History of Arda

{{Short description|History of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth}} {{Redirect|History of Middle-earth|the series of books|The History of Middle-earth}} {{good article}} {{Use British English|date=May 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}} [[File:Chillam Chowki District Astore Gilgit Baltistan Pakistan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Tolkien meant Arda to be what [[Paul H. Kocher]] calls "our own green and solid Earth", seen here in the [[Baltistan]] mountains, "at some quite remote epoch in the past".{{sfn|Kocher|1974|pp=8–11}}<ref name="letter211" group=T/>]]

In [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[legendarium]], the '''history of Arda''', also called the '''history of Middle-earth''',{{efn|Christopher Tolkien called his 12-volume set ''[[The History of Middle-earth]]''; scholars such as [[Brian Rosebury]] have noted that it makes more sense to call it the history of Arda, as Middle-earth was just one continent, and the early part of the history largely concerns another continent, Aman (Valinor), not to mention the creation and destruction of the island of Númenor.{{sfn|Rosebury|2003|pp=89–133}}}} began when the [[Ainu (Middle-earth)|Ainur]] entered [[Arda (Middle-earth)|Arda]], following the creation events in the [[Ainulindalë]] and long ages of labour throughout [[Eä]], the [[fictional universe]]. Time from that point was measured using Valian Years, though the subsequent history of Arda was divided into three time periods using different years, known as the Years of the Lamps, the Years of the Trees, and the Years of the Sun. A separate, overlapping chronology divides the history into 'Ages of the Children of Ilúvatar'. The first such Age began with the Awakening of the Elves during the Years of the Trees and continued for the first six centuries of the Years of the Sun. All the subsequent Ages took place during the Years of the Sun. Most [[Middle-earth]] stories take place in the first three Ages of the Children of Ilúvatar.

Major themes of the history are the [[Christianity in Middle-earth|divine creation of the world]], followed by the [[Light in Tolkien's legendarium|splintering of the created light]] as different wills come into conflict. Scholars have noted the [[Christianity in Middle-earth|biblical echoes]] of God, [[Satan]], and the [[fall of man]] here, rooted in Tolkien's own Christian faith. Arda is, as critics have noted, "our own green and solid Earth at some quite remote epoch in the past."{{sfn|Kocher|1974|pp=8–11}} As such, it has not only an immediate story but a history, and the whole thing is an "imagined prehistory"<ref name="West 2006"/> of the Earth as it is now.

==Music of the Ainur==

The supreme deity of Tolkien's universe is [[Eru Ilúvatar]]. Ilúvatar created spirits named the Ainur from his thoughts, and some were considered brothers or sisters. Ilúvatar [[Music of Middle-earth|made divine music]] with them. [[Morgoth|Melkor]], then the most powerful of the Ainur, broke the harmony of the music, until Ilúvatar began first a second theme, and then a third theme, which the Ainur could not comprehend since they were not the source of it. The essence of their song symbolized the history of the whole universe and the [[Children of Ilúvatar]] that were to dwell in it – [[Man (Middle-earth)|Men]] and [[Elf (Middle-earth)|Elves]].<ref name="Ainulindalë" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc="[[Ainulindalë]]"}}</ref>

Then Ilúvatar created [[Eä]], which means "to be," the universe itself, and formed within it Arda, the [[Earth]], "globed within the void": the world together with the three airs is set apart from ''Avakúma'', the "void" without. The first 15 of the Ainur that descended to Arda, and the most powerful ones, were called Valar; the lesser Ainur were called Maiar.<ref name="Ainulindalë" group=T/>

== Years of Arda ==

=== Valian Years ===

==== Years of the Lamps ====

[[File:Arda in the Ages of the Lamps.svg|thumb|upright=2|The Spring of Arda, lit by the two great lamps. Based on [[Karen Wynn Fonstad]]'s ''Atlas of Middle-earth'']]

When the [[Valar]] entered [[Arda (Middle-earth)|Arda]], it was still lifeless and had no distinct geographical features. The initial shape of Arda, chosen by the Valar, was much more symmetrical, including the central continent of [[Middle-earth]]. Middle-earth was also originally [[Supercontinent|much larger]], and was lit by the misty light that veiled the barren ground. The Valar concentrated this light in two large lamps, called Illuin and Ormal. The Vala [[Aulë]] forged two great pillar-like mountains, Helcar in the north and Ringil in the south. Illuin was set upon Helcar and Ormal upon Ringil. In the middle, where the light of the lamps mingled, the Valar dwelt at the island of [[Almaren]] upon the Great Lake.<ref name="Beginning" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 1 "Of the Beginning of Days"}}</ref>

{{anchor|Utumno|Udûn}} This period, known as the Spring of Arda, was a time when the Valar had ordered the World as they wished and rested upon Almaren, and [[Morgoth|Melkor]] lurked beyond the Walls of Night. During this time animals first appeared, and forests started to grow.<ref name="Beginning" group=T/> The Spring of Arda was interrupted when Melkor returned to Arda, creating his fortress of Utumno (Udûn) beneath the Iron Mountains in the far north. The period ended when Melkor assaulted and destroyed the Lamps of the Valar. Arda was again darkened, and the fall of the great Lamps spoiled the symmetry of Arda's surface. New continents were created: [[Aman (Middle-earth)|Aman]] in the West, [[Middle-earth]] proper in the middle, the uninhabited lands (later called the [[Land of the Sun (Middle-earth)|Land of the Sun]]) in the East. At the site of the northern lamp was later the inland Sea of Helcar, of which [[Cuiviénen]] was a bay. At the site of the southern lamp was later the [[Sea of Ringil]]. After the destruction of the Two Lamps the Years of the Lamps ended and the Years of the Trees began.<ref name="Beginning" group=T/> A Valian Year was considerably longer than a solar year.<ref name="Myths Transformed Aman" group=T/>{{efn|The meaning of "years" in this context is problematic. The Valian years measure the passage of time after the arrival of the [[Vala (Middle-earth)|Valar]] in Arda. The Valian years were measured in [[Valinor]] after the first sunrise, but Tolkien provided no dates for events in Aman after that point. Valian years are not used for [[Beleriand]] and [[Middle-earth]]. In the 1930s and 1940s Tolkien used a figure which fluctuated slightly around ten before settling on 9.582 solar years in each Valian year. However, in the 1950s, Tolkien decided to use a much greater value of 144 solar years per Valian year.<ref name="Myths Transformed Aman" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1993|loc="Myths Transformed", 9 "Aman"}}</ref>}}

==== Years of the Trees ====

[[File:Arda in the Years of the Trees.svg|thumb|upright=2|Arda in the Years of the Trees. The [[Two Trees of Valinor]] illuminated the [[Valinor|Blessed Realm]]; the rest of Arda was dark at that time. The outlines of the continents are purely schematic.]]

