1978 Atlantic hurricane season

{{Short description|none}}  {{good article}} {{Infobox hurricane season | Basin=Atl | Year=1978 | Track=1978 Atlantic hurricane season summary map.png | First storm formed=January 18, 1978 | Last storm dissipated=November 1, 1978 | Strongest storm by winds name=Ella | Strongest storm by winds winds = 120 | Strongest storm by winds pressure = 956 | Strongest storm by pressure name=Greta | Strongest storm by pressure winds=115 | Strongest storm by pressure pressure=947 | Average wind speed=1 | Total depressions=24 | Total storms=12 | Total hurricanes=5 | Total intense=2 | Fatalities=42 total | Damages=141 | Season timeline=Timeline of the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season | five seasons=1976, 1977, '''1978''', 1979, 1980 |East Pacific season=1978 Pacific hurricane season |North Indian season=1978 North Indian Ocean cyclone season |West Pacific season=1978 Pacific typhoon season }} The '''1978 Atlantic hurricane season''' was a slightly above average hurricane season in terms of number of named storms. Eleven tropical cyclones were named in all, and five of these became hurricanes; two of the five became a major hurricane (Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale).<ref name="mwr">{{cite report|author=Miles B. Lawrence|date=April 1979|title=Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1978|publisher=National Hurricane Center; National Weather Service; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1978.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080923022550/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1978.pdf| archive-date=September 23, 2008 |url-status= live|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> This was also the last Atlantic hurricane season to use an all-female naming list.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1454&dat=19780513&id=07osAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PBMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6750,2499859|title=Hurricane Bob?|date=May 13, 1978|newspaper=Wilmington Morning Star|access-date=July 20, 2023|via=Google News}}</ref> The season officially began on June 1, 1978, and ended on November 30, 1978. These dates, adopted by convention, denote the period in each year when most tropical cyclogenesis occurs in the Atlantic basin.<ref name="seasondates">{{cite web |title=Hurricanes Frequently Asked Questions |date=June 1, 2023 |url=https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd-faq/#hurricane-season |access-date=July 20, 2023 |publisher=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory |location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> However, the formation of subtropical or tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year, as shown by the formation of an unnamed subtropical storm on January 18.

Three storms made landfall along the coast of the western Gulf of Mexico during the season. At the end of July and into early August, short-lived Tropical Storm Amelia and its remnants caused extensive flooding in Texas after dropping as much as {{convert|48|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rain. There were 33 deaths and US$110 million (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US-GDP|110|1978|r=2}} million in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) in damage. Also in August, Tropical Storm Bess made landfall in Veracruz, and later, Tropical Storm Debra did so in Louisiana. Neither caused significant damage, though Debra or its remnants spawned multiple tornadoes that killed two people. Hurricanes Ella and Greta each reached Category 4 strength. Though remaining out at sea, Ella did lash the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada with gusty winds and rip currents in early September. Greta brought strong winds, high tides, and flooding to Central America, particularly Belize and Honduras, resulting in about $25 million in damage and at least five fatalities. The storm crossed intact into the eastern Pacific Ocean and was renamed ''Olivia''. Overall, the storms of this season collectively caused $141 million in damage and 42 fatalities.

== Season summary == {{center|<timeline> ImageSize = width:800 height:240 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:80 right:20 left:20 Legend = columns:3 left:30 top:58 columnwidth:270

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PlotData= barset:Hurricane width:10 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till from:18/01/1978 till:23/01/1978 color:TS text:"One" (SS) from:21/06/1978 till:23/06/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:10/07/1978 till:12/07/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:30/07/1978 till:01/08/1978 color:TS text:"Amelia (TS)" from:06/08/1978 till:08/08/1978 color:TS text:"Bess" (TS) from:07/08/1978 till:12/08/1978 color:C1 text:"Cora (C1)" from:07/08/1978 till:11/08/1978 color:TD text:"Four" (TD) from:09/08/1978 till:10/08/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:26/08/1978 till:29/08/1978 color:TS text:"Debra (TS)" from:30/08/1978 till:05/09/1978 color:C4 text:"Ella (C4)" barset:break from:30/08/1978 till:01/09/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:03/09/1978 till:11/09/1978 color:TD text:"Eight" (TD) from:04/09/1978 till:15/09/1978 color:C2 text:"Flossie" (C2) from:08/09/1978 till:10/09/1978 color:TD text:"Nine" (TD) from:12/09/1978 till:21/09/1978 color:TS text:"Hope" (TS) from:13/09/1978 till:20/09/1978 color:C4 text:"Greta (C4)" from:18/09/1978 till:29/09/1978 color:TD text:"Twelve" (TD) from:21/09/1978 till:23/09/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:02/10/1978 till:05/10/1978 color:TS text:"Irma" (TS) from:07/10/1978 till:11/10/1978 color:TS text:"Juliet" (TS) barset:break from:15/10/1978 till:19/10/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:26/10/1978 till:29/10/1978 color:TD text:"TD" from:28/10/1978 till:01/11/1978 color:C1 text:"Kendra" (C1) from:03/11/1978 till:04/11/1978 color:TD text:"TD"

bar:Month width:5 align:center fontsize:S shift:(0,-20) anchor:middle color:canvas from:01/01/1978 till:01/02/1978 text:January from:01/02/1978 till:01/03/1978 text:February from:01/03/1978 till:01/04/1978 text:March from:01/04/1978 till:01/05/1978 text:April from:01/05/1978 till:01/06/1978 text:May from:01/06/1978 till:01/07/1978 text:June from:01/07/1978 till:01/08/1978 text:July from:01/08/1978 till:01/09/1978 text:August from:01/09/1978 till:01/10/1978 text:September from:01/10/1978 till:01/11/1978 text:October from:01/11/1978 till:01/12/1978 text:November

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[[File:Greta 1978-09-18 1500Z.jpg|thumb|right|Hurricane Greta directly north of Honduras on September 18]] The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1978.<ref name="seasondates"/> Although 24 tropical cyclones developed, only twelve of them reached tropical storm intensity,{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} which is slightly above the 1966-2009 average of 11.3 named storms per season.<ref name="climo">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/|title=Tropical Cyclone Climatology|date=March 19, 2014|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=May 30, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Of the twelve tropical storms, five of them strengthened into a hurricane,{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} which is slightly below the 1966-2009 average of 6.2.<ref name="climo"/> Two of the five hurricane became major hurricanes,{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} which is Category 3 or greater on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.<ref name="sshws">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php|title=Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale|date=May 23, 2013|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=May 25, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Three tropical storms and two hurricanes made landfall during the season. Collectively, the tropical cyclones of the 1978 season caused at least 42 fatalities and $141 million,<ref>{{cite report|author=David M. Roth|date=January 17, 2010|title=Texas Hurricane History|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=Weather Prediction Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/txhur.pdf|location=Camp Springs, Maryland}} * {{cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=December 2, 1978|title=U.S. Escaped Direct Hit in 'Average' Season This Year, But That Could Change|newspaper=The Evening Independent|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=7KdRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4FgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5284,365118&dq|location=Miami, Florida}} * {{cite news|agency=Associated Press |date=August 22, 1978|title=St. Lucia Youth Electrocuted During Storm|newspaper=The Virgin Islands Daily News|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oGBOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=C0cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5394,2391887&dq=|location=Castries, Saint Lucia}} * {{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/prenhc/prelim_greta_13-23.03.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Hurricane Greta (& Hurricane Olivia)|page=3|year=1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 6, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> with $6 million in damage and one death in Puerto Rico from the precursor of Hurricane Kendra.<ref name="mwr"/> The season officially ended on November 30, 1978.<ref name="seasondates"/>

