{{Coord|39|34|17|N|75|35|01|W|region:US|display=title}} {{Infobox military unit |unit_name=Harbor Defenses of the Delaware |image=Fronts one and two of fort delaware on pea patch island.jpg |image_size=275px |caption=Fort Delaware on Pea Patch Island |country={{USA}} |allegiance= |type=[[Coastal artillery|Coast artillery]] |branch=[[United States Army Coast Artillery Corps]] |dates=1896–1950<ref name=CDSGDel/> |specialization=[[Harbor Defense Command]] |command_structure=*[[First United States Army|First Army]] (1933–1941) *[[Eastern Defense Command]] (1941–1945) |size= |current_commander= |garrison=*[[Fort DuPont]], [[Delaware City, Delaware]] (1900–1942) *[[Fort Miles]], [[Lewes, Delaware]] (1942–1950) |ceremonial_chief= |nickname= |motto= |colors= |march= |mascot=[[Oozlefinch]] |battles= |notable_commanders= |anniversaries= }}
[[File:Estuary Map 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Delaware River estuary]] The '''Harbor Defenses of the Delaware''' was a [[United States Army Coast Artillery Corps]] [[Harbor Defense Command|harbor defense command]].<ref name=CDSGDel/> It coordinated the [[coastal defence and fortification|coast defenses]] of the [[Delaware River]] [[estuary]] from 1897 to 1950, beginning with the [[Board of Fortifications|Endicott program]]. These included both [[coastal artillery|coast artillery]] [[fort]]s and [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|underwater minefields]]. The areas protected included the cities of [[Philadelphia]], [[Camden, New Jersey|Camden]], and [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] along with the [[Chesapeake & Delaware Canal]]. The command originated circa 1896 as an Artillery District and became the '''Coast Defenses of the Delaware''' in 1913, with defenses initially at and near [[Fort Delaware]] on [[Pea Patch Island]] near [[Delaware City, Delaware|Delaware City]]. In 1925 the command was renamed as a Harbor Defense Command. During [[World War II]] the defenses were relocated to [[Fort Miles]] on [[Cape Henlopen]] at the mouth of the [[Delaware Bay]].<ref name=Stanton455>Stanton, pp. 455-481</ref><ref name=CACOrg1>[http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACorg2011.pdf ''Coast Artillery Organization: A Brief Overview'' at the Coast Defense Study Group website]</ref><ref name=Rinaldi165>Rinaldi, pp. 165-166</ref><ref name=Berhow427>Berhow, pp. 427-434</ref>
==History== ===Early forts on the Delaware River=== ====Colonial period====
[[File:Nieuw Nederland.png|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Map showing the area claimed by the Dutch in North America and several Dutch settlements]] [[File:Kartskiss över Nya Sverige.png|thumb|right|250px|Swedish map of [[New Sweden]] ca. 1650, showing their settlements and forts and the Dutch [[Fort Nassau (South River)|Fort Nassau]].]] [[File:The Grand Battery Historical Marker S Columbus Blvd at US Coast Guard Station Philadelphia PA (DSC 2949).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Historical marker for the Grand Battery (or the Association Battery), Pennsylvania's largest early fortification, originally built in 1748]] Europeans came to the [[Delaware Valley]] in the early 17th century, with the first settlements founded by the Dutch, who in 1623 built [[Fort Nassau (South River)|Fort Nassau]] on the [[Delaware River]] (which they called the South River, or ''Zuyd Rivier'' in Dutch) opposite its [[confluence]] with the [[Schuylkill River]] in what is now [[Brooklawn, New Jersey]]. Fort Nassau was a ''[[factorij]]'' or fortified trading post. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their [[New Netherland]] colony, which extended from what is now southern Delaware to Rhode Island. In 1638, [[Sweden|Swedish]], [[Finns|Finnish]], and renegade Dutch settlers led by [[Peter Minuit]] established the colony of [[New Sweden]] at [[Fort Christina]] (present-day [[Wilmington, Delaware]]) and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the [[Susquehannock]]s in their military defeat of the English colony of [[Maryland]]. In 1648, the Dutch built [[Fort Beversreede]] on the west bank of the Delaware, south of the Schuylkill near the present-day [[Eastwick, Philadelphia|Eastwick]] neighborhood, to reassert their dominion over the area. The Swedes responded by building [[New Sweden#Forts|Fort Nya Korsholm]], or New [[Korsholm]], after a town in [[Finland]] with a Swedish majority. In 1655, a Dutch military campaign led by New Netherland Director-General [[Peter Stuyvesant]] took control of the Swedish colony, ending its claim to independence. The Swedish and Finnish settlers continued to have their own militia, religion, and courts, and to enjoy substantial autonomy under the Dutch. The English conquered the New Netherland colony in 1664, though the situation did not change substantially until 1682 when the area was included in [[William Penn]]'s charter for [[Pennsylvania]], under which the city of [[Philadelphia]] was founded. Penn's colony originally included both Pennsylvania and [[Delaware]]; by 1704 the latter split off as the [[Delaware Colony|colony of Lower Delaware]], though the two shared a common governor.<ref name=Munroe1>{{cite book|title=History of Delaware|first =John A |last = Munroe|edition = 5th, illustrated|publisher= University of Delaware Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-87413-947-1|page=45|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vs7NcOKnlNUC&dq=%22Lower+counties%22+%22on+the+delaware%22&pg=PA46 | chapter = 3. The Lower Counties on The Delaware}}</ref>
William Penn and many of the Pennsylvania colonists were [[Quakers]], members of a [[Pacifism|pacifist]] Christian sect. They fostered good relations with [[Lenape|Lenape (Delaware)]] [[Native Americans in the United States|tribe]], purchasing the colony's land from them, and had the only significant European settlements in the Americas without fortifications. In the 1740s French and Spanish [[privateer]]s entered the Delaware River, threatening the city. During [[King George's War]] (1744–1748), [[Benjamin Franklin]] raised a militia called the Association for General Defense, because the legislators of the city decided to take no action to defend Philadelphia "either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War". He raised money to create earthwork defenses and buy artillery. The largest of these was the "Association Battery" or "Grand Battery" of 50 guns, on the site that became [[Joshua Humphreys]]' shipyard in 1794 and is now the Coast Guard Station Philadelphia.<ref name=Kyria1>{{cite book|title=Philadelphia's Lost Waterfront|first =Harry |last = Kyriakodis|publisher= The History Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-62584-188-9|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4Lt2CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT114 | chapter = 16. At Washington Avenue}}</ref> At the end of the war, commanders disbanded the militia and left derelict the defenses of the city. With the outbreak of the [[French and Indian War]] (part of the Seven Years' War) in the 1750s, plans were drawn up for a fort on Mud Island (later called [[Fort Mifflin]]) in the Delaware at the southern end of today's city limits, but no fort was built.{{sfn|Dorwart|1998|pp=9–13}} Eventually, in 1771 British General [[Thomas Gage]] assigned Captain [[John Montresor]] of the British [[Royal Engineers|Corps of Engineers]] to the task of designing and building a fort on the island. Montresor submitted six designs to Penn and the Board of Commissioners, estimating £40,000 for an adequate fort with 40 guns and a 400-man garrison. His designs were all considered too expensive by the Board, which provided only £15,000 for purchasing the island and building the fort. Construction began in 1771, but in mid-1772 Montresor left the project and returned to New York.{{sfn|Scull|1881|pp=414–417}} Work on the fort ended a year later, with only the east and south walls built.{{sfn|Liggett|Laumark|1979|pp=41–42}}