After the destruction of the Two Lamps and the kingdom of [[Almaren]], the Valar abandoned [[Middle-earth]], moving to the continent of Aman. There they built their Second Kingdom, [[Valinor]]. [[Yavanna]] made the [[Two Trees]], named ''Telperion'' (the silver tree) and ''Laurelin'' (the golden tree) in the land of Valinor. The Trees illuminated Valinor, leaving Middle-earth in darkness. The Years of the Trees were contemporary with Middle-earth's [[Yavanna#Yavanna|Sleep of Yavanna]] (recalled by [[Treebeard]] as the Great Darkness).<ref name="Beginning" group=T/>

The Years of the Trees were divided into two epochs. The first ten ages, the Days of Bliss, saw peace and prosperity in Valinor. The [[Eagle (Middle-earth)|Eagles]], the [[Ent]]s, and the [[Dwarf (Middle-earth)|Dwarves]] were conceived by [[Manwë (Middle-earth)|Manwë]], [[Yavanna]], and [[Aulë]] respectively, but placed into slumber until the [[awakening of the Elves]]. The next ten ages, called the Noontide of the Blessed Realm, saw [[Varda (Middle-earth)|Varda]] kindling the stars above Middle-earth. This was the first time after the Spring of Arda that Middle-earth was illuminated. The first Elves [[Awakening of the Elves|awoke]] in Cuiviénen in the middle of Middle-earth, marking the start of the First Age of the [[Children of Ilúvatar]], and were soon approached by the Enemy [[Morgoth|Melkor]] who hoped to enslave them. Learning of this, the Valar and the [[Maiar]] came into Middle-earth and, in the War of the Powers (also called the Battle of the Powers), defeated Melkor and brought him captive to Valinor. This began the period of the Peace of Arda.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor"}}</ref>

After the War of the Powers, [[Oromë]] of the Valar summoned the Elves to Aman. Many of the Elves went with Oromë on the [[Great Journey]] westwards towards Aman. Along the journey several groups of Elves tarried, notably the [[Nandor (Middle-earth)|Nandor]] and the [[Sindar]]. The three clans that arrived at Aman were the [[Vanyar]], the [[Noldor]], and the [[Teleri]]. They made their home in [[Aman (Middle-earth)#Eldamar|Eldamar]].<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 5 "Of Eldamar and the Princes of the Eldalië"}}</ref> After Melkor appeared to repent and was released after his servitude of three Ages, he revealed his deception by stirring up rivalry between the Noldorin King [[Finwë]]'s two sons [[Fëanor]] and [[Fingolfin]]. With the help of the giant spider [[Ungoliant]], he destroyed the Trees of the Valar. The world was again dark, save for the faint starlight. After destroying the trees, he killed Finwë and stole the [[Silmaril]]s, three gems crafted by Fëanor that contained light of the Two Trees, fleeing with them to his fortress in the North of Middle Earth. There he forged a black iron crown for himself and set the Silmarils in it.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 7 "Of the Silmarils and the Unrest of the Noldor"}}</ref><ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 8 "Of the Darkening of Valinor"}}</ref>

Bitter at the Valar's inactivity, Fëanor and his house left to pursue Melkor, cursing him with the name "Morgoth".<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 6 "Of Fëanor and the Unchaining of Melkor"}}</ref> While his brother Finarfin chose to stay in Valinor, a larger host led by Fingolfin followed Fëanor. They reached [[Alqualondë]], the port-city of the Teleri, who forbade them from taking their ships for the journey to Middle-earth. The first Kinslaying thus ensued, and the Noldor that partook were exiled indefinitely. Fëanor and his children in return swore an oath to retake the Silmarils, that the Valar turned to a curse over the house of Fëanor. Fëanor's host sailed on the boats, leaving Fingolfin's host behind – who crossed over to Middle-earth on the [[Helcaraxë]] (Grinding Ice) in the far north, losing many. The War of the Great Jewels followed, and lasted until the end of the First Age. Meanwhile, the Valar took the last living fruit of ''Laurelin'' and the last living flower of ''Telperion'' and used them to create the Moon and Sun, which remained a part of Arda, but were separate from Ambar (the world). The first rising of the sun over Ambar heralded the end of the Years of the Trees, and the start of the Years of the Sun, which last to the present day.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 11 "Of the Sun and Moon and the Hiding of Valinor"}}</ref>

===Years of the Sun===

The Years of the Sun were the last of the three great time-periods of Arda. They began with the first sunrise in conjunction with the return of the [[Noldor]] to [[Middle-earth]], and last until the present day.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 13 "Of the Return of the Noldor"}}</ref> The Years of the Sun began towards the end of the First Age of the [[Children of Ilúvatar]] and continued through the [[Second Age|Second]], [[Third Age|Third]], and part of the [[Fourth Age|Fourth]] in Tolkien's stories. Tolkien estimated that modern times would correspond to the sixth or seventh age.<ref name="letter211" group=T/>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" |+ Tolkien situated the History of [[Arda (Middle-earth)|Arda]] as [[Earth]]'s prehistory.<ref name="letter211" group=T>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2023|loc=#211 to Rhona Beare, 14 October 1958, last footnote }}</ref> |- ! Age ! Duration years ! style="width: 400px;" | Events |- !colspan="3"| Valian Years{{efn|Tolkien states that 1 Valian year is 1000 Valian days of 12 Valian hours. A Valian hour is 7 solar hours, making a Valian year 84,000 solar hours. A solar year is about 8,766 solar hours, so a Valian year is 9.582 solar years.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1993|loc="The Annals of Aman", section 1, p. 59}}</ref>}} |- | [[Years of the Lamps|Days before days]]<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1993|loc="The Annals of Aman", §§ 5-10 "Of the Beginning of Time and its Reckoning"}}</ref> || 3,500 || First War:    Marring of Arda    [[Melkor]] flees before [[Tulkas]] End of the Spring of Arda:    Melkor destroys the Two Lamps    Arda's symmetry broken    [[Aman (J. R. R. Tolkien)|Aman]] and [[Middle-earth]] created    The [[Valar]] move to [[Valinor]] |- | [[Years of the Trees]] || 1,500 ||    Yavanna creates the [[Two Trees of Valinor]]    Varda lights the stars, the Elves awaken, the First Age begins    Melkor is defeated and imprisoned    [[Ungoliant]] destroys the Two Trees    Melkor steals the [[Silmaril]]s |- !colspan="10"| Years of the Sun |- | First Age (cont'd) || 590 || Awakening of Men War of the Jewels War of Wrath:    [[Morgoth]]'s defeat in [[Beleriand]]    Thangorodrim broken    Most of Beleriand drowned |- | Second Age || 3,441 || [[Akallabêth]]:    [[Sauron]]'s first downfall    World made round    [[Númenor]] drowned    [[Valinor]] removed from Arda; only Elves can travel the [[Straight Road]] |- | Third Age || 3,021 || War of the Ring:    Final defeat of Sauron    Destruction of the [[One Ring]]    [[Elves (Middle-Earth)|Elves]] depart from Middle-earth |- | Fourth Age and later || ~6,000{{efn| Tolkien estimated that the Fourth Age began approximately 6,000 years ago, and that the 20th century would be in the 6th or 7th Age<ref name="letter211" group=T/>}} || (to present day) |}