Tropical cyclogenesis began very early, with the development of a subtropical storm on January 18. It dissipated about five days later. However, the next tropical cyclone, an unnumbered depression, did not develop until June 21. In July, there were two systems, including an unnumbered tropical depression and Tropical Storm Amelia. Seven tropical cyclones formed in August, including Tropical Depression Four, tropical storms Bess and Debra and hurricanes Cora and Ella. There were also seven systems in September – tropical depressions Eight, Nine, and Twelve, Tropical Storm Hope, and hurricanes Flossie and Greta. During the month of October, there were five tropical cyclones, with two unnumbered tropical depressions, tropical storms Irma and Juliet, and Hurricane Kendra. There was another unnumbered tropical depression in November, which dissipated on November 5.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 63. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity.<ref name="HRDat">{{cite report|work=Hurricane Research Division; Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=September 2021|title=Atlantic basin Comparison of Original and Revised HURDAT|access-date=September 28, 2021|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/comparison_table.html}}</ref>

== Systems ==

=== Unnamed subtropical storm === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Type=subtropical |Image=SS One 1978-01-21 1230Z.jpg |Track=1978 Atlantic subtropical storm 1 track.png |Formed=January 18 |Dissipated=January 23 |1-min winds=40 |Pressure=1002 }} {{see also|List of off-season Atlantic hurricanes}} In the middle of January, an upper-level trough in the westerlies spawned a surface low-pressure area to the east-northeast of the Lesser Antilles and to the south of a subtropical ridge. Isolated from the detrimental effects of the westerlies, it was initially non-tropical in nature and intensified through a baroclinic energy source, or one that derives energy from the interaction of cold and warm air. Convection increased slightly despite cool sea surface temperatures of around {{convert|75|°F|°C|abbr=on}}. At 1200 UTC on January 18, it organized into a subtropical depression about {{convert|1725|mi|km|abbr=on}} east-northeast of Puerto Rico while moving in a general westward track, which it would maintain for much of its duration.<ref name="mwr"/> The National Hurricane Center (NHC) initiated Dvorak classifications on the cyclone at 0000 UTC on January 19, assessing a Dvorak number of T2.5, suggesting both tropical and subtropical characteristics.<ref>{{cite report|author=JBL|date=January 19, 1978|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0082-jpg/1978/atlantic/st%231/satcws/saw190030z.jpg|title=Tropical and Subtropical Cyclone Classification on Subtropical Storm One (1)|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> On the same day, the pressure gradient between the storm and the ridge produced gale-force winds.<ref name="mwr"/> By early on January 20, the storm maintained minimal convection near its center, with its primary rainband revolved in a cyclonic formation around its well-defined center.<ref>{{cite report|author=MM|date=January 20, 1978|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0082-jpg/1978/atlantic/st%231/satcws/saw201830z.jpg|title=Tropical and Subtropical Cyclone Classification on Subtropical Storm One|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Later that day, the storm strengthened into a subtropical storm and attained peak winds of {{convert|45|mph|km/h|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite report|author=SCT|date=January 20, 1978|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0082-jpg/1978/atlantic/st%231/satcws/saw210630z.jpg|title=Tropical and Subtropical Cyclone Classification on Subtropical Storm One|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> supported by both ship and Hurricane Hunters reports.<ref name="mwr"/>

After the storm maintained peak winds for about 36 hours, the outer rainbands to the south and east of the center began diminishing late on January 21, which began a weakening trend.<ref>{{cite report|author=MM|date=January 21, 1978|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0082-jpg/1978/atlantic/st%231/satcws/saw201830z.jpg|title=Tropical and Subtropical Cyclone Classification on Subtropical Storm One|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> At around that time, the cyclone was moving west-southwestward, and within 72 hours was forecast by one hurricane forecast model to be located over Hispaniola.<ref>{{cite report|date=January 21, 1978|title=SANBAR Model Forecast for Subtropical Storm One|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0082-jpg/1978/atlantic/st%231/modelout/fcst211200z.jpg}}</ref> By midday on January 22, the winds decreased to below gale force after the convection dissipated near the center.<ref>{{cite report|author=JBL|date=January 21, 1978|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0082-jpg/1978/atlantic/st%231/satcws/saw221230z.jpg|title=Tropical and Subtropical Cyclone Classification on Subtropical Storm One|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Subsequently, it turned more to the west away from land, and by January 23 the circulation degenerated into a remnant trough about {{convert|185|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of the Lesser Antilles.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} The storm was one of six tropical or subtropical cyclones on record to be active in the month of January, and one of four to have formed in the month.<ref name="meta">{{cite report|author=Christopher W. Landsea|date=December 2012|title=Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT (1938)|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|work=Hurricane Research Division|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html#1938_1|display-authors=etal}}</ref> {{clear}}

=== Tropical Storm Amelia === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Amelia 1978-07-30 1800Z.jpg |Track=Amelia 1978 track.png |Formed=July 30 |Dissipated=August 1 |1-min winds=45 |Pressure=1005 }} {{Main|Tropical Storm Amelia (1978)}} A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on July 19. The wave did not develop significantly while crossing the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea. The disturbance then entered an area of the Gulf of Mexico that was conducive to tropical cyclogenesis and became a tropical depression while located about {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Brownsville, Texas on July 30. Despite its proximity to land, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Amelia on July 31 and peaked with winds of {{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. Around that time, Amelia made landfall near Port Isabel, Texas.<ref name="atcr1">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/amelia/prelim01.gif|title=Tropical Storm Amelia July 30–31, 1978|author=John R. Hope|date=1978|page=1|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Later on July 31, the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated early the following day.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