====Revolutionary War==== [[File:Plan of Ft. Mifflin, Philadelphia, PA 1777.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Plan of Ft. Mifflin in 1777]] [[File:Map of Operations on the Delaware River at Philadelphia, PA Oct-Nov., 1777.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Operations on the Delaware River, October–November, 1777]] [[File:Aerial view - Fort Mifflin, Mud Island, Marine and Penrose Ferry Roads, Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA HABS PA,51-PHILA,111-78 (CT).tif|thumb|right|250px|Aerial view of Fort Mifflin]] {{main|American Revolutionary War}} {{main|Philadelphia campaign}} In April 1775 the [[American Revolutionary War|American Revolution]] broke out full-scale at [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] in Massachusetts. These battles were followed shortly by the convening of the [[Second Continental Congress]] in Philadelphia on May 11, 1775. The Philadelphia [[Committees of safety (American Revolution)|Committee of Safety]], headed by [[Benjamin Franklin]], decided to protect the city by obstructing British access to the Delaware River. Three forts were built to protect two lines of ''[[chevaux de frise]]'' obstacles in the river, designed by [[Robert Smith (architect)|Robert Smith]]. One line was at [[Fort Billingsport]], New Jersey, and another was between [[Fort Mifflin]] (called "Fort on Mud Island" or the "Fort Island Battery" at the time) and [[Fort Mercer]].{{sfn|Roberts|1988|pp=511–512}} A third line of obstacles was downstream at [[Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania|Marcus Hook]] with no forts nearby.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Plank House|url=http://www.marcushookps.org/house.php|website=www.marcushookps.org|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref> Forts Mercer and Billingsport in New Jersey were designed by [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]] and built as [[earthwork (military)|earthworks]]; work also resumed on Fort Mifflin and all three forts were garrisoned during 1777.{{sfn|Roberts|1988|pp=505–506, 511–512, 686–687}} Meanwhile, the Continental Congress relocated to Baltimore in early 1776 due to a threat of British attack, later returning to Philadelphia and issuing the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] on July 4, 1776, attracting further British attention to the city.
{{main|Saratoga campaign}} In early 1777 the British planned to cut New England off from the rest of the colonies by sending a force under [[John Burgoyne]] southward from Montreal through the Lake Champlain area and the Hudson Valley to Albany. This was intended to be supported by a force under General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] advancing northward from New York City. However, [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|George Germain]], a British civilian official managing the war in London, also gave approval for Howe to capture Philadelphia.{{sfn|Black|1998|pp=117–121}} Howe proceeded with the Philadelphia plan and largely failed to support Burgoyne's campaign. The Philadelphia campaign was time-consuming but successful; the British took a lengthy water route through Chesapeake Bay, then marched overland to defeat Washington at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] southwest of Philadelphia on September 11, and entered the city unopposed on September 26. The [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]] left the city ahead of the British occupation, moving first to Lancaster and then to [[York, Pennsylvania]].{{sfn|Higginbotham|1983|pp=181–188}}
{{main|Siege of Fort Mifflin}} Howe had the luxury of bypassing most of Philadelphia's defenses, occupying the city following his victory at Brandywine. However, his primary supply route was the Delaware River, with the forts and lines of ''chevaux de frise'' blocking it. They cut through the line near Marcus Hook without opposition, and easily took [[Fort Billingsport]] and its line of obstacles on October 2. They then laid siege to [[Fort Mifflin]] and [[Fort Mercer]], unsuccessfully attacking the latter by land and river in the [[Battle of Red Bank]] on October 22. The 1,200 [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessians]] of the assault force suffered over 350 casualties, the British also losing {{HMS|Augusta|1763|6}} (64 guns) and HMS ''Merlin'' (18 guns) to grounding.{{sfn|Jackson|1986}}<ref name=RevWarNJ1>[http://www.revolutionarywarnewjersey.com/new_jersey_revolutionary_war_sites/towns/national_park_nj_revolutionary_war_sites.htm Fort Mercer at RevolutionaryWarNewJersey.com]</ref> The latter was possibly an indirect result of engagement by the [[Continental Navy|Continental]] and [[Pennsylvania Navy|Pennsylvania]] navies, which also provided [[enfilade|enfilading]] fire against the Hessians.{{sfn|Chartrand|2016|pp=27–28}} The siege was commanded by [[John Montresor]], designer of Fort Mifflin. On November 10 bombardment of the fort began in earnest. The fort was evacuated and burned (to impede its use by the British) five days later, with the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] forces of over 400 men suffering about 250 casualties.{{sfn|Boatner|1994|p=384}} Fort Mifflin was "entirely beat down; every piece of cannon entirely dismounted", as reported by George Washington.{{sfn|Chartrand|2016|p=29}} On November 18, Fort Mercer was evacuated in the face of a British force of 2,000, their artillery having breached the fort's walls.{{sfn|Roberts|1988|pp=511–512}}
Burgoyne's campaign came to a defeat in the [[Battles of Saratoga]], leading to his eventual surrender on October 17.{{sfn|Ketchum|1997|pp=360–368}} This victory persuaded France to enter the war on the Patriot side. Word of it reached Commissioner [[Benjamin Franklin]] in Paris on December 4, and negotiations resulted in [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France declaring war on Britain]] in March 1778.{{sfn|Paterson|2009|pp=13–15}}
Washington and his army encamped at [[Valley Forge]] in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order.<ref>Douglas Southall Freeman, ''Washington'' (1968) pp. 381–82</ref>
Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command. General Howe resigned his position, and was replaced by Lieutenant General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]] as commander-in-chief. France's entry into the war forced a change in British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defend New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. Clinton shipped many Loyalists and most of his heavy equipment by sea to New York, and evacuated Philadelphia on June 18, 1778. Washington's army shadowed Clinton's, and Washington successfully forced a [[Battle of Monmouth|battle at Monmouth Courthouse]] on June 28, the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], who led the advance force of the army, ordered a controversial retreat early in the battle, allowing Clinton's army to regroup. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at [[White Plains, New York]]. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier.