==Ages of the Children of Ilúvatar==

The First Age of the [[Children of Ilúvatar]] (''Eruhíni'') began during the Years of the Trees when the [[Awakening of the Elves|Elves awoke]] in [[Cuiviénen]] in the middle-east of [[Middle-earth]]. This marked the start of the years when the Children of Ilúvatar were active in Middle-earth.<ref name="Coming of the Elves" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor"}}</ref><!-- Later in the First Age the second kindred, humans, also awoke.

In some texts Tolkien referred to the 'First Age of Middle-earth' or the 'First Age of the World' rather than the 'First Age of the Children of Ilúvatar'. These variations had earlier starting points, extending the First Age back to the creation of [[Arda (Middle-earth)|Arda]], but consistently ended with [[Morgoth]]'s defeat in [[Beleriand]]. Each Age ended following a major event in the history of the Children of Ilúvatar.-->

===First Age===  {{further|Sundering of the Elves|Túrin Turambar}} [[File:Arda in the First Age.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Arda in the First Age. The outlines of the continents are purely schematic.]]

The First Age of the Children of Ilúvatar, also referred to as the Elder Days in ''The Lord of the Rings'', began during the Years of the Trees when the Elves awoke at Cuiviénen, and hence the events mentioned above under ''Years of the Trees'' overlap with the beginning of the First Age.<ref name="Coming of the Elves" group=T/>

Having crossed into Middle-earth, Fëanor was soon lost in an attack on Morgoth's [[Balrog]]s (Maiar who had betrayed the Valar to come under Morgoth's service during the Days before days) – but [[sons of Fëanor|his sons]] survived and founded realms, as did the followers of his half-brother [[Fingolfin]], who reached Beleriand after Fëanor's death. In the ''Dagor Aglareb'' ("Glorious Battle"), the armies of the [[Noldor]] led by Fingolfin and [[Maedhros]] attacked from the east and west, destroying the invading [[Orc#Tolkien|Orcs]] and laid siege to Morgoth's stronghold Angband. The Noldor for a time maintained the Siege of Angband, resulting in the Long Peace. This Peace lasted hundreds of years, during which time [[Men in Middle-earth|Men]] arrived over the [[Ered Luin|Blue Mountains]].<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 17 "Of the Coming of Men into the West"}}</ref> Fingolfin died when Morgoth broke the siege in the ''Dagor Bragollach'' ("Battle of Sudden Flame").<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 18 "Of the Ruin of Beleriand and the Fall of Fingolfin"}}</ref> The Elves, Men, and Dwarves were all disastrously defeated in the ''Nírnaeth Arnoediad'' ("Battle of Unnumbered Tears"),<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 20 "Of the Fifth Battle: Nirnaeth Arnoediad"}}</ref> and one by one, the kingdoms fell, even the hidden ones of [[Doriath (Middle-earth)|Doriath]]<ref name="Ruin of Doriath" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 22 "Of the Ruin of Doriath"}}</ref> and [[Gondolin]].<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 23 "Of Tuor and the Fall of Gondolin"}}</ref>

At the end of the age, all that remained of free Elves and Men in [[Beleriand]] was a settlement at the mouth of the [[River Sirion]] and another on the Isle of Balar. [[Eärendil]] possessed the Silmaril which his wife Elwing's grandparents, [[Beren and Lúthien]], had taken from Morgoth. But Fëanor's sons still maintained that all the Silmarils belonged to them, and so there were two more Kinslayings.<ref name="Ruin of Doriath" group="T" /><ref name="Voyage" group="T">{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc=ch. 24 Of the Voyage of Earendil and the War of Wrath}}</ref> Eärendil and Elwing crossed the [[Belegaer|Great Sea]] to beg the Valar for aid against Morgoth. They responded, sending forth a great host. In the War of Wrath, Melkor was utterly defeated. He was expelled into the Void and most of his works were destroyed, bringing the First Age to an end. This came at a terrible cost, however, as most of [[Beleriand]] itself was sunk.<ref name="Voyage" group="T" />

===Second Age===

The Second Age is characterized by the establishment and flourishing of [[Númenor]], the rise of Sauron in Middle-earth, the creation of the [[Rings of Power]] and the [[Ringwraiths]], and the early wars of the Rings between Sauron and the Elves. It ended with Sauron's defeat by the Last Alliance of Elves and Men.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1955|loc=Appendix B: The Tale of Years. "The Second Age"}}</ref>{{efn|"The Tale of Years" in Appendix B of ''The Lord of the Rings'' outlines the major events of the Second Age, especially as they relate to the Rings of Power and the events and characters of ''The Lord of the Rings''.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/> Appendix A contains genealogies of the royal house of Númenor. Appendix D gives details of the Númenórean calendar, including special [[intercalation (timekeeping)|intercalation]] in the years 1000, 2000 and 3000, and notes on how this system of intercalation was disrupted by the designation of S.A. 3442 the first year of the Third Age. "After the Downfall in S.A. 3319, the system was maintained by the exiles, but it was much dislocated by the beginning of the Third Age with a new numeration: S.A. 3442 became T.A. 1. By making T.A. 4 a leap year instead of T.A. 3 (S.A. 3444) 1 more short year of only 365 days was intruded".<ref name="Appendix D" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1955|loc=Appendix D: "Calendars"}}</ref> In addition, several sections of ''[[Unfinished Tales]]'' deal extensively with Númenor and several of its kings.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1980|loc=part 2: "The Second Age"}}</ref> At the end of ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', "[[Akallabêth]]" recounts the fall of Númenor and its kings, and the rise of [[Gondor]] and Arnor.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1977|loc="[[Akallabêth]]"}}</ref>}}