Amelia affected the Texas coast for two days, causing several shipping incidents and minor damage in Corpus Christi and South Padre Island.<ref name="atcr2">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/amelia/prelim02.gif|title=Tropical Storm Amelia July 30–31, 1978|author=John R. Hope|date=1978|page=2|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> While active, there were no deaths linked to the storm.<ref name="Toledo Blade">{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=July 31, 1978|title=Tropical Storm Sinks Three Boats|publisher=Toledo Blade|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=InYUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gAIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2266,1335733&dq|location=Brownsville, Texas}}</ref> However, the biggest impact from the storm followed its dissipation, when its remnants contributed to record rainfall totals over the state.{{Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima}} The state, already suffering from a previous drought, believed that the rain would help alleviate the conditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Texas Weather|url=https://archive.org/details/texasweather0000boma|url-access=registration|author=George W. Bomar|year=1983|publisher=University of Texas Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/texasweather0000boma/page/52 52]|isbn=978-0-292-78053-8}}</ref> However, the dry ground aided the flooding from the storm.<ref name="Times-Union">{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=August 2, 1978|title=Floods in Aftermath of Tropical Storm Sweep Away Texas Homes, Cars|newspaper=Times-Union|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=zSFSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=pjUNAAAAIBAJ&pg=2458,174047&dq|location=San Antonio, Texas}}</ref><ref name="Beaver County Times">{{cite news|agency=United Press International|date=August 7, 1978|title=Texans Keep Eyes on Sky and Gulf Storm|newspaper=Beaver County Times|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bvgjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=fNsFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2587,1688411&dq| location=Graham, Texas}}</ref> The rainfall caused several rivers and creeks to flood, especially around the Texas Hill Country and northern Texas, leading to severe damage.<ref name="atcr2"/> Overall, Amelia caused 33 fatalities with an estimated $110 million in damages.<ref name="texashurricanes">{{cite report|author=David M. Roth|date=January 17, 2010|title=Texas Hurricane History|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=Weather Prediction Center|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/txhur.pdf|location=Camp Springs, Maryland}}</ref><ref name="The Evening Independent">{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=December 2, 1978|title=U.S. Escaped Direct Hit in 'Average' Season This Year, But That Could Change|newspaper=The Evening Independent|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=7KdRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4FgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5284,365118&dq|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> {{clear}}

=== Tropical Storm Bess === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Bess 1978-08-07 1500Z.jpg |Track=Bess 1978 track.png |Formed=August 6 |Dissipated=August 8 |1-min winds=45 |Pressure=1005 }} A low-pressure area developed in Georgia along a dissipating cold front on August 1. The system detached from the cold front and drifted southwestward, reaching northeastern Gulf of Mexico on August 3. Satellite imagery, buoys, and reconnaissance aircraft flights indicated that by August 5, the system likely acquired a closed circulation. Thus, the National Hurricane Center estimated that a tropical depression developed in the central Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC that day. On August 6, a reconnaissance flight into the depression resulted in an upgrade to Tropical Storm Bess, while located about {{convert|250|mi|km|abbr=on}} southeast of Brownsville, Texas. The storm had initially headed west-southwestward at {{convert|8|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}, before moving southwestward at nearly the same speed.<ref name="btcr">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0073-jpg/1978/atlantic/bess/postevent/prelim.01.jpg|page=1|title=Preliminary Report Tropical Storm Bess|author=Paul J. Hebert|date=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=January 1, 2013|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref>

At 1200 UTC on August 7, Bess attained its minimum barometric pressure of {{convert|1005|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}. Thereafter, Bess began to turn nearly due southward under the influence of a high-pressure area over southern Texas. Later on August 7, the storm reached its maximum sustained winds of {{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. Early on August 8, Bess made landfall near Nautla, Veracruz, at the same intensity and then rapidly dissipated inland.<ref name="btcr"/> In Tuxpan, Veracruz and Tampico, Tamaulipas, sustained winds reached only {{convert|29|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name="btcr2">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0073-jpg/1978/atlantic/bess/postevent/prelim.02.jpg|page=2|title=Preliminary Report Tropical Storm Bess|author=Paul J. Hebert|date=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=January 1, 2013|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> The storm also produced heavy rainfall, peaking at {{convert|12.04|in|mm|abbr=on}} in La Estrella.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/bess1978.html|title=Tropical Storm Bess - August 7–8, 1978|author=David M. Roth|date=April 27, 2010|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=Weather Prediction Center|access-date=January 1, 2013|location=Camp Springs, Maryland}}</ref> However, no flooding occurred and no damage or fatalities were reported.<ref name="btcr2"/> Its remnants emerged into the Pacific Ocean, leading to the formation of Hurricane Iva.<ref name="tropicalsystems">{{cite report|title=Atlantic Tropical Systems of 1978|author=Neil L. Frank and Gilbert B. Clark|date=August 1979|work=National Hurricane Center|volume=107 |issue=8 |pages=1035–1041 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|location=Miami, Florida|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1035:ATSO>2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref> {{clear}}

=== Hurricane Cora === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Cora 1978-08-08 1800Z.jpg |Track=Cora 1978 track.png |Formed=August 7 |Dissipated=August 12 |1-min winds=80 |Pressure=980 }} On August 4, a disturbance exited the west coast of Africa and moved quickly westward within the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Two days later, the system broke away from the ICTZ, when it started organizing. It developed into Tropical Depression Three late on August 7. A day later it intensified into Tropical Storm Cora on August 8.<ref name="ctcr1">{{cite web|year=1978| title=Preliminary Report: Hurricane Cora Page 1| publisher=NOAA| access-date=2009-04-24| url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/cora/prelim01.gif}}</ref> The storm quickly intensified and developed a well-defined eye feature. The NHC upgraded Cora to hurricane status, marking only the second time that an Atlantic hurricane was upgraded solely based on satellite photography; the first was Doris in 1975.<ref name="ctcr2">{{cite web|year=1978| title=Preliminary Report: Hurricane Cora Page 2| publisher=NOAA| access-date=2009-04-24| url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/cora/prelim02.gif}}</ref> The NHC estimated that Cora attained peak winds of {{convert|90|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on|round=5}} early on August 9.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} For much of its duration, Cora moved quickly to the west-southwest toward the Lesser Antilles. Possibly as a result of the fast forward motion, the hurricane weakened soon after reaching its peak intensity, dropping to tropical storm status on August 10. That day, a Hurricane Hunter aircraft encountered the weakening storm. Cora struck the island of Grenada on August 11 while weakening to a tropical depression. Cora degenerated into a tropical wave on August 12 in the eastern Caribbean.<ref name="ctcr4">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0074-jpg/1978/atlantic/cora/prenhc/prelim_cora_07-12.04.jpg|title=Hurricane Cora August 7–12, 1978|author=Gilbert B. Clark|date=1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|page=4|access-date=June 3, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> The remnant crossed over Central America into the Pacific Ocean, where it regenerated into Hurricane Kristy.<ref name="tropicalsystems"/>

While passing through the Lesser Antilles, Cora produced wind gusts to {{convert|45|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}, along with light rainfall in Barbados and Saint Lucia.<ref name="ctcr1"/> In the latter, a person died after stepping on a high tension power line that was downed in Castries. Approximately two to four percent of trees on the island were toppled.<ref name="Virgin Islands Daily News">{{cite news|agency=Associated Press |date=August 22, 1978|title=St. Lucia Youth Electrocuted During Storm|newspaper=The Virgin Islands Daily News|access-date=June 3, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oGBOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=C0cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5394,2391887&dq=|location=Castries, Saint Lucia}}</ref> Although it remained far to the south, Hurricane Cora affected weather conditions that reached as far north as Presque Isle, Maine, where balloonists Ben Abruzzo, Maxie Anderson, and Larry Newman were preparing to make the first ever transatlantic balloon flight on the Double Eagle II. The winds created by Cora's influence would give the hot air balloon the northerly push required for takeoff.<ref name="New Mexican">{{cite news|publisher=Associated Press|year=1978|title=Balloon Launch Awaited|newspaper=New Mexican}}</ref> {{clear}}