The military focus of the war shifted to the southern colonies. Eventually, the American victory in the [[Yorktown campaign]] on October 19, 1781 proved to be the key to independence; the British received word of it on November 25. This precipitated a collapse of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]]'s [[Tory]] government in March 1782. The new [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] government suspended offensive operations in the Thirteen Colonies and commenced lengthy peace negotiations, culminating in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] that ended the war on September 3, 1783.{{sfn|Paterson|2009|p=20}}
====1783–War of 1812==== The ruins of Fort Mifflin lay derelict until 1793, when rebuilding began under what was later called the [[Seacoast defense in the United States|first system of US coastal fortifications]]. [[Pierre L'Enfant]], also responsible for planning [[Washington, D.C.]], supervised the reconstruction and designed the rebuild in 1794.{{sfn|Liggett|Laumark|1979|pp=41–42}} Reconstruction work began on the fort in 1795 under the auspices of engineer officer [[Louis de Tousard]], who from 1795 to 1800 worked on coastal defenses between Massachusetts and the Carolinas.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1960–1961|p=179}} The initial goal was to rebuild the fort to accommodate 48 guns.{{sfn|Wade|2011|p=17}} The army officially named the fort after [[Thomas Mifflin]], a [[Continental Army]] officer and the first post-independence [[Governor of Pennsylvania]], in 1795.{{sfn|Roberts|1988|pp=686–687}} Rebuilding the fort consumed $94,000 of a total fort budget of $278,000 in 1798 and 1799 alone (in 1799 money).{{sfn|Wade|2011|pp=55–56}} Also, the U.S. Congress met in Philadelphia until 1800 and Fort Mifflin was well garrisoned until then, usually with two companies.{{sfn|Wade|2011|pp=78–79, 87, 224–225}}
During the [[War of 1812]] efforts were made to fortify [[Pea Patch Island]], later the site of [[Fort Delaware]]. This was the first of three times new defenses were built further seaward along the Delaware as gun ranges increased; the river [[estuary]] widens rapidly downstream of the island and at the time rendered smoothbore [[cannon]] defenses ineffective. This plan of defense was largely coordinated by Capt. Samuel Babcock, who was working nearby on similar defenses in Philadelphia. During this time a [[seawall]] and [[levee|dykes]] were built around the island. There is no known evidence that any progress was made on the actual fortification by war's end. The original plan was to build a [[Martello tower]] on the island.<ref name="Dobbs, Kelli W. 1999">Dobbs, Kelli W.; Siders, Rebecca J. ''Fort Delaware Architectural Research Project.'' Newark, DE: University of Delaware, Center for Historic Architecture and Design, 1999.</ref> Other sources state that an [[earthwork (military)|earthwork]] fort was built on the island during the war and demolished in 1821; also, a wooden fort existed from 1814 to 1824.{{sfn|Roberts|1988|pp=129–130}}<ref name=FWikiDel>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Delaware Fort Delaware at FortWiki.com]</ref> [[Battery Park (Delaware)|Battery Park]] in [[Delaware City, Delaware|Delaware City]] is on the site of the Delaware City Battery, an earthwork erected in 1814.<ref>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/de.html#delcity Delaware City Battery at American Forts Network]</ref>
====1815–1860==== [[File:Engineer department overlay of the three Fort Delaware structures.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Overlay of the three versions of Fort Delaware. The largest is Delafield's never-built design; the irregular pentagon is the fort that exists today. ''Drawn by Lt. [[Montgomery C. Meigs]].'']] In 1815 the first [[Fort Delaware]] was designed by [[Joseph Gilbert Totten|Joseph G. Totten]] and construction soon began on [[Pea Patch Island]]. This fort was in the shape of a [[star fort|five-pointed star]], with large [[bastion]]s and short [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]]s. The five-pointed star design is viewed as "transitional" between the [[Seacoast defense in the United States|second and third systems of US fortifications]].{{sfn|Weaver|2018|pp=171–176}} Capt. Samuel Babcock supervised the work from about August 1819 until August 20, 1824.<ref name="American State Papers, 1834">American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States, From the First Session to the Second Session of the Eighteenth Congress, Inclusive. Commencing December 27, 1819, and ending February 28, 1825. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1834.</ref> Completion of the project was delayed years past the proposed date due to uneven settling, improper pile placement and the island's marshy nature. In one occurrence an entire section of 43,000 bricks had to be taken down, cleaned, and reworked due to massive cracking. In 1822, Colonel Totten and General [[Simon Bernard]] were on the island to inspect the faulty works. Captain Babcock was severely criticized for altering Totten's plans without orders. Babcock subsequently appeared before a [[court-martial]] for his actions in late 1824. It was determined he was not guilty of neglect but rather error in judgement and he was acquitted.<ref name="American State Papers, 1834"/>
On February 7, 1821, the Board of Engineers reported: "In the Delaware, the fort on the Pea Patch island, and one on the Delaware shore opposite, defend the water passage as far below Philadelphia as localities will permit: They force an enemy to land forty miles below the city to attack it by land, and thus afford time for the arrival of succors [...] The two projected forts will also have the advantages of covering the [[Chesapeake & Delaware Canal|canal destined to connect the Chesapeake with the Delaware]][.]"<ref>Mackie, Brendan., Peter K. Morrill, Laura M. Lee. ''Images of America: Fort DuPont''. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2011., p 14.</ref> The fort on the Delaware shore may refer to the Delaware City Battery; a permanent battery was not built there until the Civil War.