At the start of the Second Age, the Men who had remained faithful were given the island of Númenor, in the middle of the Great Sea, and there they established a powerful kingdom. The [[Gondor#Heraldry and heirlooms|White Tree of Númenor]] was planted in the King's city of [[Armenelos]]; and it was said that while that tree stood in the King's courtyard, the reign of Númenor would endure. The Elves were granted pardon for the sins of Fëanor, and were allowed to return home to the [[Undying Lands]].<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/> The Númenóreans became great seafarers, and were learned, wise, and had a lifespan beyond other men. At first, they honored the Ban of the Valar, never sailing into the Undying Lands. They went east to Middle-earth and taught the men living there valuable skills. After a time, they became jealous of the Elves for their immortality. [[Sauron]], the mightiest of Maiar and Morgoth's chief servant, was still active. As Annatar, in his deceptive disguise, he taught the Elves of [[Eregion]] the craft of creating [[Rings of Power]]. Seven Rings were made for the Dwarves, while Nine were made for Men who later became known as the Ringwraiths. He built a stronghold called [[Barad-dûr]] and secretly and deceitfully forged the [[One Ring]] in the fires of [[Mount Doom]] to control the other rings and their bearers. [[Celebrimbor]], a grandson of Fëanor, forged three mighty rings on his own: Vilya, possessed first by the Elven king Gil-galad, then by Elrond; Nenya, wielded by Galadriel; and Narya, given by Celebrimbor to Círdan, who gave it to Gandalf.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/>

As soon as Sauron put on the One Ring, the Elves realized that they had been betrayed and removed the Three (Sauron eventually obtained the Seven and the Nine. While he was unable to suborn the Dwarf ringbearers, he had more success with the Men who bore the Nine; they became the [[Nazgûl]], the Ringwraiths). Sauron then made war on the elves and nearly destroyed them utterly during the Dark Years, but when it seemed defeat was imminent, the Númenóreans joined the battle and completely crushed the forces of Sauron. Sauron never forgot the ruin brought on his armies by the Númenóreans, and made it his goal to destroy them.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/>

Towards the end of the age, the Númenóreans became increasingly haughty. Now they sought to dominate other men and to establish kingdoms. Centuries after Tar-Minastir's engagement, when Sauron had largely recovered, Ar-Pharazôn, the last and most powerful of the Kings of [[Númenor]], humbled Sauron – his armies deserting in the face of Númenor's might – and brought him to Númenor as a hostage, although this was Sauron's goal. Still beautiful in appearance, Sauron gained Ar-Pharazôn's trust and became high priest in the cult of Melkor, who Sauron deceived them to worship. At this time, the Faithful (who still worshipped the one god, [[Eru Ilúvatar]]), were persecuted openly by those called the King's Men, and were sacrificed in the name of Melkor. Eventually, Sauron deceived Ar-Pharazôn to invade Aman, promising him that he would thus obtain immortality, though Sauron knew this was not true.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/> Amandil, chief of the Faithful, sailed westward to warn the Valar. His son [[Elendil]] and grandsons [[Isildur]] and Anárion prepared to flee eastwards, taking with them a seedling of the White Tree of Númenor before Sauron destroyed it, and the ''[[palantír]]i'', gifts of the elves. When the King's forces set foot on Aman, the Valar laid down their guardianship of the world and called on Ilúvatar to intervene.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/>

[[File:Downfall of Númenor.svg|thumb|upright=2.5|The Downfall of Númenor and the Changing of the World. The [[earthly paradise]] of [[Valinor]] is removed from Arda; only the Elves remain able to reach it by sailing the [[Old Straight Road]].{{sfn|Shippey|2005|pp=324-328}}]]

The world was changed into a sphere and the continent of Aman was removed, although the [[Old Straight Road]], a sailing route from Middle-earth to Aman, accessible to the Elves but not to mortals, persisted. Númenor was utterly destroyed, as was the fair body of Sauron; however, his spirit returned to [[Mordor]], where he again took up the One Ring, and gathered his strength once more. Elendil, his sons and the remainder of the Faithful sailed to Middle-earth, where they founded the realms in exile of [[Gondor]] and Arnor.<ref name="The Second Age" group=T/>

{{anchor|Last Alliance of Elves and Men}} Sauron arose again and challenged them. The Elves allied with Men to form the Last Alliance of Elves and Men. For seven years, the Alliance laid siege to [[Barad-dûr]], until at last Sauron himself entered the field. He slew [[Elendil]], High King of Gondor and Arnor, and [[Gil-galad]], the last High King of the Noldor in Middle-earth. However, [[Isildur]] took up the hilt of [[List of Middle-earth weapons and armour#Narsil|Narsil]], his father's shattered sword, and cut the One Ring from Sauron's hand. Sauron was defeated, but not utterly destroyed. Afterward, Isildur ignored the counsel of [[Elrond]], and rather than destroy the One Ring in the fires of Mount Doom, he kept it as [[weregild]] for his dead father.