=== Tropical Storm Debra === {{Infobox hurricane small |Basin=Atl |Image=Debra 1978-08-28 2100Z.jpg |Track=Debra 1978 track.png |Formed=August 26 |Dissipated=August 29 |1-min winds=50 |Pressure=1000 }} An upper-level cold-core low pressure system developed over southwestern Florida in late August. The low moved southwest towards the Yucatán Peninsula over the next day, as a tropical wave drifted westwards from the Caribbean Sea. The interaction between the upper-level system and the wave led to the formation of a tropical depression on August 26 around {{convert|460|mi|km}} south of New Orleans. At first the depression drifted westward but, as the western periphery of a high-pressure area weakened, it tracked towards the north and slowly strengthened. After a reconnaissance aircraft found surface winds of 45 mph (70 km/h) on August 28, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Debra. While Debra approached the coast of Louisiana, its pressure dropped to pressure to 1000 mbar (hPa; 29.53 inHg), while the winds peaked at 60 mph (100 km/h) at 00:00 UTC on August 29. The storm made landfall between Beaumont, Texas, and Lake Charles, Louisiana, on August 28. The low crossed Louisiana into Arkansas, merging with a frontal trough on August 29; the frontal wave drifted into southern Illinois and traveled eastbound into the Ohio Valley for the next three days.<ref name="pre1">{{cite web|title=Tropical Storm Debra Preliminary Report|page=1|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/debra/prelim01.gif|year=1978|author=Pelisser, Joseph M.|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=2011-06-30}}</ref><ref name="mwr"/><ref name="pre4">{{cite web|title=Tropical Storm Debra Preliminary Report|page=4|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/debra/prelim04.gif|year=1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=2011-07-01}}</ref><ref name="pre2">{{cite web|title=Tropical Storm Debra Preliminary Report|page=2|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/debra/prelim02.gif|year=1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=2011-06-30|author=Pelisser, Joseph M.}}</ref>

Oil companies evacuated about 1,000 employees from offshore oil rigs in Texas and Louisiana.<ref name="sarasota">{{cite news|title=Tropical Storm Debra Brings Battening Down|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Lf4jAAAAIBAJ&sjid=hmcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6197,6084186&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=Sarasota Herald-Tribune|date=1978-08-29}}</ref><ref name="spokane">{{cite news|title=Storm Hits Louisiana|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QjgwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=C_kDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5788,3790704&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=Spokane Daily Chronicle|date=1978-08-29}}</ref> One person died while attempting to evacuate an oil rig to the south of Cameron, Louisiana.<ref name="mwr"/> More than 6,000 people evacuated from coastal areas of Louisiana.<ref name="eve-ind">{{cite news|title=Tropical Storm Debra Headed For Arkansas|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NExQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rlgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3533,3279238&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=The Evening Independent|date=1978-08-29}}</ref> In Louisiana, rainfall peaked at {{convert|10.81|in|mm|abbr=on}} in Freshwater Bayou.{{Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima}} There was flooding in Rapides Parish.<ref name="toledo">{{cite news|title=Tropical Storm Debra Weakens, Moves Inland|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WTBPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=fgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5784,4314115&dq=tropical+storm+debra+flooding&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=Toledo Blade|date=1978-08-29}}</ref> Five tornadoes were reported from the system in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi shortly after Debra's landfall.{{#tag:ref|Tornadoes were confirmed in Texas,<ref name="pre2"/><ref name="climatology-crh">{{cite web|title=Tornado Climatology for Southeast Texas & Southwest Louisiana|url=http://www.crh.noaa.gov/Image/lch/torclimo/torclimo.pdf|work=National Weather Service Central Region Headquarters|publisher=NWS Central Region Headquarters|access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref><ref name="ths-2">{{cite web|title=Tornado History Project: 19780828.48.128|url=http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780828.48.128|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027123759/http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780828.48.128|url-status=usurped|archive-date=October 27, 2010|work=Storm Prediction Center|publisher=Tornado History Project|access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref> Louisiana,<ref name="pre2"/><ref name="ths-1">{{cite web|title=Tornado History Project: 19780828.22.14|url=http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780828.22.14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025213431/http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780828.22.14|url-status=usurped|archive-date=October 25, 2010|work=Storm Prediction Center|publisher=Tornado History Project|access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref> Mississippi,<ref name="pre2"/><ref name="ths-3">{{cite web|title=Tornado History Project: 19780829.28.10|url=http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780829.28.10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025033035/http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780829.28.10|url-status=usurped|archive-date=October 25, 2010|work=Storm Prediction Center|publisher=Tornado History Project|access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref> Arkansas,<ref name="ths-4">{{cite web|title=Tornado History Project: 19780829.5.35|url=http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780829.5.35|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025230050/http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780829.5.35|url-status=usurped|archive-date=October 25, 2010|work=Storm Prediction Center|publisher=Tornado History Project|access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref> and Tennessee.<ref name="ths-5">{{cite web|title=Tornado History Project: 19780829.47.7|url=http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780829.47.7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025033717/http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado/19780829.47.7|url-status=usurped|archive-date=October 25, 2010|work=Storm Prediction Center|publisher=Tornado History Project|access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref>|group="note"}} A tornado spawned in Turkey Creek, Mississippi, destroyed three mobile homes and a house, killing one person and seriously injuring another; this tornado tracked on to Crystal Springs, Mississippi.<ref name="news-dispatch">{{cite news|title=Debra Spawns Tornadoes: 1 Killed, Dozens Hurt|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rUxVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cT4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1908,4048486&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=The News-Dispatch|date=1978-08-30}}</ref><ref name="Deseret">{{cite news|title=Debra lumbers inland, causes minor flooding|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ethSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9n8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4926,7399962&dq=tropical+storm+debra+flooding&hl=en|access-date=June 5, 2014|newspaper=Deseret News|date=August 29, 1978}}</ref> A confirmed tornado at the Ike settlement in Vernon Parish, knocked over a trailer.<ref name="pre2"/><ref name="eve-ind">{{cite news|title=Tropical Storm Debra Headed For Arkansas|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NExQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rlgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3533,3279238&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=The Evening Independent|date=1978-08-29}}</ref> Wind gusts reached {{convert|70|mph|km/h}} in Grand Chenier, which downed tree and damaged roofs.<ref name="pre3">{{cite web|title=Tropical Storm Debra Preliminary Report|work=National Hurricane Center|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/debra/prelim03.gif|year=1978|page=3|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|author=Pelisser, Joseph M.|access-date=2011-06-30}}</ref><ref name="stpetersburg2">{{cite news|title=Tropical storm slams into Texas, Louisiana|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=d2lQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NloDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6254,4503052&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=St. Petersburg Times|date=1978-08-29}}</ref><ref name="spokane"/> Tides at Lake Pontchartrain were {{convert|2|ft|m|lk=off}} to {{convert|3|ft|m|lk=off}} above normal.<ref name="local-4">{{cite web|title=Local Statement Number 4|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0075-jpg/1978/atlantic/debra/local/msy291000z.jpg|work=National Weather Service New Orleans, Louisiana|publisher=National Weather Service|access-date=2011-07-05}}</ref> One person was hurt in the Memphis tornado. Power was knocked out at four blocks of the Memphis International Airport, gas supplies were cut off in Memphis, and downed trees and power poles blocked many streets.<ref name="eugene">{{cite news|title=Woman dies; Elvis Boulevard hit: Spent Debra sends tornadoes through South|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BwdFAAAAIBAJ&sjid=6uEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4799,8671311&dq=tropical+debra&hl=en|access-date=2011-07-01|newspaper=Eugene Register-Guard|date=1978-08-30}}</ref> {{clear}}