The star fort was garrisoned prior to 1825. In 1831 it was wrecked by a fire. Captain [[Richard Delafield]] was tasked with designing and building a replacement; the first fort was demolished in 1833. The new fort was intended, in Capt. Delafield's words, "as a huge bastioned [[polygonal fort|polygonal form]] to be built in masonry."<ref name="Dobbs, Kelli W. 1999"/> Delafield desired his fort to be "a marvel of military architecture on Pea Patch", and the design was much larger than the star fort.{{sfn|Weaver|2018|pp=171–176}} Construction began on the foundations in 1836, but was interrupted by a legal challenge over whether the island historically lay in Delaware or New Jersey, thus disputing Delaware's right to convey the island to the federal government. The case dragged on for over ten years. In 1848 an arbitrator ruled in Delaware's favor.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlMrAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1124|title=The Federal Cases: Comprising Cases Argued and Determined in the Circuit and District Courts of the United States from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Federal Reporter, Arranged Alphabetically by the Titles of the Cases and Numbered Consecutively, Book 30|author=West Publishing Company|year=1897| access-date=February 28, 2015}}</ref> It appears no further work was done on this fort.{{sfn|Weaver|2018|pp=171–176}}
The present Fort Delaware was erected mainly between 1848 and 1860 as one of the larger forts of the [[Seacoast defense in the United States|third system of US fortifications]]. Although major construction was wrapped up before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] broke out in 1861, the post engineer did not declare the fort finished until 1868.<ref>Dobbs, Kelli W., ''Life Outside These Walls: A Study of Community Life on Pea Patch Island, Fort Delaware, 1848-1860.'' Newark, DE: University of Delaware, Spring 1999.</ref> The fort was designed by Army chief engineer Joseph G. Totten, and construction was supervised by Major John Sanders. The fort was about the size and location of the previous star fort. It was in the shape of an irregular pentagon, with five small bastions at the corners, called "tower bastions" by Totten. Four of the sides were seacoast fronts, with three tiers of [[cannon]] on each, two [[casemate]]d tiers in the fort and one [[barbette]] tier on the roof. The irregular shape provided for more cannon on the east-facing fronts, where the deeper channel was. A total of 123 heavy cannon could be mounted on the seacoast fronts, with 15 more in the bastions. The long rear front was called a "gorge wall", with two tiers totaling 68 [[arrowslit|loopholes]] for muskets and a tier of 11 cannon on the roof. In the center of this wall was the [[sally port]], the only entrance to or exit from the fort. Twenty short-range flank [[howitzer]]s could be mounted in the bastions to defeat attacks on the [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]]s. Thus, the fort had positions for 169 cannon. The fort also had a [[moat]], with a [[tide gate]] on a canal from the river to control the moat's level.{{sfn|Weaver|2018|pp=171–176}}
====1861–1885====
[[Fort Delaware]] was used as a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] for [[Confederate Army|Confederates]] for most of the Civil War. Convicted [[Union Army]] soldiers and local [[political prisoner]]s were also held there. By August 1863 over 11,000 prisoners were on the island, and during the war a total of 33,000 were housed there at some time. About 2,500 prisoners died on Pea Patch Island during the war.<ref>Jamison, Jocelyn P., ''They Died at Fort Delaware 1861-1865: Confederate, Union and Civilian.'' Delaware City, DE: Fort Delaware Society, 1997</ref> Half the total deaths were in a [[smallpox]] epidemic in 1863.<ref>Jamison, pp. 91–94</ref> Many of the Confederate prisoners and Union guards who died at the fort are buried in the nearby [[Finn's Point National Cemetery]] in [[Pennsville Township, New Jersey|Pennsville, New Jersey]].<ref>[http://www.cem.va.gov/CEM/cems/nchp/finnspoint.asp Finn's Point National Cemetery at US Veterans Administration]</ref>
The Ten Gun Battery, briefly called Camp Reynolds or Fort Reynolds, was built from 1863 to 1864 on the property of 1st Lt. Clement Reeves of the [[5th Delaware Volunteer Infantry]], on the Delaware shore near Fort Delaware, now on the [[Fort DuPont]] property. Sgt. Bishop Crumrine of Young's Battery wrote, "This fortification is not properly a Fort but rather a water battery. Situated just across the river from Fort Delaware on the Delaware City side, it has five sides. The two longest sides being next to the river is a heavy breast work on which six 10-inch and four 15-inch [[Rodman gun]]s are mounted."<ref name=Crumrine1>Crumrine, Bishop. "Letters Sent 1862–1865." ''Washington and Jefferson College, U. Grant Miller Library'', January 2005.</ref> The Civil War had shown that masonry forts were vulnerable to modern rifled cannon, particularly in the [[siege of Fort Pulaski]] near Savannah, Georgia in 1862.
New earthwork forts were built in the 1870s, including reconstruction of the Ten Gun Battery as the Twenty Gun Battery and the new Battery at Finn's Point, later the site of [[Fort Mott (New Jersey)|Fort Mott]]. Both were to house heavy guns and coast defense mortars, but were not completed or fully armed, as construction funding for forts was cut off in 1878.<ref name=FWikiDuPont>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_DuPont_(1) Fort DuPont at FortWiki.com]</ref><ref name=FWikiMott>{{cite web|url=http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Mott|title=Fort Mott - FortWiki Historic U.S. and Canadian Forts|website=www.fortwiki.com}}</ref> In 1876 a mine casemate was built near the Twenty Gun Battery to control an [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|underwater minefield]], one of the first defenses of this type in the US.<ref name=AFNDel>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/de.html#delaware Delaware forts at American Forts Network]</ref> A similar casemate was built around the same time at [[Fort Mifflin]], but was not used.<ref>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/pa.html#mifflin Fort Mifflin at American Forts Network]</ref>
===Endicott period=== [[File:Fortdupontmap.tif|thumb|250px|right|Fort DuPont in 1927. The Abbot Quad mortar battery is in the center.]] [[File:Fort Greble, R.I. (4515412788).jpg|thumb|250px|right|{{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} mortars, similar to those at Fort DuPont]] [[File:Old-Style-Pit.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This photo shows a mortar pit of the Abbot Quad period. This illustrates the difficulty of reloading four mortars in this configuration. Three of four mortars and 30 soldiers are visible in the crowded space.]]
The [[Board of Fortifications]] was convened in 1885 under [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[William Crowninshield Endicott]] to develop recommendations for a full replacement of existing coast defenses. Most of its recommendations were adopted, and construction began in 1896 on new batteries and [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|controlled minefields]] to defend the Delaware.<ref name=Berhow210>Berhow, pp. 210-211</ref><ref name=CDSGDel>[https://cdsg.org/the-harbor-defenses-of-the-delaware/ Harbor Defenses of the Delaware at CDSG.org]</ref>