===Third Age===

The Third Age lasted for 3021 years, beginning with the first overthrow of [[Sauron]] at the hands of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men following the downfall of [[Númenor]], and ending with the [[War of the Ring]] and final defeat of Sauron, the events narrated in ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''. Virtually the entire history of the Third Age takes place in [[Middle-earth]].<ref name="The Third Age" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1955|loc=Appendix B: The Tale of Years, "The Third Age"}}</ref> The Third Age saw the rise in power of the realms of Arnor and [[Gondor]], and their fall. Arnor was divided into three petty Kingdoms, which fell one by one in the wars with Sauron's vassal kingdom of Angmar, whilst Gondor fell victim to Kin-strife, plague, [[Wainriders]], and [[Corsairs of Umbar|Corsairs]]. In this time, the line of the Kings of Gondor ends, with the [[Stewards of Gondor|House of the Stewards]] ruling in their stead. Meanwhile, the [[Rangers of the North|heirs of Isildur]] from the fallen kingdom of Arnor wander Middle-earth, aided only by [[Elrond]] in [[Rivendell]]; but the line of rightful heirs remains unbroken throughout the age.<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/>

Early in the Age, the Ring betrayed Isildur by slipping from his finger as he was escaping from an [[Orc (Middle-earth)|Orc]] ambush at the [[Gladden Fields]], leading to Isildur being killed by an orc arrow and the Ring being lost in the [[Anduin River]].<ref name="The Second Age" group="T" />

This age was characterized by the waning of the [[Elf (Middle-earth)|Elves]]. In the beginning of the Third Age, many Elves left for [[Valinor]] because they were disturbed by the recent war. However, Elven kingdoms still survived in Lindon, [[Lothlórien]], and [[Mirkwood]]. Rivendell also became a prominent haven for the Elves and other races. Throughout the Age, they chose not to mingle much in the matters of other lands, and only came to the aid of other races in time of war. The Elves devoted themselves to artistic pleasures, and tended to the lands which they occupied. The gradual decline of Elven populations occurred throughout the Age as the rise of Sauron came to dominate [[Middle-earth]]. By the end of the Third Age, only fragments of the once-grand Elven civilization survived in Middle-earth.<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/>

The [[Wizard (Middle-earth)|Wizard]]s arrived around a thousand years<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/> after the start of this period to aid the Free Peoples from the possible return of Sauron, with the most important Wizards being [[Gandalf]] and [[Saruman]]. The [[One Ring]] was found by [[Sméagol]] but, under the power of the Ring and ignorant of its true nature, he retreated with the Ring to a secret life under the [[Misty Mountains]].<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/> Middle-earth's devastating Great [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] originated in its vast eastern region, Rhûn, where it caused considerable suffering.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1955|loc=Appendix A part I(iv), p. 328}}</ref> By the winter of late {{ME-date|TA|1635}} the Plague spread from Rhûn into [[Wilderland]], on the east of Middle-earth's western lands; in Wilderland it killed more than half the population.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1980|loc=part 3 ch. 2(i) pp. 288–289}}</ref> In the following year the Great Plague spread into [[Gondor]] and then [[Eriador]]. In Gondor the Plague caused many deaths, including King Telemnar, his children, and the [[White Tree]]; the population of the capital city [[Osgiliath]] was decimated, and government of the kingdom was transferred to [[Minas Tirith]]. In Eriador, the nascent [[Hobbit]]-realm of [[Shire (Middle-earth)|the Shire]] suffered "great loss" in what they called the Dark Plague.<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/>

{{anchor|Watchful Peace}} The so-called Watchful Peace began in {{ME-date|TA|2063}}, when Gandalf went to [[Dol Guldur]] and the evil dwelling there (later known to be Sauron) fled to the far east. It lasted until {{ME-date|TA|2460}}, when Sauron returned with new strength. During this period Gondor strengthened its borders, keeping a watchful eye on the east, as [[Minas Morgul]] was still a threat on their flank and [[Mordor]] was still occupied with [[Orc (Middle-earth)|Orc]]s. There were minor skirmishes with [[Umbar]]. In the north, Arnor was long gone, but the [[Hobbit]]s of [[Shire (Middle-earth)|the Shire]] prospered, getting their first Took [[Thains of the Shire|Thain]], and colonizing [[Buckland (Middle-earth)|Buckland]]. Driven out of [[Erebor]] by the dragon [[Smaug]], the [[Dwarf (Middle-earth)|Dwarves]] of [[Durin's folk]] under Thorin I settled in the [[Ered Mithrin|Grey Mountains]], where most of their kin now gathered. Meanwhile, Sauron created a strong alliance between the tribes of [[Easterling (Middle-earth)|Easterlings]], so that when he returned he had many [[Man (Middle-earth)|Men]] in his service.<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/>

The main events of ''[[The Hobbit]]'' occur in {{ME-date|TA|2941}}.<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/> By the time of ''The Lord of the Rings'', [[Sauron]] had recovered, and was seeking the One Ring. The events of the ensuing [[War of the Ring]] leading to the end of the Third Age is the subject of ''The Lord of the Rings'', and summarized in ''[[Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age]]''. After the defeat of Sauron, which happened when the One Ring was destroyed in the fires of Mount Doom, [[Aragorn]] takes his place as King of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and [[Gondor]], restoring the line of Kings from the [[Stewards of Gondor]]. Aragorn marries the daughter of Elrond, [[Arwen]], thus for the last time adding Elvish blood to the royal line. As the age ends, Gandalf, [[Frodo Baggins|Frodo]] and [[Bilbo Baggins]], and many of the remaining Elves of Middle-earth sail from the Grey Havens to [[Aman (Middle-earth)|Aman]].<ref name="The Third Age" group=T/>

=== Fourth Age ===

With the end of the Third Age began the Dominion of Men. Elves were no longer involved in Human affairs, and most Elves left for Valinor; those that remain behind "fade" and diminish. A similar fate meets the Dwarves: although [[Erebor]] becomes an ally of the Reunited Kingdom, there are indications that [[Moria (Middle-earth)|Khazad-dûm]] is refounded together with a colony established by [[Gimli (Middle-earth)|Gimli]] in the [[White Mountains (Middle-earth)|White Mountains]]. Together, they disappear from human history.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1996|loc="The Making of Appendix A", '(IV) Durin's Folk', p. 278.}}</ref>

Eldarion, son of Aragorn II Elessar and Arwen Evenstar, became King of the Reunited Kingdom in F.A. 120. Aragorn gave him the tokens of his rule, and then surrendered his life willingly, as his ancestors had done thousands of years before. Arwen left him to rule alone, passing away to the now-empty land of [[Lothlórien|Lórien]] where she died.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1955|loc=Appendix A: [[The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen]]}}</ref> Upon the death of Aragorn, Legolas departed Middle-earth for Valinor, taking Gimli with him and ending the Fellowship of the Ring in Middle-earth.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1955|loc=Appendix B: "Later events concerning the members of the Fellowship of the Ring"}}</ref>