=== Hurricane Ella === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Ella 1978-09-01 1900Z.jpg |Track=Ella 1978 path.png |Formed=August 30 |Dissipated=September 5 |1-min winds=120 |Pressure=956 }} Towards the end of August, a cold front stalled and dissipated across the western Atlantic Ocean, which spawned a tropical disturbance southeast of Bermuda on August 28. It developed into a tropical depression on August 30, about 520 miles (840 km) south-southeast of Bermuda. Located to the south of a subtropical ridge, the depression tracked steadily west-northwestward, becoming Tropical Storm Ella 18 hours later. The storm reached hurricane status late on August 31, based on confirmation from nearby ship reports and a Hurricane Hunters flight. On September 1, Ella reached a preliminary peak intensity of {{convert|125|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. At the same time, an approaching short-wave trough caused the hurricane to decelerate and turn slightly to the north, bringing it just off the east coast of North Carolina. Ella's winds dropped to minimal hurricane status as the convection diminished. After stalling for about 24 hours, Ella turned and accelerated to the northeast, steered by another trough. The hurricane began to significantly re-intensify. Early on September 4, Ella again reached major hurricane status, and later that day it peaked with winds of {{convert|140|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}; at the time it was about {{convert|335|mi|km}} south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and its peak winds were measured by Hurricane Hunters. This made it the strongest hurricane ever recorded in Canadian waters. Weakening began immediately after peak intensity due to cooler water temperatures. Early on September 5, Ella passed very near Cape Race, although the strongest winds were south and east of the center. Associated convection became completely removed from the center, and the hurricane became extratropical as it was absorbed by a larger mid-latitude system.<ref name="tcr">{{cite web|author=Miles B. Lawrence|publisher=National Hurricane Center|year=1978|title=Hurricane Ella Preliminary Report|access-date=2010-03-27|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/prenhc/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Frank|date=1978-08-30|title=Tropical Depression Advisory|publisher=National Hurricane Center|access-date=2010-03-27|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/public/pub302200z.jpg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Hebert|date=1978-08-30|title=Tropical Storm Ella Special Advisory One|publisher=National Hurricane Center|access-date=2010-03-27|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/public/pub310100z.jpg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Miles Lawrence|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=1978-08-31|title=Hurricane Ella Discussion|access-date=2010-03-28|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/tropdisc/tcd3121z.jpg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Pelissier|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=1978-09-02|title=Hurricane Ella Discussion|access-date=2010-03-28|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/tropdisc/tcd0209z.jpg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Pelissier|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=1978-09-03|title=Hurricane Ella Discussion|access-date=2010-03-28|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/tropdisc/tcd0309z.jpg}}</ref><ref name="Canada">{{cite report|date=September 14, 2010|publisher=Environment Canada|title=1978-Ella|access-date=May 10, 2021|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/Hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=DB671096-1|location=Moncton, New Brunswick|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118082039/http://www.ec.gc.ca/Hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=DB671096-1|archive-date=November 18, 2018}}</ref><ref name="a24">{{cite web|author=John Hope|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=1978-09-05|title=Hurricane Ella Advisory 24|access-date=2010-03-28|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/public/pub050400z.jpg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Miles Lawrence|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=1978-09-05|title=Hurricane Ella Discussion|access-date=2010-03-28|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/tropdisc/tcd0509z.jpg}}</ref>

The hurricane prompted a hurricane watch for the Outer Banks of North Carolina during Labor Day Weekend, resulting in a significant decrease in tourism.<ref name="tcr"/> Due to the threat, campgrounds on Ocracoke Island and Cape Lookout, each only accessible by ferry, were closed to reduce their populations.<ref>{{cite web|author=Cape Hatteras National Weather Service|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=1978-09-02|title=Hurricane Ella Local Statement Number 6|access-date=2010-03-29|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/local/hat020730z.jpg}}</ref> Hurricane Ella produced waves of {{convert|5|to|9|ft|metre|abbr=off}} in height, as well as rip currents along the coast. This caused some minor beach erosion, but the depleted sand returned within a few days.<ref>{{cite web|author=Cape Hatteras National Weather Service|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=1978-09-02|title=Hurricane Ella Local Statement Number 12|access-date=2010-03-29|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/local/hat022230z.jpg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Albert R. Hinn|publisher=Wilmington National Weather Service|date=1978-09-07|title=Information for Hurricane Ella Survey Report|access-date=2010-03-29|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/postevent/hinn07.jpg}}</ref> Prior to the storm's arrival, the Newfoundland Weather Forecast Office issued a hurricane warning for southeastern Newfoundland.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gilbert Clark|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=1978-09-04|title=Hurricane Ella Advisory 22|access-date=2010-03-29|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0076-jpg/1978/atlantic/ella/public/pub041600z.jpg}}</ref> The ferry between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland was disrupted, and boats across the region were sent back to harbor. Rainfall was fairly light, peaking at {{convert|2.39|in|mm}} in southeastern Newfoundland, and sustained winds reached {{convert|71|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} at Cape Race.<ref name="Canada"/> {{clear}}

=== Hurricane Flossie === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Flossie 1978-09-13 1230Z.png |Track=Flossie 1978 track.png |Formed=September 4 |Dissipated=September 15 |1-min winds=85 |Pressure=976 }} A tropical wave passed westward across Dakar, Senegal on August 31 and entered the Atlantic Ocean later that day. Convection markedly increased over the next few days and by 0000 UTC on September 4, the wave developed into a tropical depression while located about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles. Later that day, the ''Hong Kong Merchant'' reported tropical storm force winds, thus the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Flossie. It initially tracked northwestward at {{convert|23|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and minimal strengthening occurred, possibly due to rapid forward speeds. On September 5, the storm curved westward, until turning north on September 7. A high-pressure area transitioned into a trough, causing Flossie to re-curve northeastward and generating strong upper-level winds.<ref name="ftcr1"/>

On September 8, Flossie was downgraded to a tropical depression.<ref name="ftcr1">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0072-jpg/1978/atlantic/flossie/prenhc/flossie_sept3-sept16.01.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Hurricane Flossie|author=Paul J. Hebert|year=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|page=1|access-date=June 5, 2014}}</ref> After the trough began weakening, favorable conditions returned, allowing Flossie to re-strengthen into a tropical storm on September 10. Flossie then decelerated and became nearly stationary on September 12. Around that time, the storm was upgraded to a hurricane. Further intensification continued, and Flossie peaked with winds of {{convert|100|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} early on September 13. The storm began turned nearly due northward and began weakening. Flossie accelerated to the northeast and eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while {{convert|700|mi|km}} north of the Azores on September 15.<ref name="ftcr2">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0072-jpg/1978/atlantic/flossie/prenhc/flossie_sept3-sept16.02.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Hurricane Flossie|author=Paul J. Hebert|year=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|page=2|access-date=June 5, 2014}}</ref> The strong extratropical cyclone brought winds as high as {{convert|104|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} to Fair Isle, Great Britain.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.personal.dundee.ac.uk/~taharley/british_weather_in_septemb.htm|title=The British weather in September|author=Trevor A. Harley|year=2012|publisher=University of Dundee|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Dundee, Scotland|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403082123/http://www.personal.dundee.ac.uk/~taharley/british_weather_in_septemb.htm|archive-date=2008-04-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{clear}}