Fort Delaware was modernized with a large new gun battery inside the stone fort and small-caliber batteries on and outside the fort. The other forts were on the shores flanking Pea Patch Island. Fort Mott was built as both a seacoast fort and to defend against a land attack, reusing some of the 1870s Finn's Point Battery. Fort DuPont received all-new gun batteries, including a battery for 16 mortars. The three forts became known as the Coast Defenses of the Delaware. This appears to have initially been an Artillery District, was renamed as a [[Coast Defense Command]] in 1913, and again renamed as a [[Harbor Defense Command]] in 1925.<ref name=CACOrg1/><ref name=Berhow427/>
[[Fort Delaware]] had a battery of three [[12-inch gun M1895|{{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] on [[disappearing carriage]]s inside the fort; three batteries of two [[3-inch gun M1898|{{convert|3|in|adj=on}} guns]] each (two batteries on the roof of the fort) served as mine defense guns, protecting controlled minefields from [[minesweeper]]s.<ref name=FWikiDel/> Disappearing carriages folded down to hide the gun behind a [[parapet]] for reloading. In 1892 a mine control casemate was built on the north end of Pea Patch Island for a minefield between Fort Delaware and Fort Mott. Fort DuPont controlled another minefield in the other channel.<ref name=AFNDel/> In 1898 a battery of two [[QF 4.7-inch Gun Mk I–IV|{{convert|4.72|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] was added outside the fort due to the Spanish–American War; most of the Endicott batteries in the area were years from completion and it was feared the Spanish fleet would bombard the [[East Coast of the United States|U.S. east coast]].<ref name=ComRep1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=RUtZAAAAIAAJ&dq=submarine+mine+kennebec&pg=PA3780 Congressional serial set, 1900, ''Report of the Commission on the Conduct of the War with Spain'', Vol. 7, pp. 3778–3780, Washington: Government Printing Office]</ref>
[[Fort DuPont]] had a battery of sixteen [[12-inch coast defense mortar|{{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} mortars]] in an "Abbot Quad" arrangement for concentrated fire. Two {{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} guns on [[barbette]] carriages and two [[8-inch gun M1888|{{convert|8|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] on disappearing carriages were in an unusual arrangement: the 12-inch guns were on either side of the pair of 8-inch guns. Two two-gun batteries, one with [[5-inch gun M1900|{{convert|5|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] and one with 3-inch guns, completed the armament.<ref name=FWikiDuPont/>
[[Fort Mott (New Jersey)|Fort Mott]] had two three-gun batteries of disappearing guns, one with {{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} guns and one with [[10-inch gun M1888|{{convert|10|in|adj=on|0}} guns]]. Two batteries of two {{convert|5|in|adj=on|0}} guns each flanked the heavy batteries. Under the 5-inch battery at the north end of the gun line was Battery Edwards, with two [[3-inch gun M1898|3-inch mine defense guns]] in large [[casemate]]s rebuilt from earlier (1872) magazines. These casemated light guns were a unique installation in US forts of this era, in which virtually all emplacements were open-top.<ref name=FWikiMott/>{{sfn|Berhow|2015|p=200}} Fort Mott was also unusual for the Endicott period in being designed to resist a land attack. A [[parados]] (basically an artificial hill) and [[moat]] were placed behind the gun batteries to impede an assault from the landward side. Also, the fort's four 5-inch guns were in mounts permitting 360° of fire, and were sited to fire on attackers flanking the parados.<ref>[https://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/CDSG/CDSG%20WEBSITE%20UPDATES/CDSG%20Downloads/AMERICAN%20SEACOAST%20DEFENSES%20FORTS,%20MILITARY%20RESERVATIONS%20and%20BATTERIES%201794-1945/matlan/HDDR1921.pdf 1921 maps of HD Delaware at CDSG.org]</ref>
Unusually, weapons were removed from CD Delaware prior to the US entry into World War I to arm higher-priority defenses. In 1910–1913 a 5-inch gun battery at Fort Mott was relocated to [[Fort Ruger]], Hawaii.<ref name=FWikiMott/> Four mortars from Fort DuPont were transferred to the same fort in 1914.<ref name=FWikiDuPont/> Removal of mortars in the cramped Abbot Quad battery improved reload times.
===World War I===
The [[American entry into World War I]] brought many changes to the Coast Artillery and the Coast Defenses of the Delaware (CD Delaware). Numerous temporary buildings were constructed at the forts to accommodate the wartime [[mobilization]]. As the only component of the Army with heavy artillery experience and significant manpower, the Coast Artillery was chosen to operate almost all US-manned heavy and [[railway artillery]] in that war. At most coast defense commands, garrisons were drawn down to provide experienced gun crews on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]], mostly using French- and British-made weapons. At least one company from CD Delaware was used to form the [[60th Air Defense Artillery Regiment|60th Artillery]] (Coast Artillery Corps), which saw action in France.<ref name=CACWWIHUN/><ref>[http://freepages.rootsweb.com/~cacunithistories/military/60thartycac.htm 60th Artillery in WWI at Rootsweb.com]</ref>{{sfn|Rinaldi|2004|p=163}} Some weapons were removed from forts with the intent of getting US-made artillery into the fight. 5-inch and 6-inch guns became [[field gun]]s on wheeled carriages.{{sfn|Williford|2016|pp=92-99}} 12-inch mortars were also removed as railway artillery or to improve reload times by reducing the number of mortars in a pit from four to two; this happened at Fort DuPont to provide mortars elsewhere. The remounted 5-inch and 6-inch guns were sent to France, but their units did not complete training in time to see action.<ref name=CACWWIHUN>[http://freepages.military.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cacunithistories/defeating_the_hun.htm Coast Artillery Corps Units in France in WWI]</ref>
In 1917–1918 a number of weapons were relocated away from CD Delaware; only two were returned. Four mortars from Fort DuPont were used to arm [[Fort Rosecrans]] in San Diego, California. The remaining 5-inch guns at Fort Mott were removed for use as [[field gun]]s.<ref name=FWikiMott/> At Fort DuPont, the pair of 5-inch guns were transferred to an "emergency battery" at [[Fisherman Island (Virginia)|Fisherman's Island, Virginia]] in 1917–1918. The pair of 12-inch guns were moved to [[Fort Hamilton]], New York and the pair of 8-inch guns were removed for potential service as [[railway artillery]].<ref name=FWikiDuPont/> The 4.7-inch guns at Fort Delaware were sent to San Francisco for use on [[U.S. Army Transport Service|Army troop transports]]; they were returned to Fort Delaware in 1919 but were soon removed from service and used as war memorials.<ref name=FWikiDel/>
In 1918 a two-gun [[antiaircraft]] battery armed with [[3-inch gun M1917|M1917 {{convert|3|in|adj=on}} guns]] on fixed mounts was built at Fort DuPont.<ref name=AFNDel/>
In 1917 one 6-inch gun each was placed at the [[Cape May Military Reservation]] and the [[Cape Henlopen Military Reservation]], at the mouth of [[Delaware Bay]]. These guns were removed after the war.<ref name=Berhow210/><ref name=CDSGDel/>
References indicate that the authorized strength of CD Delaware in World War I was 11 companies, including one from the [[New Jersey Army National Guard|New Jersey National Guard]].{{sfn|Rinaldi|2004|p=165}}
===Between the wars===