Tolkien once considered writing a sequel to ''The Lord of the Rings'', called ''[[The Peoples of Middle-earth#The New Shadow|The New Shadow]]'', which would have taken place in Eldarion's reign, and in which Eldarion deals with his people turning to evil practices – in effect, a repetition of the history of [[Númenor]].<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1996|loc="The New Shadow"}}</ref> In a 1972 letter concerning this draft, Tolkien mentioned that Eldarion's reign would have lasted for about 100 years after the death of Aragorn.<ref name="Letter 338" group=T>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2023|loc=#338 to Fr. Douglas Carter, 6 June 1972 }}</ref>{{efn|Tolkien wrote "I have written nothing beyond the first few years of the Fourth Age. (Except the beginning of a tale supposed to refer to the end of the reign of Eldarion about 100 years after the death of Aragorn. ...)"<ref name="Letter 338" group=T/>}} His realm was to be "great and long-enduring", but the lifespan of the royal house was not to be restored; it would continue to wane until it was like that of ordinary Men.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1996|loc="The Heirs of Elendil"}}</ref>

=== Later Ages ===

Later Ages continue up to modern times, the remade Arda being equated with Earth. With the loss of all its peoples except Man, and the reshaping of the continents, all that is left of Middle-earth is a dim memory in [[folklore]], [[legend]], and [[Etymology|old words]].<ref name="Lee Solopova 2005"/> Tolkien estimated that the Fourth Age began approximately 6,000 years ago, and that we would now be in the 6th or 7th Age.<ref name="letter211" group=T/>

=== Dagor Dagorath ===

[[File:Kampf der untergehenden Götter by F. W. Heine.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Tolkien likened the Last Battle, Dagor Dagorath, that ends "the world" (Arda) to the Norse [[Ragnarök]].<ref name="Letter 131" group=T/> Engraving ''Battle of the Doomed Gods'' by [[Friedrich Wilhelm Heine]], 1882]]

In a letter, Tolkien wrote that "This legendarium [''The Silmarillion''] ends with a vision of the end of the world [after all the ages have elapsed], its breaking and remaking, and the recovery of the Silmarilli and the 'light before the Sun' – after a final battle [Dagor Dagorath] which owes, I suppose, more to the Norse vision of {{lang|non|[[Ragnarök]]}} than to anything else, though it is not much like it."<ref name="Letter 131" group=T>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2023|loc=#131 to [[Milton Waldman]], late 1951 }}</ref> The concept of Dagor Dagorath appears in many of Tolkien's manuscripts that were published by his son [[Christopher Tolkien|Christopher]] in ''[[The History of Middle-earth]]'' series, but not in the published ''Silmarillion'', where the eventual fate of Arda is left open-ended in the closing lines of the ''Quenta Silmarillion''.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1986|loc=ch. 3: "Quenta Noldorinwa"}}</ref>

However, Tolkien later came to the conclusion that the Elves themselves had no objective idea of the end of Arda, although they understood with some clarity that it would be achieved through a large-scale catastrophe. The only thing the Elves could count on was ''estel'', which is hope on Eru that his divine plan would ultimately result in salvation and good for the whole world and all the peoples who lived in it. In this context, the legend of the Second Prophecy of Mandos and the specific events of Dagor Dagorath were in fact an ancient Mannish myth of Númenórean origin.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1993|loc="Athrabeth Finrod ah Andreth"}}</ref>

== Analysis ==

=== Creation and sub-creation ===

Scholars, noting that Tolkien was a devout [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], have stated that the ''Ainulindalë'' creation myth [[Christianity in Middle-earth#The creation|echoes the Christian account of creation]]. [[Brian Rosebury]] calls its prose "appropriately 'scriptural'".{{sfn|Rosebury|1992|p=97}} [[Verlyn Flieger]] cites Tolkien's poem ''[[Mythopoeia (poem)|Mythopoeia]]'' ("Creation of Myth"), where he speaks of "man, sub-creator, the refracted light / through whom is splintered from a single White / to many hues, and endlessly combined / in living shapes".<ref name="Tree and Leaf 85" group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|2001|pp=85–90}}</ref>{{sfn|Flieger|1983|pp=44–49}} [[Splintered Light|She analyses in detail]] the successive splintering of the original created light, via the Two Lamps, the Two Trees, and the Silmarils, as the wills of different beings conflict.{{sfn|Flieger|1983|pp=6-61, 89–90, 144-145 and passim}} She states that for Tolkien, this creative light was equated with the [[Logos (Christianity)|Christian ''Logos'']], the Divine Word.{{sfn|Flieger|1983|pp=44–49}} [[Jane Chance]] remarks on the biblical theme of the conflict between the creator Eru Ilúvatar and the fallen Vala [[Morgoth|Melkor/Morgoth]], mirroring that between God and [[Satan]]. Similarly, she notes, the struggles of Elves and Men corrupted by Morgoth and his spiritual descendant Sauron echo those of Adam and Eve tempted by Satan in the [[Garden of Eden]], and the [[fall of man]].{{sfn|Chance|1980|p=133}}

Flieger has observed that the splintering of the created light is a process of [[decline and fall in Middle-earth|decline and fall]] from a once-perfect state. She identifies a theory of decline that influenced Tolkien, namely [[Owen Barfield]]'s theory of language in his 1928 book ''Poetic Diction''. The central idea was that there was once a unified set of meanings in an ancient language, and that modern languages are derived from this by fragmentation of meaning.{{sfn|Flieger|1983|pp=35-41}} Tolkien took this to imply the separation of peoples, in particular the complicated and repeated [[sundering of the Elves]].{{sfn|Flieger|1983|pp=65-87}}

=== A dark mythology ===

Scholars including Flieger have noted that if Tolkien intended to create [[a mythology for England]],{{sfn|Chance|1980|loc=Title page and passim}} in the history of Arda as told in ''The Silmarillion'' he had made it very dark.{{sfn|Flieger|2005|pp=139–142}} [[John Garth (author)|John Garth]] has identified his experiences in the [[World War I|First World War]] as formative; he began his Middle-earth writings at that time.{{sfn|Garth|2003|loc=Preface, pp. xiii–xviii, 309, and passim}} Flieger suggests that Middle-earth arose not only from Tolkien's own wartime experience, but out of that of his dead schoolfriends Geoffrey Bache Smith and Rob Gilson.{{sfn|Flieger|2001|p=224}} [[Janet Brennan Croft]] writes that Tolkien's first prose work after returning from the war was ''[[The Fall of Gondolin]]'', and that it is "full of extended and terrifying scenes of battle"; she notes that the streetfighting is described over 16 pages.{{sfn|Croft|2004|p=18}}

