Haldane effect

{{Short description|Property of hemoglobin and oxygenation}} The '''Haldane effect''' is a property of [[hemoglobin]] (Hb) that describes its ability to carry increased amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the deoxygenated state as opposed to the oxygenated state. The Haldane effects thus promotes uptake of CO₂ by Hb in peripheral tissues where it releases oxygen to the tissue, and conversely promotes release of CO₂ from Hb in the lungs where oxygen from inspired air again binds to Hb.

Haldane effect is a result of a difference in the acidity of the oxygenated and deoxygenated (reduced) forms of Hb, so that the less acidic deoxygenated form favours direct binding of CO₂ to Hb amino acid residues to form [[carbamino]] compounds (the more significant component), as well as the binding of H⁺ ions formed during the dissociation carbonic acid (to which CO₂ is converted by erythrocyte [[carbonic anhydrase]]) (and vice versa).

The Haldane effect approximately doubles the transport (binding and release) capacity of blood for CO₂. It is far more important in promoting CO₂ transport than the related [[Bohr effect]] is in promoting O₂ transport.<ref name=":023">{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=John E. |title=Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology |last2=Hall |first2=Michael E. |date= |publisher=Elsevier |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-323-59712-8 |edition=14th |location=Philadelphia, PA |pages=529 |chapter=}}</ref>

It was first described by [[John Scott Haldane]].

== Mechanism == Carbon dioxide is carried in blood in three forms: as dissolved gas, as dissociated carbonic acid ({{chem|H|2|CO|3|}}), or bound to proteins in the form of carbamino compounds. The vast majority of CO₂ is conveyed as {{chem|HCO|3|-}}, with only minor contribution from the other two forms, however, this does not reflect the significance of these forms to the loading and unloading of CO₂: of the total venous-arterial difference, ~60% is attributable to {{chem|HCO|3|-}}, 30% to carbamino compounds, and 10% to dissolved CO₂.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=West |first=John B. |title=West's Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials |last2=Luks |first2=Andrew |date= |publisher=Wolters Kluwer |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4963-1011-8 |edition=10th |location=Philadelphia |pages=93-95}}</ref>

=== Carbaminohemoglobin === Carbon dioxide binding to [[amino]] groups results in the formation of [[carbamino]] (-NH-COOH) compounds. Amino groups are available for binding at the N-terminals and at side-chains of [[arginine]] and [[lysine]] residues of hemoglobin. When carbon dioxide binds to these residues, [[carbaminohemoglobin]] is formed.<ref name="Nunn">{{cite book |last=Lumb |first=AB |title=Nunn's Applied Respiratory Physiology |publisher=Butterworth Heinemann |year=2000 |isbn=0-7506-3107-4 |edition=5th |pages=227–229}}</ref> The capacity of Hb to bind CO₂ in the form of carbamino groups is inversely proportional to the state of oxygenation of hemoglobin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teboul |first1=Jean-Louis |last2=Scheeren |first2=Thomas |date=2017-01-01 |title=Understanding the Haldane effect |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-016-4261-3 |journal=Intensive Care Medicine |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=91–93 |doi=10.1007/s00134-016-4261-3 |issn=1432-1238 |pmid=26868920 |s2cid=31191748 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Almost all blood carbamino carriage of CO₂ is performed by Hb, and deoxygenated Hb has a 3.5-fold greater capacity for carbamino carriage than oxygenated Hb. In contrast, carbamino carriage by plasma proteins is rather insignificant and is also not favoured due to the absence of carbonic anhydrase in plasma.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lumb |first=Andrew B. |title=Nunn and Lumb's Applied Respiratory Physiology |last2=Thomas |first2=Caroline R. |date= |publisher=Elsevier |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-7020-7933-7 |edition=9th |location= |pages=124-127}}</ref>

=== Ion buffering === [[File:2319 Fig 23.19.jpg|thumb|309x309px]]

==== Buffering capacity of haemoglobin ==== Deoxygenated Hb is less acidic than oxygenated Hb, and therefore has a higher affinity for H⁺ ions (i.e. a better proton acceptor).<ref name=":02" />

The [[imidazole]] group of [[histidine]] residues is virtually the sole amino acid residue capable of acting as a [[pH buffer]] within the physiological pH range, and accounts for the majority of Hb buffering power, with each Hb tetramer containing 38 histidine residues (buffering power of plasma proteins is far less and also almost entirely accounted by histidine residues). The [[Heme|hemes]] are attached to the globulins at imidazole groups of histidine residues, and the imidazoles' dissociation constant is highly dependent upon the (de)oxygenation state of Hb. Deoxygenation causes imidazole groups to become more basic, and - conversely - the acid form of imidazole groups weakens the binding of to O₂ Hb.<ref name=":0" />

==== Ionic dissociation of CO₂ buffering ==== When dissolved in water, CO₂ is subject to the following [[Dynamic equilibrium (chemistry)|dynamic chemical equilibrium]]:

CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ {{chem|H|2|CO|3}} ⇌ H⁺ + {{chem|HCO|3|-}}

CO₂ is normally slow to combine with water to form [[carbonic acid]] whereas carbonic acid immediately dissociates into H⁺ and {{chem|HCO|3|-}}. However, erythrocytes contain the enzyme [[carbonic anhydrase]] which catalyses the formation of carbonic acid.<ref name=":02" /> {{chem|HCO|3|-}} is actively transported out of the cell in exchange for Cl^- anions to maintain electroneutrality of the cell ([[chloride shift]]), whereas H⁺ is retained within the cell and binds to deoxygenated Hb. In accordance with [[Le Chatelier's principle]], clearance of the right-side products of the above chemical equilibrium will permits further formation of these products. In fact, the maximum catalytic rate of carbonic anhydrase is so rapid that its effectively limited by the speed with which buffers clear H⁺ from the vicinity of the enzyme.<ref name=":0" />

Upon oxygenation of Hb in the lungs, its acidity increases, releasing H⁺ which recombines with {{chem|HCO|3|-}} to restitute gaseous CO₂ which can diffuse from the blood into the alveoli.<ref name=":023" />

CO₂ also increases the osmolar content of the erythrocyte so that erythrocytes in deoxygenated blood are in fact somewhat greater in volume.<ref name=":02" />

==Clinical significance== In patients with lung disease, lungs may not be able to increase [[alveolar ventilation]] in the face of increased amounts of dissolved CO₂.{{Citation needed|date=July 2025}}

This partially explains the observation that some patients with [[emphysema]] might have an increase in P_aCO₂ (partial pressure of arterial dissolved carbon dioxide) following administration of supplemental oxygen even if content of CO₂ stays equal.<ref name="Hanson">{{cite journal | last=Hanson | first=CW |author2=Marshall BE |author3=Frasch HF |author4=Marshall C | title=Causes of hypercarbia with oxygen therapy in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal=Critical Care Medicine | volume=24 | issue=1 | pages=23–28 | date=January 1996 | pmid=8565533 | doi=10.1097/00003246-199601000-00007 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also== *[[Bohr effect]] *[[Chloride shift]]

== References == {{reflist}}

==External links== * {{cite book| title= Essentials of Human Physiology| first= Thomas M. |last= Nosek| chapter=Section 4/4ch5/s4ch5_31 |chapter-url=http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section4/4ch5/s4ch5_31.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209120929/http://humanphysiology.tuars.com/program/section4/4ch5/s4ch5_31.htm|archive-date=2015-12-09}}

{{Respiratory physiology}}

[[Category:Hematology]] [[Category:Hemoproteins]] [[Category:Respiratory physiology]]