[[File:12in-gun-barbette-CAJ192211.jpg|thumb|250px|right|{{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} gun M1895 on M1917 long-range barbette carriage, similar to the emplacements at Fort Saulsbury.]] In 1920 [[Fort Saulsbury]] was completed near [[Slaughter Beach, Delaware|Slaughter Beach]] and [[Milford, Delaware]], with two batteries of a new type: [[12-inch gun M1895|12-inch guns]] on long-range barbette carriages. These carriages increased the guns' range from {{convert|18,000|yd|m}} to {{convert|27,500|yd|m}}.{{sfn|Berhow|2015|p=61}} There were two guns per battery, without cover but positioned where they were difficult to see from the ocean. Each battery had a large earth-covered concrete bunker for ammunition and [[Coast Artillery fire control system|fire control]]. These batteries began construction in 1917, were completed in 1920, and accepted for service in 1924. The long-range carriage was developed in response to the rapid improvement of [[dreadnought battleship]]s in the naval arms race. Fort Saulsbury was an example of new defenses being built seaward as gun ranges increased, and largely superseded the other heavy weapons in HD Delaware. However, no guns were removed elsewhere, and the HDC headquarters remained at Fort DuPont. Fort Saulsbury seems to have been unaccompanied by smaller-caliber guns or a minefield.<ref name=AFNDel/><ref name=FWikiSaul>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Saulsbury Fort Saulsbury at FortWiki.com]</ref>
In 1919-1920 several weapon types were declared obsolete and removed from coast defenses. These included all 5-inch guns, all Armstrong guns (6-inch and 4.72-inch), and 3-inch M1898 guns. Only in rare cases were these weapons replaced. In CD Delaware this meant the removed 5-inch guns were not returned, the 4.72-inch guns were removed as war memorials, and three 3-inch batteries were scrapped. These were the two batteries on top of Fort Delaware and Fort Mott's unique casemated 3-inch battery.<ref name=FWikiDel/><ref name=FWikiMott/>
On 1 July 1924 the harbor defense garrisons completed the transition from a company-based organization to a regimental one, and on 9 June 1925 the commands were renamed from "Coast Defenses..." to "Harbor Defenses..." as [[Harbor Defense Command]]s.<ref name=CACOrg1/><ref name=Berhow427/> The 3rd Battalion, [[7th Coast Artillery]] of the [[Regular Army (United States)|regular army]] became the garrison of HD Delaware, which was in [[caretaker (military)|caretaker]] status between the wars. Headquarters and Headquarters Battery (HHB) 3rd Battalion and Battery E, 7th CA were the initial caretaker units. On September 1, 1935 the HHB was deactivated. In May 1936 the [[261st Coast Artillery (United States)|261st Coast Artillery]] Battalion (Harbor Defense) (HD) of the [[Delaware Army National Guard|Delaware National Guard]] was organized as the National Guard component of HD Delaware.<ref name=Gaines1>Gaines Regular Army, pp. 7-8, 14</ref><ref name=CDSGNGReg>[http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CAregNG.pdf National Guard Coast Artillery regiment histories at the Coast Defense Study Group]</ref>
===World War II===
[[File:16-inch-Casemated.jpg|thumb|250px|right|{{convert|16|in|adj=on|0}} casemated gun, similar to those at Battery Smith (118), Fort Miles.]] Early in World War II numerous temporary buildings were again constructed at the forts to accommodate the rapid mobilization of men and equipment. In 1940–41 the [[21st Coast Artillery (United States)|21st Coast Artillery]] Regiment was mobilized at Fort DuPont with a strength of one battalion to garrison the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware (HD Delaware). On January 27, 1941 the [[261st Coast Artillery (United States)|261st Coast Artillery]] Battalion was activated and moved to Fort DuPont, with elements moving to Fort Miles on June 5, 1941. On April 15, 1941 the 21st CA deployed [[155 mm gun M1918|155 mm gun]] batteries at [[Fort Miles]] and activated [[Fort Saulsbury]].{{sfn|Stanton|1991|pp=459, 472, 492}}<ref name=Gaines1/><ref name=CDSGNGReg/>
In December 1940 Fort Delaware's three 12-inch guns were removed. Two were used to arm [[Henry A. Reed (general)#Legacy|Battery Reed]], [[Fort Amezquita]] in the [[Harbor Defense Command|Harbor Defenses of San Juan, Puerto Rico]]; the third went to [[Watervliet Arsenal]], New York.<ref name=FWikiDel/>{{sfn|Berhow|2015|pp=210, 226}}
On April 2, 1941 Fort Mott's three [[10-inch gun M1888|{{convert|10|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] and carriages were transferred to Canada under the [[Lend-Lease]] agreement. Two of their barrels remain in place as of 2018 at Fort [[Cape Spear]], [[St. John's, Newfoundland]]. The third gun was deployed to [[Fort Prével]] on the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] in [[Quebec]], and was scrapped after the war.<ref>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Battery_Harker_(1) Battery Harker at FortWiki.com]</ref>
The first batteries at Fort Miles and Cape May were four mobile 155 mm GPF guns each, deployed in April 1941 at Fort Miles and some time later in 1941 at the [[Cape May Military Reservation]] in New Jersey. After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] on December 7, 1941 building up Fort Miles became a higher priority. By mid-1942 concrete "[[Panama mount]]s" were completed for the 155 mm gun batteries.<ref>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Miles Fort Miles at FortWiki.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Cape_May_Military_Reservation Cape May Military Reservation at FortWiki.com]</ref><ref name=CDSGDel/> On March 14, 1942 Battery C of the [[52nd Coast Artillery]] (CA) (Railway) regiment arrived with four [[8-inch Mk. VI|{{convert|8|in|adj=on|0}} railway guns]]. By September 10 this battery was joined by Battery D with the same armament; Batteries C and D were initially the 2nd Battalion of the 52nd CA, and were redesignated as the 287th Coast Artillery (Railway) Battalion on May 1, 1943.<ref name=Gaines1/>
After the [[Fall of France]] in 1940 the Army decided to replace all existing heavy coast defense guns, except the long-range 12-inch guns, with 16-inch guns. In HD Delaware this meant an all-new fort at the mouth of [[Delaware Bay]] at [[Cape Henlopen]], later named [[Fort Miles]]. The fort's largest armament was Battery 118, later named Battery Smith, built in 1942–43 with two ex-Navy [[16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun|{{convert|16|in|adj=on|0}} Mark 2 guns]]. This battery effectively superseded all other heavy weapons in HD Delaware, the third time new defenses were built seaward as gun ranges increased. An additional 16-inch battery, Battery 119, was proposed but not built. Instead, two of Fort Saulsbury's 12-inch guns were relocated to Fort Miles as Battery 519, completed in August 1943. These batteries at Fort Miles were built [[casemate]]d, with heavy concrete enclosures for protection against air attack. Fort Miles also had a [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|controlled minefield]].<ref name=Berhow210/><ref name=CDSGDel/>
The 16-inch batteries were supplemented by new two-gun [[6-inch gun M1903|{{convert|6|in|adj=on|0}} batteries]]. These included heavy earth-covered concrete bunkers for ammunition and [[Coast Artillery fire control system|fire control]], with the guns protected by open-back shields. The guns for these batteries were mostly the 6-inch guns removed in World War I for field service and stored since that war; a new [[6-inch gun M1]] of similar characteristics was developed when this supply of guns began to run out. Three of these batteries were in HD Delaware, two at Fort Miles (Batteries 221 and 222) and one at [[Cape May Military Reservation]], New Jersey (Battery 223).<ref name=Berhow210/>
Three [[90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3|90 mm gun]] (3.5 inch) Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat (AMTB) batteries were built in HD Delaware. These had 90 mm dual-purpose (anti-surface and [[anti-aircraft]]) guns. Each battery was authorized two 90 mm guns on fixed mounts, two on towed mounts, and two single [[Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60|40 mm Bofors]] guns, although the weapons on hand may have varied. Two batteries were at Fort Miles and one was at Cape May.<ref name=Berhow210/>