The Tolkien scholar Norbert Schürer notes the 2022 book ''[[The Fall of Númenor]]'' and the Amazon television series ''[[The Rings of Power]]'', both about the Second Age, and asks what the period signifies for the legendarium as a whole. In his view, the period is problematic, having only one finished tale, the [[Atlantis]]-style ''[[Akallabêth]]''. He proposes that Tolkien wanted to link the First Age (most of the content of the 1977 ''[[The Silmarillion]]'') with the Third Age (of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'') by joining them together with a central period. In his view, this could not work for Tolkien, because the Second Age centred on "the failure, decline, and corruption" at the core of human life; Schürer argues that this was unacceptable to Tolkien as a Christian.<ref name="Schürer 2022">{{cite journal |last=Schürer |first=Norbert |title=Second Age, Middle Age |journal=[[Journal of Tolkien Research]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |year=2022 |at=article 6 |url=https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1295&context=journaloftolkienresearch}}</ref>

=== Greek mythology ===

Among [[J. R. R. Tolkien's influences|the many influences]] that scholars have proposed as possibly important on the history of Arda is [[Greek mythology]]. The disappearance of the island of [[Númenor]] recalls [[Atlantis]].<ref name="Letters_#154" group=T/><ref name="Letters_#227" group=T>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2023|loc=#227 to Mrs Drijver, January 1961 }}</ref> The Valar borrow many attributes from the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian gods]]. Like the Olympians, the Valar live in the world, but on a high mountain, separated from mortals; [[Ulmo]], Lord of the Waters, owes much to [[Poseidon]], and [[Manwë (Middle-earth)|Manwë]], the Lord of the Air and King of the Valar, to [[Zeus]].{{sfn|Purtill|2003|pp=52, 131}}{{sfn|Stanton|2001|p=18}} Tolkien compared Beren and Lúthien with [[Orpheus]] and [[Eurydice]], but with the gender roles reversed.<ref name="Letters_#154" group=T>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2023|loc=#154 to [[Naomi Mitchison]], September 1954 }}</ref> He mentioned [[Oedipus]], too, in connection with Túrin in the ''Children of Húrin''.<ref name="Letter 131" group=T/> Flieger has compared [[Fëanor]] with [[Prometheus]]: they are associated with fire, and are punished for rebelling against the gods' decrees.{{sfn|Flieger|1983|p=95}}

=== "Imagined prehistory" ===

[[File:Tolkien's Imagined Prehistory.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Tolkien imagined Arda as the [[Earth]] in the distant past.<ref name="letter211" group=T/>{{sfn|Kocher|1974|pp=8–11}} With the loss of all its peoples except Man, and the reshaping of the continents, all that is left of Middle-earth is a dim memory in [[folklore]], [[legend]], and [[Etymology|old words]].<ref name="Lee Solopova 2005"/>]]

Arda is summed up by the Tolkien scholar [[Paul H. Kocher]] as "our own green and solid [[Earth]] at some quite remote epoch in the past."{{sfn|Kocher|1974|pp=8–11}} Kocher notes Tolkien's statement in the Prologue, equating Middle-earth with the actual Earth, separated by a long period of time:

{{blockquote|Those days, the Third Age of Middle-earth, are now long past, and the shape of all lands has been changed; but the regions in which Hobbits then lived were doubtless the same as those in which they still linger: [[Northwestern Europe|the North-West]] of the [[Old World]], east of [[Atlantic Ocean|the Sea]]. Of their original home the Hobbits in Bilbo’s time preserved no knowledge.<ref group=T>{{harvnb|Tolkien|1954a}} "Prologue"</ref>}}

In a letter written in 1958, Tolkien states that while the time is invented, the place, planet Earth, is not (italics in original):<ref name="letter211" group=T/>

{{blockquote|I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary ''time'', but kept my feet on my own mother-earth for ''place''. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of [[Science fiction|seeking remote globes]] in 'space'... Many reviewers seem to assume that Middle-earth is another planet!<ref name="letter211" group=T/>}}

In the same letter, he places the beginning of the Fourth Age some 6,000 years in the past:<ref name="letter211" group=T/>

{{blockquote|I imagine the gap [since [[The War of the Ring (1955 book)|the War of the Ring]] and the end of the Third Age] to be about 6000 years; that is we are now at the end of the Fifth Age if the Ages were of about the same length as Second Age and Third Age. But they have, I think, quickened; and I imagine we are actually at the end of the Sixth Age, or in the Seventh.<ref name="letter211" group=T/>}}

The Tolkien scholar [[Richard C. West]] writes that one of the "very final passages" of the internal chronology of ''Lord of the Rings'', ''[[The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen]]'', ends not just with [[Arwen]]'s death, but the statement that her grave will remain on the hill of Cerin Amroth in what was [[Lothlorien]] "until the world is changed, and all the days of her life are utterly forgotten by men that come after ... and with the passing of [Arwen] Evenstar no more is said in this book of the days of old."<ref name="West 2006">{{harvnb|West|2006|pp=67–100}}</ref> West observes that this points up a "highly unusual" aspect of Tolkien's legendarium among modern fantasy: it is set "in the real world but in an imagined prehistory."<ref name="West 2006"/> As a result, West explains, Tolkien can build what he likes in that distant past, elves and wizards and hobbits and all the rest, provided that he tears it all down again, so that the modern world can emerge from the wreckage, with nothing but "[[philology|a word or two]], a few vague legends and confused traditions..." to show for it.<ref name="West 2006"/>

West praises and quotes Kocher on Tolkien's imagined prehistory and the implied [[Decline and fall in Middle-earth#Fading|process of fading]] to lead from fantasy to the modern world:<ref name="West 2006"/>

{{blockquote|At the end of his epic Tolkien inserts ... some forebodings of [Middle-earth's] future which will make Earth what it is today ... he shows the initial steps in a long process of retreat or disappearance by which all other intelligent species, which will leave man effectually alone on earth... Ents may still be there in our forests, but what forests have we left? The process of extermination is already well under way in the Third Age, and ... Tolkien bitterly deplores its climax today."{{sfn|Kocher|1974|p=14}}}}