=== Hurricane Greta === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Greta 1978-09-17 2131Z.jpg |Track=Greta-Olivia 1978 track.png |Formed=September 13 |Dissipated=September 20 <small>(Exited basin)</small> |1-min winds=115 |Pressure=947 }} {{Main|Hurricane Greta–Olivia}} A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near Trinidad on September 13. By the following day, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Greta. It headed westward to west-northwestward across the Caribbean Sea and slowly intensified, becoming a hurricane on September 16.<ref name="gtcr1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/prenhc/prelim_greta_13-23.01.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Hurricane Greta (& Hurricane Olivia) September 13–23, 1978|page=1|year=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 19, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> The rate of intensification increased as Greta was approaching the northwestern Caribbean Sea. Greta briefly peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of {{convert|130|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and a minimum barometric pressure of {{convert|947|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}, while brushing northeastern Honduras. Although the storm remained offshore, land interaction caused significant weakening. On September 19, Greta made landfall in Stann Creek District, Belize with winds of {{convert|110|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name="gtcr2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/prenhc/prelim_greta_13-23.02.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Hurricane Greta (& Hurricane Olivia) September 13–23, 1978|page=2|year=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 19, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> The storm rapidly weakened inland over Central America, but survived its passage and eventually became Hurricane Olivia in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.<ref name="gtcr3">{{cite web|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/prenhc/prelim_greta_13-23.03.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Hurricane Greta (& Hurricane Olivia) September 13–23, 1978|page=3|year=1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 19, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref>

Early in its duration, Greta produced heavy rainfall in the Netherlands Antilles.<ref name="gtcr1"/> With a similar path to Hurricane Fifi four years prior, Greta threatened to reproduce the devastating effects of the catastrophic storm;<ref>{{cite news|title=Hurricane Greta Pounds Honduras Coast|date=September 18, 1978|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=Kingman Daily Miner|access-date=June 5, 2014|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=932&dat=19780918&id=gPNSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BIMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2753,1107436|location=Tegucigalpa, Honduras}}</ref> however, damage and loss of life was significantly less than feared.<ref name="gtcr3"/> In Honduras, about 1,200 homes were damaged, about half of which in towns along the coastline.<ref name="west">{{cite journal|journal=The Patriot |date=December 1978 |volume=5 |number=12 |title=Bundles for Bolivia |access-date=June 5, 2014 |url=http://www.westover.afrc.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-131211-018.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227224215/http://www.westover.afrc.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-131211-018.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2013 }}</ref> The storm damaged about 75% of the houses on Roatán along the offshore Bay Islands,<ref>{{cite report|author=George Singer|publisher=National Hurricane Center; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=HWDamage7|date=September 18, 1978|access-date=June 5, 2014|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/postevent/hwdamage.09.jpg|format=JPG|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> and there was one death in the country.<ref name="gtcr3"/> In the Belize Barrier Reef, Greta downed trees and produced high waves,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Coral Reefs|date=May 1983|title=Hindcast hurricane characteristics on the Belize barrier reef|volume=1|issue=4|author=B. Kjerfve|author2=S. P. Dinnel|page=203|doi=10.1007/bf00304416|bibcode=1983CorRe...1..203K|s2cid=1844072}}</ref> while on the mainland, there was minimal flooding despite a high storm surge.<ref name="gtcr3"/> In Dangriga where it made landfall, the hurricane damaged or destroyed 125 houses and the primary hospital.<ref name="hw6">{{cite report|author=George Singer|publisher=National Hurricane Center; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=HWDamage6|date=September 19, 1978|access-date=June 5, 2014|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/postevent/hwdamage.06.jpg|format=JPG|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref><ref name="hw7">{{cite report|author=George Singer|publisher=National Hurricane Center; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=HWDamage7|date=September 19, 1978|access-date=June 5, 2014|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/postevent/hwdamage.07.jpg|format=JPG|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> In Belize City, a tornado flipped over a truck and damaged four houses.<ref>{{cite report|author=George Singer|publisher=National Hurricane Center; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=HWDamage2|date=September 18, 1978|access-date=June 5, 2014|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0077-jpg/1978/atlantic/greta/postevent/hwdamage.02.jpg|format=JPG|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Damage in Belize was estimated at $25 million, and there were four deaths.<ref name="gtcr3"/> {{clear}}

=== Tropical Storm Hope === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Hope 1978-09-18 1400Z.png |Track=Hope 1978 track.png |Formed=September 12 |Dissipated=September 21 |1-min winds=55 |Pressure=987 }} A mid-tropospheric low-pressure area developed over the Southeastern United States on September 10. The system developed into a subtropical depression early on September 12, while located about {{convert|75|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of St. Augustine, Florida. Over the next few days, the depression tracked east-northeastward to eastward. While strengthening into a subtropical storm on September 15, it passed just north of Bermuda,<ref name="htcr1">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0078-jpg/1978/atlantic/hope/prenhc/hopesept11-sept21.01.jpg|title=Preliminary Report Tropical Storm Hope September 11–21, 1978|author=Gilbert B. Clark|date=1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> but produced only {{convert|1.07|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rain on the island.{{Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima}} The storm then made a brief dip to the east-southeast, before resuming its east-northeastward course on September 16. Beginning on the following day, satellite imagery indicated that the system was acquiring tropical characteristics. As a result, it was reclassified as Tropical Storm Hope at 0600 UTC on September 17.<ref name="htcr1"/>

Because Hope remained out of range of reconnaissance aircraft flights, the National Hurricane Center relied on ships and satellite estimates. After becoming a tropical cyclone, Hope began to accelerate while slowly intensifying. Satellite estimates at 1200 UTC on September 19 indicated that the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of {{convert|65|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and a minimum pressure of {{convert|987|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}, recorded by the ''S.S. Banglar Mann''. While located hundreds of miles north of the Azores on September 20, the storm turned northward<ref name="htcr1"/> and began crossing into sea surface temperatures of {{convert|68|F|C|abbr=on}}.<ref name="hdisc">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0078-jpg/1978/atlantic/hope/tropdisc/tcd201500z.jpg|title=Tropical Cyclone Discussion Tropical Storm Hope|author=Miles B. Lawrence|date=September 20, 1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> By 1200 UTC on September 21, Hope transitioned into an extratropical cyclone<ref name="htcr1"/> and was absorbed by another extratropical storm while situated about {{convert|220|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Reykjavík, Iceland.<ref name="hdisc"/> {{clear}}