Following mobilization in 1940 HD Delaware was subordinate to [[First Army (United States)|First Army]]. On 24 December 1941 the Eastern Theater of Operations (renamed the [[Eastern Defense Command]] three months later) was established, with all [[East Coast of the United States|east coast]] harbor defense commands subordinate to it, along with [[antiaircraft]] and fighter assets. This command was disestablished in 1946.<ref>Conn, pp. 33-35</ref>
The [[US Navy]] also participated in defending the Delaware with [[net defense]]s and a [[Boom (navigational barrier)|defensive boom]] at [[Reedy Island]].<ref name=FWikiDuPont/><ref name=AFNDuPont>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/de.html#delaware Harbor Defenses of the Delaware at American Forts Network]</ref> Submarine-detecting [[indicator loop]]s were also used, with a station at Fort Miles.<ref>[http://indicatorloops.com/usn_miles.htm Indicator loop station at Fort Miles]</ref>
As Fort Miles' batteries were completed, the remaining weapons at the forts on and near Pea Patch Island were removed or scrapped. Fort DuPont's mortars were effectively out of service in 1941; in December 1942 the carriages were ordered scrapped, followed by the mortars in April 1943.<ref name=FWikiDuPont/> Fort Mott's remaining three 12-inch guns were ordered scrapped in December 1943; combined with relocations of the remaining 3-inch batteries this left the upper river forts with no armament.<ref name=FWikiMott/>
The increasingly remote threat of an enemy surface attack and an Army-wide shift from a regimental to a battalion-based system meant drawdowns in HD Delaware, starting in early 1944. The [[261st Coast Artillery (United States)|261st Coast Artillery]] Battalion was deactivated with most personnel transferred to the [[21st Coast Artillery (United States)|21st Coast Artillery]] Regiment in March 1944.{{sfn|Stanton|1991|p=492}} In April 1944 the 287th Coast Artillery Battalion (Railway) was moved to [[Fort Bragg]], North Carolina and later was reorganized as a field artillery battalion.{{sfn|Stanton|1991|p=493}} In October 1944 the 21st CA was itself reduced to a battalion with the same number and placed under the [[Eastern Defense Command]], and on 1 April 1945 was inactivated, with remaining personnel at Fort Miles transferring to the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware.{{sfn|Stanton|1991|pp=459, 484}}<ref>[http://www.fortmiles.org/intel/units/21st.html 21st Coast Artillery at FortMiles.org]</ref>
===Cold War===
Following the war, it was soon determined that gun defenses were obsolete, and they were scrapped by the end of 1948, with remaining harbor defense functions turned over to the Navy.<ref name=Berhow210/> In 1950 the Coast Artillery Corps and all Army harbor defense commands were dissolved. Today the [[Air Defense Artillery Branch (United States)|Air Defense Artillery]] carries the lineage of some Coast Artillery units. For air defense in the [[Cold War]], an extensive system of [[90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3|90 mm]] [[antiaircraft]] guns was emplaced in the Philadelphia area in the early 1950s,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ed-thelen.org/gunsitesusa.html |title=AAA gun sites at Ed-Thelen.org |access-date=2018-12-29 |archive-date=2020-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916005013/http://ed-thelen.org/gunsitesusa.html }}</ref><ref>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/pa.html#cold Cold War AAA Defenses of Philadelphia at American Forts Network]</ref><ref>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/njsouth.html#cold Cold War AAA Defenses of Philadelphia in New Jersey at American Forts Network]</ref> followed by [[Nike missile]] systems in the late 1950s (see [[List of Nike missile sites#Pennsylvania]] and [[List of Nike missile sites#New Jersey]]). The Nike missiles were removed in the early 1970s. Battery 221 a.k.a. Battery Herring, originally covered with sand like all the other batteries, was excavated and expanded for use as a [[U.S. Navy]] [[SOSUS]] station during the Cold War as part of Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Lewes. It is now abandoned.
==Present== [[File:12 inch M1895 gun Fort Miles right rear view Flickr 6723698405.jpg|thumb|12-inch gun at Battery 519, Fort Miles.]] [[File:16-inch gun Fort Miles DE1.jpg|thumb|16-inch Mark 7 gun at Fort Miles in 2015.]] As of 2018, Fort Mott, Fort Delaware, and Delaware City are connected by a seasonal passenger ferry, the [[Forts Ferry Crossing]].<ref>[https://www.visitnj.org/nj-ferries/forts-ferry-crossing Forts Ferry Crossing at VisitNJ.org]</ref> [[Fort Delaware State Park|Fort Delaware]] and [[Fort Mott State Park|Fort Mott]] are both well preserved as state parks, with many parts accessible to the public, and active living history programs. Fort DuPont is a [[Fort DuPont State Park|state park]]. [[Fort Saulsbury]] is well preserved, but is on private property and not normally accessible to the public. [[Fort Miles]] is now [[Cape Henlopen State Park]], and has some of the best preserved and restored World War II coast defense batteries in the United States. The fort also has an active living history group.<ref>[http://www.fortmiles.org Fort Miles.org]</ref> The 12-inch battery has a remounted gun, and a [[16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun]] formerly on {{USS|Missouri|BB-63}} has been remounted as a commemorative display; as of December 2018 part of the wreckage from {{USS|Arizona|BB-39}} was planned to be added.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.coastalpoint.com/43732/feature/uss-arizona-wreckage-join-uss-missouri-gun-fort-miles |title="U.S.S. Arizona wreckage to join U.S.S. Missouri gun at Fort Miles" at CoastalPoint.com |access-date=2019-01-20 |archive-date=2019-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418131447/http://www.coastalpoint.com/43732/feature/uss-arizona-wreckage-join-uss-missouri-gun-fort-miles }}</ref> There are also a few other coast artillery weapons at the fort. Battery Hunter a.k.a. Battery 222 is in use currently as a [[Hawkwatching|Hawk Watch]] station. Several [[fire control tower]]s remain, particularly around Fort Miles; at least one is publicly accessible.<ref name=AFNDuPont/>
==Heraldry== ===Harbor Defenses of the Delaware===
*Blazon **Shield: Azure, three lions' heads erased or, two and one.<ref name=CoatDel>{{Cite web |url=https://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1928/8/Aug%201928.pdf |title=Coat of Arms for the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware, ''Coast Artillery Journal'', August 1928, vol. 69 no. 2, p. 161 |access-date=2018-12-29 |archive-date=2017-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203212309/http://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1928/8/Aug%201928.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> **Crest: On a wreath of the colors a griffin's head erased azure, beaked and eared or.<ref name=CoatDel/> **Motto: The motto ''Semper Paratus'' (Always ready).<ref name=CoatDel/> *Symbolism: The history of this region shows that it was colonized and occupied by the Swedish, Dutch, and English, who are shown on these arms by the three lions' heads, each of those countries having a gold lion on their coat of arms. The color blue is common to all three flags and also to the flag of the United States. The griffin's head is taken from the crest of [[Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr|Lord Delaware]] for whom the state, river, and defenses were named.<ref name=CoatDel/>