The Tolkien scholar [[Stuart D. Lee]] and the medievalist [[Elizabeth Solopova]] make "an attempt at a summary",<ref name="Lee Solopova 2005">{{harvnb|Lee|Solopova|2005|pp=256–257}}</ref> which runs as follows. The ''Silmarillion'' describes events "presented as factual"<ref name="Lee Solopova 2005"/> but taking place before Earth's actual recorded history. What happened is processed through the generations as folk-myths and legends, especially among the (Old) English. Before the [[Fall of Númenor]], the world was flat. In the Fall, it became round; further geological events reshaped the continents into the Earth as it now is. All the same, the old tales survive here and there, resulting in mentions of Dwarves and Elves in real Medieval literature. Thus, Tolkien's imagined mythology "is an attempt to reconstruct our pre-history."<ref name="Lee Solopova 2005"/> Lee and Solopova comment that "Only by understanding this can we fully realize the true scale of his project and comprehend how enormous his achievement was."<ref name="Lee Solopova 2005"/>

The poet [[W. H. Auden]] wrote in ''[[The New York Times]]'' that "no previous writer has, to my knowledge, created an imaginary world and a feigned history in such detail. By the time the reader has finished the trilogy, including the appendices to this last volume, he knows as much about Tolkien's Middle Earth, its landscape, its fauna and flora, its peoples, their languages, their history, their cultural habits, as, outside his special field, he knows about the actual world."{{efn|Auden only had ''The Lord of the Rings'' to go on in 1956, but he commented that "From the appendices readers will get tantalizing glimpses of the First and Second Ages" and hoped that as the "legend of these" had already been written, readers would not have to wait too long for them.<ref name="Auden 1956"/>}}<ref name="Auden 1956">{{cite news |last=Auden |first=W. H. |author-link=W. H. Auden |title=Books: At the End of the Quest, Victory |url=http://movies2.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-return.html |access-date=3 July 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=22 January 1956}}</ref> The scholar Margaret Hiley comments that Auden's "feigned history" echoes Tolkien's own statement in the foreword to the second edition of ''Lord of the Rings'' that he much preferred history, true or feigned, to [[allegory]]; and that Middle-earth's history is told in ''The Silmarillion''.{{sfn|Hiley|2006}}

== Notes ==

== References ==

=== Primary ===

=== Secondary ===

=== Sources ===

{{refbegin}} * {{ME-ref|Letters}}  * {{cite book |last=Chance |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Chance |title=[[Tolkien's Art: A 'Mythology for England']] |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year=1980 |orig-date=1979 |isbn=978-0-333-29034-7}} * {{cite book |last=Croft |first=Janet Brennan |author-link=Janet Brennan Croft |title=War and the Works of J.R.R. Tolkien |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32592-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Donovan |first=Leslie A. |chapter=Middle-earth Mythology: An Overview |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Stuart D. |editor-link=Stuart D. Lee |title=[[A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien]] |date=2020 |orig-year=2014 |publisher=[[Wiley Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1119656029 |pages=92–106 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Flieger |first=Verlyn |author-link=Verlyn Flieger |year=1983 |title=Splintered Light: Logos and Language in Tolkien's World |title-link=Splintered Light |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-802-81955-0}} * {{cite book |last=Flieger |first=Verlyn |author-link=Verlyn Flieger |title=A Question of Time: J.R.R. Tolkien's Road to Faërie |title-link=A Question of Time (book) |year=2001 |orig-date=1997 |publisher=[[Kent State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-87338-699-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Flieger |first=Verlyn |author-link=Verlyn Flieger |year=2005 |title=Interrupted Music: The Making of Tolkien's Mythology |publisher=[[Kent State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-87338-824-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Garth |first=John |author-link=John Garth (author) |title=Tolkien and the Great War: The Threshold of Middle-earth |title-link=Tolkien and the Great War |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-00711-953-0 }} * {{cite web |last=Hiley |first=Margaret Barbara |title=Aspects of modernism in the works of C.S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien and Charles Williams |url=https://core.ac.uk/reader/40069546 |publisher=[[University of Glasgow]] (PhD Thesis) |access-date=3 July 2020 |date=2006}} * {{cite book |last=Kocher |first=Paul H. |author-link=Paul H. Kocher |title=Master of Middle-earth: The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien |title-link=Master of Middle-earth |date=1974 |orig-year=1972 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0-14-003877-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Stuart D. |author1-link=Stuart D. Lee |last2=Solopova |first2=Elizabeth |author2-link=Elizabeth Solopova |title=The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature Through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien |title-link=The Keys of Middle-earth |date=2005 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave]] |isbn=978-1403946713 }} * {{cite book |last=Purtill |first=Richard L. |author-link=Richard Purtill |title=J. R. R. Tolkien: Myth, Morality, and Religion |publisher=[[Harper & Row]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-89870-948-3}} * {{cite book |last=Rosebury |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Rosebury |title=Tolkien: A Critical Assessment |title-link=Tolkien: A Cultural Phenomenon |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press|St. Martin's]] |isbn=978-0-333-53896-8 |year=1992}} * {{cite book |last=Rosebury |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Rosebury |chapter=Fiction and Poetry, 1914–73 |title=Tolkien: A Cultural Phenomenon |title-link=Tolkien: A Cultural Phenomenon |year=2003 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-4039-1263-3}} * {{cite book |last=Shippey |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Shippey |title=The Road to Middle-Earth |title-link=The Road to Middle-Earth |date=2005 |edition=Third |orig-year=1982 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0261102750 |location=The Lost Straight Road}} * {{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Michael |title=Hobbits, Elves, and Wizards: Exploring the Wonders and Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-4039-6025-2}} * {{ME-ref|FOTR}}  * {{ME-ref|ROTK}}  * {{ME-ref|Silm}}  * {{ME-ref|UT}}  * {{ME-ref|SM}}  * {{ME-ref|MR}}  * {{ME-ref|POME}}  * {{cite book |last=Tolkien |first=J. R. R. |author-link=J. R. R. Tolkien |title=[[Tree and Leaf]] |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=2001 |orig-year=1964 |isbn=978-0-007-10504-5}} * {{cite book |last=West |first=Richard C. |author-link=Richard C. West |chapter='And All the Days of Her Life Are Forgotten': 'The Lord of the Rings' as Mythic Prehistory |title=The Lord of the Rings, 1954-2004: Scholarship in Honor of Richard E. Blackwelder |editor1-last=Hammond |editor1-first=Wayne G. |editor1-link=Wayne G. Hammond |editor2-last=Scull |editor2-first=Christina |editor2-link=Christina Scull |publisher=[[Marquette University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87462-018-4 |pages=67–100}} {{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Arda}} [[Category:Fictional history|Arda]] [[Category:Middle-earth]]