=== Tropical Storm Irma === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Irma 1978-10-05 1230Z.jpg |Track=Irma 1978 track.png |Formed=October 2 |Dissipated=October 5 |1-min winds=45 |Pressure=998 }} The origins of Tropical Storm Irma were from a subtropical depression that formed about {{convert|500|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of the Azores on October 2. During the next two days, thunderstorm activity gradually increased around the circulation center as the storm drifted northward. On October 2, the storm had taken the appearance of a tropical storm on satellite photographs, and upper-level anticyclonic flow over the center of the storm was evident on satellite time-lapse movies. By the afternoon of October 4, the system had acquired the characteristics of a tropical storm and was named Irma; gale-force winds extended {{convert|150|mi|km|abbr=on}} from the center of circulation.<ref name="TCR">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/irma/prelim01.gif|title=Preliminary Report Tropical Storm Irma October 2–5, 1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref><ref name="ADV1">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0079-jpg/1978/atlantic/irma/public/pub041600z.jpg|title=Tropical Storm Irma Advisory 1|last=Joseph M. Pelissier|date=October 4, 1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref>

Six hours after being named, Irma reached its peak intensity of {{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BTK">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/irma/prelim02.gif|title=Preliminary Best Track Tropical Storm Irma October 2–5, 1978|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|work=National Hurricane Center|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> On October 5, Irma turned towards the north-northeast and passed about midway between the central and western Azores.<ref name="TCR" /> Shortly thereafter, Irma became less organized,<ref name="ADV5">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0079-jpg/1978/atlantic/irma/public/pub051600z.jpg|title=Tropical Storm Irma Advisory 5|last=Joseph M. Pelissier|date=5 October 1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> and that evening was absorbed into an approaching cold front, about {{convert|450|mi|km|abbr=on}} northeast of the Azores.<ref name="ADV 6">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0079-jpg/1978/atlantic/irma/public/pub052200z.jpg|date=October 5, 1978|title=Tropical Storm Irma Advisory 6|author=Miles B. Lawrence|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> Although Irma passed near parts of the western and central Azores with gale-force winds in some areas, no reports of damage or casualties caused by Irma were received. Several nearby ships reported winds around {{convert|46|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. It was noted that heavy rains may have occurred on some of the mountainous islands as Irma passed.<ref name="TCR" /> {{Clear}}

=== Tropical Storm Juliet === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Juliet 1978-10-09 1500Z.jpg |Track=Juliet 1978 track.png |Formed=October 7 |Dissipated=October 11 |1-min winds=45 |Pressure=1006 }} A weak tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 30. The wave moved west-northwestward and was centered well east of the Leeward Islands on October 6, when satellite imagery indicated that deep convection became much more concentrated. The following day, ship reports noted that a closed circulation was developing. The system was classified as a tropical depression beginning at 1800 UTC on October 7, while located about {{convert|600|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of Puerto Rico. Around midday on October 8, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Juliet.<ref name="jtcr">{{cite report|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1978-prelim/juliet/prelim01.gif|title=Preliminary Report Tropical Storm Juliet 7 – 11 1978|author=Miles B. Lawrence|date=1978|work=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|page=1|access-date=June 5, 2014|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref>

After peaking with maximum sustained winds of {{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and a minimum barometric pressure of {{convert|1006|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}} early on October 9, Juliet passed north of Puerto Rico.<ref name="jtcr"/> The storm brought light rainfall to the island, peaking at {{convert|4.51|in|mm|abbr=on}} at Toro Negro Plant.{{Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima}} The storm then accelerated and curved northwestward, northward, and then northeastward. On October 11, Juliet merged with a frontal zone, while located west-southwest of Bermuda. Later that day, the remnants moved across the island and produced up to {{convert|3|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rainfall.<ref name="jtcr"/> {{clear}}

=== Hurricane Kendra === {{Infobox Hurricane Small |Basin=Atl |Image=Kendra 1978-10-30 1300Z.jpg |Track=Kendra 1978 track.png |Formed=October 28 |Dissipated=November 1 |1-min winds=70 |Pressure=990 }} In late October, a tropical wave and an area of disturbed weather combined in the northwestern Caribbean, before crossing Puerto Rico. The system moved northwest and by late on October 28, it became a tropical depression while located about {{convert|80|mi|km}} north of Mayaguana in The Bahamas. Early on the following day, it strengthened into Tropical Storm Kendra. The storm quickly intensified while moving either north or north-northwestward and became a hurricane late on October 29. After peaking with winds of {{convert|80|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} on October 30, Kendra weakened significantly to a {{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} tropical storm in only 12 hours. Kendra continued north-northeastward or northeastward, before being absorbed by an extratropical cyclone while located west-northwest of Bermuda early on November 1.<ref name="mwr"/>

The precursor system dropped rainfall across much of southern Puerto Rico was at least {{convert|7|in|mm|abbr=on}}, with a peak at {{convert|20.43|in|mm|abbr=on}} in Pico del Este.{{Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima}} Mudslides and flooding from the heavy precipitation left many roads impassable, washed out or collapsed several bridges, and caused considerable damage to agriculture, especially livestock. Additionally, one fatality occurred and 1,710 families fled their homes for shelters.<ref name="sd11">{{cite report |url=http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-B8263CF8-57A6-48D4-9042-DE2DDAEE0D6F.pdf |title=Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena |work=National Climatic Data Center |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |page=4 |access-date=June 6, 2014 |location=Asheville, North Carolina |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607005931/http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-B8263CF8-57A6-48D4-9042-DE2DDAEE0D6F.pdf |archive-date=2014-06-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Damage in Puerto Rico reached $6 million. A high-pressure area and Kendra combined produced strong winds and abnormally high tides along the East Coast of the United States, though no damage was reported.<ref name="mwr"/> {{clear}}

=== Other systems === In addition to the 12 other tropical cyclones, there were several tropical depressions that developed during the season. The first of which formed over the central Gulf of Mexico on June 21. The depression moved northeastward toward Florida and strengthened slightly. It dissipated by late on June 22. Another tropical depression developed about {{convert|175|mi|km|abbr=on}} southwest of Porto Novo, Cape Verde on July 10. The system moved generally westward and intensified into a strong tropical depression, before dissipating two days later. Tropical Depression Four formed about {{convert|465|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of Barbados on August 7. It tracked westward without significantly intensifying, and passed through the Windward Islands over Bequia on the following day. The depression continued westward and passed near Aruba on August 9. It eventually traversed the Caribbean Sea, and made landfall to the south of Bluefields, Nicaragua on August 11. The depression dissipated shortly thereafter.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

A tropical depression formed in the central Gulf of Mexico on August 9. The storm moved northward and struck southeastern Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana before dissipating the next day. By August 30, another depression developed in the north-central Gulf of Mexico. The system tracked generally eastward and avoided landfall. It dissipated around midday on September 1. Tropical Depression Eight developed over western Senegal around 1200 UTC on September 3. The depression initially headed west-southwestward and soon entered the Atlantic Ocean. Between late on September 4 and early on September 5, the system passed south of Cape Verde. Later that day, the storm began curving west-northwestward. By early on September 7, it was heading northwestward and then turned to the north-northwest the next day. The depression moved northward between September 9 and September 10, before re-curving to the northeast. It dissipated about {{convert|440|mi|km|abbr=on}} of Flores Island in the Azores around midday on September 11.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

