pdf "Getting Back Into Gear: Fuel Cell Development After the Hype"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725081653/http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/wtr/wtr08/wtr08_p36-39.pdf |date=2011-07-25 }}. The Electrochemical Society ''Interface'', Winter 2008, pp. 36–39, accessed August 7, 2011</ref> and that the hydrogen car is a dangerous distraction from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of [[fossil fuels]] in vehicles.<ref>White, Charlie. [http://dvice.com/archives/2008/07/shift_hydrogen.php "Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are a fraud"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619223554/http://www.dvice.com/archives/2008/07/shift_hydrogen.php |date=2014-06-19 }} Dvice TV, July 31, 2008</ref><ref>Squatriglia, Chuck. [https://www.wired.com/cars/energy/news/2008/05/hydrogen?currentPage=1 "Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327161701/http://www.wired.com/cars/energy/news/2008/05/hydrogen?currentPage=1 |date=2014-03-27 }}, ''Wired'', May 12, 2008</ref>
Former [[U.S. Department of Energy]] official [[Joseph Romm]] has said: "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases."<ref name=Boyd>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/staff/robert_boyd/story/16179.html |title=Hydrogen cars may be a long time coming |last=Boyd |first=Robert S. |date=May 15, 2007 |publisher=McClatchy Newspapers |access-date=9 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501193814/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/staff/robert_boyd/story/16179.html |archive-date=1 May 2009 }}</ref> He has argued that the cost to build out a nationwide network of hydrogen refueling stations would be prohibitive.<ref>{{cite book|last=Romm| first=Joseph| year=2025|edition=2nd|title=The Hype about Hydrogen|url=https://archive.org/details/hypeabouthydroge0000romm|url-access=registration| location=New York|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-55963-703-9}} ({{ISBN|1-55963-703-X}})</ref><ref>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/13/3467289/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-car "Tesla Trumps Toyota Part II: The Big Problem With Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821024547/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/13/3467289/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-car/ |date=2014-08-21 }}, CleanProgress.com, August 13, 2014; [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/25/3470965/toyota-tesla-electric-vehicles-hydrogen-cars "Tesla Trumps Toyota 3: Why Electric Vehicles Are Beating Hydrogen Cars Today"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408233020/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/25/3470965/toyota-tesla-electric-vehicles-hydrogen-cars/ |date=2015-04-08 }}, CleanProgress.com, August 25, 2014; and Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can't Compete with Pure Electric Cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821024845/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries |date=2014-08-21}}, CleanProgress.com, August 5, 2014</ref> [[Robert Zubrin]], the author of ''[[Energy Victory]]'', stated: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".<ref name=Economist>Wrigglesworth, Phil. [https://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11999229 "The car of the perpetual future"'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520141647/http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11999229 |date=2017-05-20 }} September 4, 2008, retrieved on September 15, 2008</ref> As of 2024, more than 95% hydrogen was still produced using [[steam methane reforming|steam methane reformation]] (about 95% is [[grey hydrogen]], most of the rest is [[blue hydrogen]], and only about 1% is [[green hydrogen]]),<ref>[https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/how-clean-green-hydrogen "Ask MIT Climate: How Clean Is Green Hydrogen?"], MIT, February 27, 2024</ref> which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as today's gasoline cars, but even if more hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."<ref name=Economist/> Over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.<ref name=UCDavis>[http://www.digitaltrends.com/lifestyle/cars-lifestyle/hydrogen-cars-lifecycle-emits-more-carbon-than-gas-cars-study-says/ "Hydrogen Cars' Lifecycle Emits More Carbon Than Gas Cars, Study Says"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106211628/http://www.digitaltrends.com/lifestyle/cars-lifestyle/hydrogen-cars-lifecycle-emits-more-carbon-than-gas-cars-study-says/ |date=2010-01-06 }} ''[[Digital Trends]]'', January 1, 2010</ref><ref name=Cox2014/> ''[[The Washington Post]]'' asked in 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries"?<ref name=Stupendous/><ref>Chatsko, Maxx. [http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2013/11/23/1-giant-obstacle-keeping-hydrogen-fuel-out-of-your.aspx "1 Giant Obstacle Keeping Hydrogen Fuel Out of Your Gas Tank"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126034837/http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2013/11/23/1-giant-obstacle-keeping-hydrogen-fuel-out-of-your.aspx |date=2013-11-26 }}, ''The Motley Fool'', November 23, 2013</ref>
Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."<ref name=Blanco2013>Blanco, Sebastian. [http://green.autoblog.com/2013/11/20/vws-krebs-talks-hydrogen-says-most-efficient-way-to-convert "VW's Krebs talks hydrogen, says 'most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125032735/http://green.autoblog.com/2013/11/20/vws-krebs-talks-hydrogen-says-most-efficient-way-to-convert/ |date=2013-11-25 }}, ''[[AutoblogGreen]]'', November 20, 2013</ref> A 2016 study in ''[[Energy (journal)|Energy]]'' by scientists at [[Stanford University]] and the [[Technical University of Munich]] concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all-electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pvbuzz.com/electric-cars-better| title=Battery electric cars are a better choice for emissions reduction| publisher=PVBuzz.com| date=15 November 2016| access-date=16 November 2016| archive-date=21 April 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421152125/http://www.pvbuzz.com/electric-cars-better/| url-status=live}}</ref>
A 2017 analysis published in ''Green Car Reports'' concluded that the best hydrogen-fuel-cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle ... generate more [[greenhouse gas emissions]] than other powertrain technologies ... [and have] very high fuel costs. ... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption.<ref name="auto"/> The US Department of Energy agrees, for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis, but not for most other pathways for generation.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/emissions_hydrogen.html| title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Emissions| website=www.afdc.energy.gov| access-date=May 14, 2017| archive-date=April 20, 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420115636/http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/emissions_hydrogen.html| url-status=live}}</ref> A 2019 video by ''Real Engineering'' concluded that the hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.<ref>Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique. [https://insideevs.com/features/373145/video-compares-bev-fcevs-energy-efficient "This Video Compares BEVs to FCEVs and the More Efficient Is..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026223013/https://insideevs.com/features/373145/video-compares-bev-fcevs-energy-efficient/ |date=2020-10-26 }}, InsideEVs.com, September 29, 2019</ref>
Assessments since 2020 have concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are from 80% to 95% efficient.<ref>{{cite web| last=Baxter| first=Tom| url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html| title=Hydrogen cars won't overtake electric vehicles because they're hampered by the laws of science| work=The Conversation| date=3 June 2020| access-date=4 June 2020| archive-date=31 July 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731213342/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.slashgear.com/833231/heres-why-hydrogen-cars-were-doomed-to-fail |title=Here's Why Hydrogen Cars Were Doomed to Fail |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ray |date=April 14, 2022 |website=SlashGear |access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> A 2021 assessment by ''CleanTechnica'' found that the vast majority of hydrogen was being produced was still polluting [[grey hydrogen]], and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure, while the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology."<ref name=Morris/> A 2022 study in ''[[Nature Electronics]]'' agreed.<ref>Plötz, Patrick. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport"], ''[[Nature Electronics]]'', vol. 5, pp. 8–10, January 31, 2022</ref> Another 2022 article, in ''[[Recharge News]]'', stated that ships are more likely to be powered by ammonia or methanol than hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parkes (627156db9d68b) |first=Rachel |date=2022-05-03 |title=Liquid hydrogen as shipping fuel – Pioneering intercontinental H2 carrier gets technical green light |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/liquid-hydrogen-as-shipping-fuel-pioneering-intercontinental-h2-carrier-gets-technical-green-light/2-1-1211897 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Recharge}}</ref> Also in 2022, Germany's [[Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research|Fraunhofer Institute]] concluded that hydrogen is unlikely to play a major role in road transport.<ref name="Collins l_collins"/>
A 2023 study by the [[Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research]] (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=CICERO/>
==Safety and supply== {{Main|Hydrogen safety}} Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of the low [[ignition energy]] (see also [[autoignition temperature]]) and high combustion energy of hydrogen, and because it tends to leak easily from tanks due to its small [[molecular size]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Utgikar | first1 = Vivek P | last2 = Thiesen | first2 = Todd| title = Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles | journal = Technology in Society | year = 2005| volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 315–320 | doi = 10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005}}</ref> In 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device".<ref name=Nexo2024/> [[Hydrogen embrittlement]] is also a concern for the storage tank material, as well as the car parts surrounding the tank if chronic leakage is present. Hydrogen is odorless so leakages are not easily picked up without specialized detectors.<ref>Lee, Jonathan A. [https://core.ac.uk/reader/84914440 "Hydrogen Embrittlement"], NASA, April 2016</ref>
Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| title=Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt| publisher=EV Talk| first=Geoff| last=Dobson| date=12 June 2019| access-date=13 June 2019| archive-date=23 June 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623185430/http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations.<ref>{{cite news| last=Woodrow| first=Melanie| url=https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775| title=Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion| publisher=ABC news| date=3 June 2019| access-date=13 June 2019| archive-date=8 June 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608025606/https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775/| url-status=live}}</ref>
==Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle== {{main|Alternative fuel vehicle}} Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern [[fossil fuel]] [[internal combustion engine]] (ICE) vehicle infrastructure.<ref name=RSC2/>
===Natural gas=== {{Main|Natural gas vehicle}} ICE-based [[compressed natural gas]] (CNG), [[HCNG]], [[Liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] or [[Liquefied natural gas|LNG]] vehicles, collectively called [[natural gas vehicle]]s (NGVs), use [[methane]] harvested from [[natural gas]] or [[Biogas]] as a fuel source. Methane has a higher [[energy density]] than hydrogen, and NGVs from Biogas are nearly [[carbon neutral]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epa.gov/ncer/p3/press/04_22_07.html|title=Car Fueled With Biogas From Cow Manure: WWU Students Convert Methane Into Natural Gas|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-date=14 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101650/http://epa.gov/ncer/p3/press/04_22_07.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicle technology has been available for many decades, and there is sufficient infrastructure in existing filling stations to provide both commercial and home refueling. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011, mostly in the form of [[bi-fuel vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ngvjournal.dreamhosters.com/en/statistics/item/911-worldwide-ngv-statistics |title=Worldwide NGV Statistics |publisher=NGV Journal |access-date=2012-04-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220030004/http://www.ngvjournal.dreamhosters.com/en/statistics/item/911-worldwide-ngv-statistics |archive-date=2012-02-20 }}</ref> The other use for natural gas is in [[steam reforming]] which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells.<ref name=Realising/>
Methane is also an alternative [[rocket fuel]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The wild physics of Elon Musk's methane-guzzling super-rocket |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/spacex-raptor-engine-starship |access-date=2022-05-16 |issn=1357-0978}}</ref>
=== Plug-in electric === {{main|Plug-in electric vehicle}}
==== Plug-in hybrid ==== {{Main|Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle}} [[Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEVs) are [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s that can be plugged into the electric grid to recharge the [[electric vehicle battery|on-board battery pack]], rather than relying purely on the internal combustion engine to drive a [[electric generator|generator]] to power the [[electric motor]] and battery pack as in conventional hybrid vehicles. The PHEV concept augments the vehicle's [[fuel efficiency]] by allowing more [[EV mode]] driving, at the same time alleviating [[range anxiety]] by having the internal combustion engine (typically a [[turbocharger|turbo]] [[petrol engine]]) as an auxiliary [[powerplant]] or [[range extender]].
==== Battery electric ==== {{main|Battery electric vehicle}} In the light road vehicle segment, by 2023, 26 million battery electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,<ref name=Outlook2023/> and there were 65,730 public [[charging station]]s in North America, in addition to the availability of home and workplace charging via [[AC power plugs and sockets]].<ref>[https://afdc.energy.gov/stations/#/find/nearest?fuel=ELEC "Alternative Fueling Station Locator"], Alternative Fuels Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy, accessed September 9, 2023</ref> Long distance [[electric truck]]s require more [[Megawatt Charging System|megawatt charging infrastructure]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-30 |title=Megawatt charging network for long-haul trucks eeNews Power |url=https://www.eenewspower.com/en/megawatt-charging-network-for-long-haul-trucks/ |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=EENewsEurope}}</ref>
=== Aviation biofuel === [[Hannah Ritchie]] has argued that there may not be enough land to produce enough [[aviation biofuel]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |title=How much biofuel would we need to decarbonise aviation? |url=https://www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com/p/aviation-part-two |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com}}</ref>
==See also== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} *[[Airship]] *[[Alternative fuel vehicle]] *[[Bivalent (engine)|Bivalent engine]] *[[Carbon-neutral fuel]] *[[Hydrogen transport]] *[[Hydrogen economy]] *''[[The Hype about Hydrogen]]'' *[[Hydrogen fuel enhancement]] {{div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist|2}}
==External links== {{Commons}} *[http://www.fuelcellpartnership.net/ California Fuel Cell Partnership homepage] *[http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/ Fuel Cell Today - Market-based intelligence on the fuel cell industry] *[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/ U.S. Dept. of Energy hydrogen pages] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060922205719/http://www.ca.sandia.gov/crf/research/combustionEngines/PFI.php Sandia Corporation – Hydrogen internal combustion engine description] *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/business-11297410 Inside world's first hydrogen-powered production car] BBC News, 14 September 2010 *[https://arena.gov.au/blog/toyota-altona-plant-breathes-new-life-with-renewables/ Toyota Ecopark Hydrogen Demonstration] ARENAWIRE, 22 March 2019 {{Fuel cells}} {{Alternative propulsion}} {{Emerging technologies|transport=yes}} {{Motorcycle components}} {{Automobile configuration}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hydrogen Vehicle}} [[Category:Hydrogen vehicles| ]] [[Category:Automotive technologies]] [[Category:Hydrogen technologies]] [[Category:Hydrogen economy]]