==See also== {{Portal|American Civil War|Pennsylvania|New Jersey}} * [[Seacoast defense in the United States]] * [[Harbor Defense Command]] * [[List of coastal fortifications of the United States]]
==References== {{Reflist}}
===Bibliography=== * {{cite book | editor-last1 = Berhow | editor-first1 = Mark A. | title = American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide | edition = Third | location = McLean, Virginia | publisher = CDSG Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-0-9748167-3-9}} * {{cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy | date=1998 |title=War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |isbn=978-0-7509-2808-3 }} *{{cite book|last=Boatner |first=Mark M. III |author-link=Mark M. Boatner III |year=1994 |title=Encyclopedia of the American Revolution |location=Mechanicsburg, Pa. |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn= 0-8117-0578-1}} * {{cite book |last=Chartrand |first=René | date=2016 |title=Forts of the American Revolution 1775–83 |publisher=Osprey Publishing Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4728-1445-6 }} *{{Cite book| last1=Conn| first1=Stetson| last2=Engelman| first2=Rose C.| last3=Fairchild| first3=Byron| title=Guarding the United States and its Outposts| url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents| series=United States Army in World War II| orig-date=1964| year=2000| publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=2018-12-29| archive-date=2007-12-25| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225041653/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents}} *{{cite book |last=Dorwart |first=Jeffery |title=Fort Mifflin of Philadelphia: An Illustrated History |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8122-1644-8 }} * [http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACreg1.pdf Gaines, William C., Coast Artillery Organizational History, 1917-1950, Regular Army regiments, ''Coast Defense Journal'', vol. 23, issue 2] * [http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CAregNG.pdf Gaines, William C., Historical Sketches Coast Artillery Regiments 1917-1950, National Guard Army Regiments 197-265] * {{cite book |last=Higginbotham |first=Don | date=1983 |title=The War of American Independence |publisher=Northeastern Classics |isbn=978-0-9303504-4-4 }} *{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=John |title=Fort Mifflin: Valiant Defender of the Delaware |publisher=Old Fort Mifflin Historical Society Preservation Committee |year=1986 }} * {{cite book|title=The Winter Soldiers|first=Richard M|last=Ketchum|publisher=Doubleday|location=Garden City, NY|isbn=0-385-05490-4|year=1973|oclc=640266|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/wintersoldiers00ketc}} * {{Cite book |title=Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War |first=Richard M |last=Ketchum |publisher=Henry Holt |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8050-6123-9 |location=New York |oclc=41397623 }} *{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1493677 |last1=Liggett |first1=Barbara |last2=Laumark |first2=Sandra |title=The Counterfort at Fort Mifflin |journal=[[APT Bulletin|Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |publisher=Association for Preservation Technology International (APT) |pages=37–74 |year=1979 |jstor=1493677}} * {{cite book| last=Paterson |first=Thomas G. |title=American Foreign Relations, Volume 1: A History to 1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-alDgRk-IYC&pg=PA13|year= 2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|pages=13–15|isbn=978-0-547-22564-7 |display-authors=etal }} * {{cite book | last = Rinaldi | first = Richard A. | title = The U. S. Army in World War I: Orders of Battle | publisher = General Data LLC | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-9720296-4-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Roberts | first = Robert B. | title = Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1988 | location = New York | isbn = 0-02-926880-X }} * {{cite journal |editor-last=Scull |editor-first=G. D. |title=The Montresor Journals |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001658135 |journal=Collection for the Year 1881 |series=Collections of the New-York Historical Society ... 1881. Publication fund series.[v. 14] |publisher=New York Historical Society |year=1881 }} * {{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Shelby L. |title=World War II Order of Battle |publisher=Galahad Books |year=1991 |isbn=0-88365-775-9 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Wade | first1 = Arthur P. | title = Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Py7DBgAAQBAJ | publisher = CDSG Press | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-9748167-2-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Weaver |first1=John R. II |title=A Legacy in Brick and Stone: American Coastal Defense Forts of the Third System, 1816-1867 |edition=2nd |publisher=Redoubt Press |location=McLean, VA |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-7323916-1-1 }} *{{cite journal |last=Wilkinson |first=Norman B. |title=The Forgotten "Founder" of West Point |jstor=1984876 |journal=Military Affairs |volume=24 |issue=4 |publisher=Society for Military History |pages= 177–188|year=1960–1961 |doi=10.2307/1984876 }} * {{cite book | first= Glen | last= Williford | title= American Breechloading Mobile Artillery, 1875-1953 | publisher= Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. | location= Atglen, PA | year= 2016 | isbn= 978-0-7643-5049-8 }}
==Further reading== * {{cite book | last = Lewis | first = Emanuel Raymond | title = Seacoast Fortifications of the United States | publisher = Leeward Publications | year = 1979 | location = Annapolis | isbn = 978-0-929521-11-4 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Morgan | first1 = Mark L. | last2 = Berhow | first2 = Mark A. | title = Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950-1979 | edition = 3rd | publisher = Hole in the Head Press | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-09761494-0-8}}
==External links== {{commons category|Forts in Delaware}} {{commons category|Forts in New Jersey}} {{commons category|Forts in Pennsylvania}} *[http://www.fortdelaware.org/ Fort Delaware Society] * [http://www.state.nj.us/dep/parksandforests/parks/fortmott.html Fort Mott State Park] *[https://destateparks.com/History/FortDupont Fort DuPont State Park] *[http://www.fortmiles.org Fort Miles.org] *[http://www.fortmilesha.org The Fort Miles Historical Association] *[https://destateparks.com/Beaches/CapeHenlopen Cape Henlopen State Park] * [http://www.fortwiki.com/Category:Harbor_Defense_of_the_Delaware Map of HD Delaware at FortWiki.com] * [http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACinsignia.pdf Insignia of the Coast Artillery Corps at the Coast Defense Study Group] * [http://www.northamericanforts.com/ American Forts Network, lists forts in the US, former US territories, Canada, and Central America] * [http://cdsg.org/fort-and-battery-list/ List of all US coastal forts and batteries] at the Coast Defense Study Group, Inc. website * [http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Wiki FortWiki, lists most CONUS and Canadian forts]
[[Category:Military units and formations in Delaware]] [[Category:Military units and formations in New Jersey]] [[Category:Forts in Delaware]] [[Category:Forts in New Jersey]] [[Category:Forts in Pennsylvania]] [[Category:United States Army Coast Artillery Corps]] [[Category:Military units and formations established in 1896]] [[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1950]]