At 1200 UTC on September 8, Tropical Depression Nine developed over the west-central Gulf of Mexico. Moving generally westward, the depression made landfall south of La Pesca, Tamaulipas, around midday on September 10. The system rapidly weakened inland and dissipated later that day. Another tropical depression formed over western Senegal on September 18. It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean before curving west-northwestward about three days later. On September 25, the depression moved northwestward and then northward by September 28. It dissipated about {{convert|550|mi|km|abbr=on}} east-northeast of Bermuda at 1200 UTC the following day. The next tropical depression developed in the Gulf of Mexico just offshore Campeche on September 21. Moving west-northwestward, the depression made landfall near Tampico on September 23, shortly before dissipating.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

A tropical depression formed at 1200 UTC on October 13, while located about {{convert|55|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Corvo Island in the Azores. The depression initially moved south-southwestward, before curving southwestward by the following day. It then turned west-northwestward on October 15. Late the next day, the depression turned abruptly northward. The system dissipated about {{convert|500|mi|km|abbr=on}} west-northwest of Flores Island.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}} The next tropical depression developed at 1200 UTC on October 26, while located about {{convert|490|mi|km|abbr=on}} south-southwest of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde. It moved generally westward and dissipated about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and the west coast of Africa on October 29. The final tropical depression of the season formed about {{convert|265|mi|km|abbr=on}} northeast of North Abaco in the Bahamas on November 3. Moving north-northeastward, the depression turned northeastward by the next day. It dissipated about {{convert|275|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of Virginia Beach, Virginia on November 5.{{Atlantic hurricane best track}}

== Storm names == The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1978.<ref name="NHOP 78">{{cite report|url=https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/Publications/NatHurricaneOpsPlans/HOPs-1978.pdf|page=12|publisher=NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research|location=Washington, D.C.|title=National Hurricane Operations Plan|date=May 1978|access-date=January 17, 2024}}</ref> Storms were named ''Amelia'', ''Bess'', ''Cora'', ''Flossie'', ''Hope'', ''Irma'', and ''Juliet'' for the first time in 1978. This was the last Atlantic hurricane season to utilize only female names for tropical storms. A new set of six annual lists utilizing both female and male names came into use in 1979.<ref name="TC Naming">{{cite web|title=Tropical Cyclone Naming History and Retired Names|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames_history.shtml|publisher=National Hurricane Center|location=Miami, Florida|access-date=January 17, 2024}}</ref>

{| width="90%" clear="both" |- | * Amelia * Bess * Cora * Debra * Ella * Flossie * Greta | * Hope * Irma * Juliet * Kendra * {{tcname unused|Louise}} * {{tcname unused|Martha}} * {{tcname unused|Noreen}} | * {{tcname unused|Ora}} * {{tcname unused|Paula}} * {{tcname unused|Rosalie}} * {{tcname unused|Susan}} * {{tcname unused|Tanya}} * {{tcname unused|Vanessa}} * {{tcname unused|Wanda}} |}

=== Retirement === {{See also|List of retired Atlantic hurricane names}} The name ''Greta'' was retired after the 1978 season.<ref name="TC Naming"/>

== Season effects == This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1978 USD.

{{Saffir-Simpson small|align=center}} {{TC stats table start3|year=1978|basin=North Atlantic tropical cyclone}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=sstorm|name=Unnamed|dates=January 18–23|max-winds=45 (75)|min-press=1002|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=June 21–23|max-winds=30 (45)|min-press=1014|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=July 10–12|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1011|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=storm|name=Amelia|dates=July 30{{snd}}August 1|max-winds=50 (85)|min-press=1005|areas='''Texas'''|damage=$110 million|deaths=33}}<ref name="texashurricanes"/><ref name="The Evening Independent"/> {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=storm|name=Bess|dates=August 5–8|max-winds=50 (85)|min-press=1005|areas=Mexico ('''Veracruz''')|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=cat1|name=Cora|dates=August 7–12|max-winds=90 (150)|min-press=980|areas=Windward Islands ('''Grenada'''), Maine|damage=Minimal|deaths=1}}<ref name="Virgin Islands Daily News"/> {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Four|dates=August 7–11|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1008|areas=Windward Islands ('''Bequia'''), Central America ('''Nicaragua''')|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=August 9–10|max-winds=30 (45)|min-press=1015|areas='''Louisiana'''|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=storm|name=Debra|dates=August 26–29|max-winds=60 (95)|min-press=1000|areas=Southern United States ('''Louisiana'''), Midwestern United States, Mid-Atlantic states, New England|damage=Minor|deaths=2}}<ref name="mwr"/><ref name="Deseret"/> {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=cat4|name=Ella|dates=August 30{{snd}}September 5|max-winds=140 (220)|min-press=956|areas=East Coast of the United States, Atlantic Canada|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=August 30{{snd}}September 1|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1013|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Eight|dates=September 3–11|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1009|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=cat2|name=Flossie|dates=September 4–15|max-winds=100 (155)|min-press=976|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Nine|dates=September 8–10|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1003|areas=Mexico ('''Tamaulipas''')|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=cat4|name=Greta|dates=September 13–20|max-winds=135 (215)|min-press=947|areas=Netherlands Antilles, Central America ('''Belize'''), Mexico|damage=$25 million|deaths=5}}<ref name="gtcr3"/> {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=storm|name=Hope|dates=September 11–21|max-winds=65 (100)|min-press=987|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Twelve|dates=September 18–29|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1008|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=September 21–23|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1001|areas=Mexico (Veracruz)|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=storm|name=Irma|dates=October 2–5|max-winds=50 (85)|min-press=998|areas=Azores|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=storm|name=Juliet|dates=October 7–11|max-winds=50 (85)|min-press=1006|areas=Puerto Rico, Bermuda|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=October 13–17|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=992|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=October 26–29|max-winds=30 (45)|min-press=1008|areas=None|damage=None|deaths=None}} {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=cat1|name=Kendra|dates=October 28{{snd}}November 1|max-winds=80 (130)|min-press=990|areas=Puerto Rico, East Coast of the United States|damage=$6 million|deaths=1}}<ref name="mwr"/><ref name="sd11"/> {{TC stats cyclone3|cat=depression|name=Unnumbered|dates=November 3–5|max-winds=35 (55)|min-press=1006|areas=None|deaths=None|damage=None}} {{TC stats table end3|num-cyclones=24|dates=January 18{{snd}}November 5|max-winds=140 (220)|min-press=947|tot-areas=|tot-damage=$141 million|tot-deaths=42}}

== See also == {{Portal|Tropical cyclones}} * 1978 Pacific hurricane season * 1978 Pacific typhoon season * 1978 North Indian Ocean cyclone season * Australian region cyclone seasons: 1977–78, 1978–79 * South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1977–78, 1978–79 * South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1977–78, 1978–79 * South Atlantic tropical cyclone * Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone

== Notes == {{Reflist|group="note"}}

== References == {{Reflist|30em}}

== External links == {{Commons category}} * [http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/1978.html WPC rainfall page for 1978 tropical cyclones] * [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1978.pdf Monthly Weather Review]

{{reflist|group=nb}} {{1978 Atlantic hurricane season buttons}} {{TC Decades|Year=1970|basin=Atlantic|type=hurricane}} {{Tropical cyclone season|1978}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1978 Atlantic Hurricane Season}} Category:1978 Atlantic hurricane season Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines