{{Short description|Gur language spoken in West Africa}} {{Infobox language |name=Farefare |nativename=Frafra |states=Ghana, Burkina Faso |ethnicity=Frafra |speakers={{sigfig|663,100|2}} |date=1991–2013 |ref=e26 |familycolor=Niger-Congo |fam2=Atlantic–Congo |fam3=Gur |fam4=Northern |fam5=Oti–Volta |fam6=Mooré–Dagbani |fam7=Mooré |dia1=Gurenɛ |dia2=Nankani |dia3=Booni |iso3=gur | script = Latin |glotto=fare1241 |glottorefname=Farefare }} <mapframe latitude="10.752366" longitude="-1.334839" zoom="7" text="Distribution of Gurene speakers" width="403" height="303"> { "type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [ { "type": "Feature", "properties": { "fill": "#8700FF", "fill-opacity": 0.5, "stroke": "#8700FF", "stroke-width": 1, "stroke-opacity": 1 }, "geometry": { "type": "Polygon", "coordinates":[[[-1.0144501,10.6469855,0],[-0.9615784,10.6004191,0],[-0.8740311,10.5582333,0],[-0.7916337,10.5531706,0],[-0.7500916,10.5778082,0],[-0.7157593,10.6135799,0],[-0.6965333,10.6571077,0],[-0.6903534,10.7056896,0],[-0.6900101,10.7721397,0],[-0.7167893,10.8776875,0],[-0.770691,10.9353352,0],[-0.7799607,11.0101595,0],[-0.8043366,11.0674444,0],[-0.8445054,11.0684553,0],[-0.898407,11.05801,0],[-0.963295,11.0519449,0],[-1.0065537,11.0317269,0],[-1.0401993,10.9909496,0],[-1.0182267,10.9599417,0],[-0.9928208,10.9285934,0],[-0.9646683,10.908704,0],[-0.963295,10.8577947,0],[-0.9790879,10.8405982,0],[-0.9976273,10.798783,0],[-1.0189133,10.7532518,0],[-1.0367661,10.7151352,0],[-1.0298996,10.6915207,0],[-1.0216599,10.6668922,0],[-1.0144501,10.6469855,0]]]} } ] } </mapframe>'''Farefare''' or '''Frafra''', also known by the regional name of '''Gurenɛ''' ('''Gurenɛ'''), is a Niger–Congo language spoken by the Frafra people of northern Ghana, particularly the Upper East Region, and southern Burkina Faso. It is a national language of Ghana, and is closely related to Dagbani and other languages of Northern Ghana, and also related to Mossi, also known as Mooré, the national language of Burkina Faso.
Frafra consists of three principal dialects, Gurenɛ (also written ''Gurunɛ,'' ''Gudenne, Gurenne, Gudeni, Zuadeni''), Nankani (''Naane, Nankanse, Ninkare''), and Boone. Nabit and Talni have been mistakenly reported to be Frafra dialects.<ref>[http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/cr_files/2015-014.pdf ISO change request]</ref>
== Names == The general and accepted name for the language is '''Farefare''' or '''Frafra'''. The varieties in Ghana are usually called "Gurene", and those in Burkina-Faso are called "Ninkare".<ref name=":0" />
== Orthography == The Frafra language uses the letters of the Latin alphabet except for c, j, q, x, and with the addition of ɛ, ɩ, ŋ, ɔ, and ʋ. The tilde is used for showing nasalization in Burkina Faso, but in Ghana it is shown using the letter n.{{Sfn|Niggli|2007|p=85}} The two nasal vowels /ɛ̃/ and /ɔ̃/ are spelt with ẽ and õ respectively.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Niggli |date=2007 |title=Equisse grammaticale du ninkãrɛ au Burkina Faso |url=http://sil-burkina.org/sites/default/files/Ninkare%20Esquisse%20grammaticale.pdf |access-date=24 November 2021 |website=SIL International Burkina Faso |page=6}}</ref> All long nasal vowels only get their tilde written on the first letter.
Acute, grave, circumflex, caron, and macron are sometimes used in grammar books to indicate tone, but not in general-purpose texts.{{Sfn|Niggli|2007|p=84}} The apostrophe is used to indicate the glottal stop.{{Sfn|Niggli|2007|p=94}} {| class="wikitable" |+Examples of Gurunɛ orthography !Sound !Representation !Example !Meaning |- |/a/ |a |ya /ja/ |houses |- |/a:/ |aa |gaarɛ /ga:ɹɛ/ |a type of bean cake |- |/ɛ/ |ɛ |ɛkɛ /ɛkɛ/ |to fly |- |/e/ |e |zoore /zo:ɹe:/ |mountain/hill |- |/ɛ̃/ |ẽ |tẽŋa |city |- |/ɪ/ |ɩ |taablɩ /ta:blɪ/ |table (French borrowing) |- |/i/ |i |piika /pi:ka/ |little |- |/ɔ/ |ɔ |ɔɔrɔ /ɔ:ɹɔ/ |cold |- |/o/ |o |toma toma /to:.ma.to:.ma/ |a greeting similar to "hi" |- |/ʊ/ |ʋ |teebʋl /te:bʊl/ |table (English borrowing) |- |/u/ |uu |buulika /bu:lika/ |morning |}
== Phonology ==
=== Consonants === Frafra has a system of 17 phonemes (or 19, counting /ɣ/, an allophone of /g/, and /ɾ/, an allophone of /d/):<ref name=":0" /> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! colspan="2" | ! scope="col" |Labial ! scope="col" |Alveolar ! scope="col" |Velar ! scope="col" |Glottal |- ! colspan="2" scope="row" |Nasal |{{IPA link|m}} |{{IPA link|n}} |{{IPA link|ŋ}} | |- ! rowspan="2" scope="row" |Plosive ! scope="row" |{{small|fortis}} |{{IPA link|p}} |{{IPA link|t}} |{{IPA link|k}} | rowspan="2" |{{IPA link|ʔ}} |- ! scope="row" |{{small|lenis}} |{{IPA link|b}} |{{IPA link|d}} |{{IPA link|ɡ}} |- !Tap ! | |({{IPA link|ɾ}}) | | |- ! rowspan="2" scope="row" |Fricative ! scope="row" |{{small|fortis}} |{{IPA link|f}} |{{IPA link|s}} | | rowspan="2" scope="row" |{{IPA link|h}} |- ! scope="row" |{{small|lenis}} |{{IPA link|v}} |{{IPA link|z}} |({{IPA link|ɣ}}){{efn|Allophone of /g/ between lax vowels and is rarely represented in writing.}} |- ! colspan="2" scope="row" |Approximant |{{IPA link|w}} |{{IPA link|j}} | | |} The sound /ŋ/ appears in front of some words starting with /w/, leading them to change into the /j/ sound. /h/ only appears in loanwords, exclamations, and as an allophone of /f/. An example of both of these sound changes are ''weefo'' and ''yeho'' (both meaning ''"horse"''). The only consonants Frafra words may end in are the two nasals /m/ and /n/.
==== Glottal stop ==== Glottal stops appear at the initial vowel of a word, but are not transcribed. Word-medially, vowel nasalization continues over the glottal stop. In rapid speech, the glottal stop is usually dropped, similar to how vowel hiatus gets dropped in Spanish.
Word medial glottal stops must be marked in writing.
==== Allophones ====
===== Allophones of /r/ ===== [d] and [ɾ] are two phonetic realizations of the same phoneme. [d] occurs at the beginning of words, and [ɾ] is its counterpart everywhere else.
===== Allophones of /g/ ===== [ɣ] is an allophone of /g/ that occurs after certain vowels. It is mostly written "g." Usage of the letter "ɣ" is quite rare.
===== Allophones of /j/ ===== [ɲ] is an allophone of /j/ that occurs before a nasal vowel. It is always written as "y."
==== Sandhi ==== This section will describe all the morpho-phonological sandhi processes that affect Frafra.
===== Nasals ===== Nasal consonants undergo assimilation, coalescence, and elision.
====== Assimilation at Point of Articulation ====== Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of the occlusive the proceed.
* /m/ goes before /p/ and /b/ * /n/ goes before /t/ and /d/ * /ŋ/ goes before /k/
====== Coalescence ====== When a nasal is followed by /g/, the two consonants amalgamate.
* /n/ + /g/ = /ŋ/
This rule does not apply to compound words (e.g. ''tẽŋgãnnɛ "sacred land"'') or loanwards (e.g. ''maŋgo'' "mango")
====== Elision ====== Nasals disappear when they go before /f/
* /m/ + /f/ = /f/ * /n/ + /f/ = /f/
===== Stops ===== Two voiced stops become their unvoiced form. Remember that [ɾ] is the word-medial allophone of /d/
* /g/ + /g/ = /k/ * /r/ + /r/ = /t/
==== Sonorants ====
===== Vibrant assimilation ===== Vibrant consonants, also called taps, assimilate to a preceding lateral or nasal.
* /l/ + /r/ = /ll/ * /n/ + /r/ = /nn/ * /m/ + /r/ = either /nn/ or /mn/
===== Lateral assimilation =====
* /n/ + /l/ = /nn/ * /m/ + /l/ = /nn/
===== Combination of these processes ===== '''C''' designates any consonant, and '''N''' designates any nasal.
* Cm + r = Cn * Cl + r = Cl
=== Vowels === Frafra has 9 oral vowels and 5 nasal vowels. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" |Front ! rowspan="2" |Central ! colspan="2" |Back |- !{{small|lax}} !{{small|tense}} !{{small|lax}} !{{small|tense}} |- !Close |{{IPA link|ɪ}} |{{IPA link|i}}, {{IPA link|ĩ}} | |{{IPA link|ʊ}} |{{IPA link|u}}, {{IPA link|ũ}} |- !Mid |{{IPA link|ɛ}}, {{IPA link|ɛ̃}} |{{IPA link|e|e}} | |{{IPA link|ɒ|ɔ}}, {{IPA link|ɔ̃}} |{{IPA link|o|o}} |- !Open | | |{{IPA link|a|a}}, {{IPA link|ã}} | | |- !Diphthongs | colspan="5" | |} All Frafra vowels have a long form.
==== Vowel harmony ==== Like many Mande languages, Frafra features vowel harmony.<ref name=":0" /> When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in "-a" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.
===== Where all vowels must be in harmony ===== In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in vowel sequences.
===== Mid vowels ===== The lax vowel -a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.
===== Close vowels ===== When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.
For example, the locative postposition "-ʋm" becomes "-um" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
* pʋʋrɛ (''"belly"'') > pʋʋr'''ʋm''' ("''inside the belly''") * nifo ("eye") > nif'''um''' ("''inside the eye''")
However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect "ʋm". Therefore ''poore'' ("back") becomes ''poor'''ʋm''''' <u>("behind")''.''</u>
The particle "nɩ," which goes after a verbs to mark the incomplete aspect, becomes "ni" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
== Grammar == ===Tone=== Gurenɛ marks a high and a low tone. Changes in tone have an impact on either the lexical or grammatical function of a particular word.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Bodomo |first1=Adams |author-link=Adams Bodomo |title=Handbook of the Mabia Languages of West Africa |last2=Abubakari |first2=Hasiyatu |last3=Issah |first3=Samuel Alhassan |publisher=Galda Verlag |year=2020 |location=Glienicke}}</ref>
====Lexical Function==== With low tones the word becomes a verb, whereas with high tones it is a noun. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | vàlèŋà | „waist bead.“<ref name=":2" />}}
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | váléŋá | „spider“<ref name=":2" />}}
====Grammatical Function==== The low tone on the preverbal tense marker ''wà'' indicates future, while the high tone on the same element indicates aspect. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Átáŋá wà nyù kò'òm lá. | Ataŋa FUT drink water DEF | „Ataŋa will drink the water.“<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Atintono |first=Samuel |title=Verb Morphology: Phrase structure in a Gur Language (Gurenɛ) |publisher=Lambert Academic Publishing |year=2011 |location=Saarbrücken}}</ref>}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Átáŋá wá nyù kò'òm lá. | Ataŋa ASP drink water DEF | „Ataŋa definitely drank the water.“<ref name=":3" /> }}
===Noun Classes=== Nouns in Gurunɛ have different "classes" with regard to plurals: {| class="wikitable" |+Frafra Plurals !Genre !Class #s (sg./pl.) !Singular !Plural !Examples !Meaning |- | rowspan="3" |1st | rowspan="2" |1 / 2 | rowspan="2" | -a | -ba |nẽra > nẽrba |person > people |- | rowspan="2" | -dõma |dɛɛma > dɛɛndõma naba > na'adõma
yaaba > yaabdõma |in-law(s) chief(s)
ancestor(s) |- |Loanwords | |ãnkɔra > ãnkɔrdõma
biki > bikidõma
nõtɩ > nõtɩdõma
sɛɛtɛ > sɛɛtɛdõma |water barrel(s) [Twi]
ballpoint pen(s) [French]
nut(s) [English]
shirt(s) [English] |- | rowspan="2" |2nd | rowspan="2" |3 / 4 | -a | rowspan="2" | -sɩ |tɩa > tɩɩsɩ |tree(s) |- | -ga |yɩbga > yɩbsɩ |younger sibling(s) |- | rowspan="5" |3rd | rowspan="5" |5 / 6 | rowspan="2" | -go | -ro |boko > bogro võogɔ > võorɔ
wɔbgɔ > wɔbrɔ |hole(s) leaf > leaves
elephant(s) |- | -to |deego > deto zuugo > zuto |room(s) / hut(s) / house(s) head(s) |- | -ko | -gro |bɔkɔ > bɔgrɔ |shoulder(s) |- | -lgo | -llo |bakolgo > bakollo |soothsayer's fetish(es) |- | -ŋo | -nno |Filippiŋɔ > Filippinno sõŋɔ > sõnnɔ
Tɩntɩŋɔ > Tɩntɩnnɔ |island in the Philippines > The Philippines mat(s)
one of the Netherlands > The Netherlands |- | rowspan="4" |4th | rowspan="4" |7/8 | -le (if the stem ends in /l/) | rowspan="4" | -a |wille > wila zelle > zɛla |branch(es) egg(s) |- | -ne (if the stem ends in /m/ or /n/) |bẽmnɛ > bẽma dũnne > dũma
gɩgnɛ > gɩgma
kãnnɛ > kãna
mã'anɛ > mã'ana
yẽnnɛ > yẽna |calabash drum(s) knee(s)
lion(s)
spear(s)
piece(s) of okra
tooth > teeth |- | -re |busre > busa dĩire > dĩa
gere > gɛa
kũure > kũa
loore > lɔa
nõorɛ > nõa
pʋʋrɛ > pʋa
sore > sɔa
sũure > sũa
tʋbrɛ > tʋba |yam(s) forehead(s)
thigh(s)
hoe(s)
vehicle(s)
mouth(s)
belly > bellies
road(s) / trail(s)
heart(s)
ear(s) |- | -te (if the stem ends in /r/) |tagtɛ > tagra watɛ > wara
watɛ > wara |sandal(s) brick(s)
cloud(s) |- | rowspan="2" |5th (stem vowels change) | rowspan="2" |9/10 | rowspan="2" | -fo | -i |lagfɔ > ligri mu'ufo > mũi
naafɔ - niigi
nifo > nini
weefo/yeho > wiiri/yiri
yoofo > yũuni |cowry shell > money rice grain > rice
bovine(s)
eye(s)
horse(s)
shea nut(s) |- | - |sĩfo > sĩm zũfo > zũma |bee(s) fish(es) |- |6th (mostly animals and diminutives) |11/12 | -la | -nto |bʋdibla > bʋdimto bʋtɩla > bʋtɩtɔ
kɩɩla > kɩɩntɔ
niila > niinto
pɩɩla > pɩɩntɔ
pugla > pugunto |boy(s) billy goat(s)
guinea fowl(s)
chick(s)
lamb(s)
girl(s) |- |(No distinction between plural and singular) |Class 13 | colspan="2" | -bo |kɩ'ɩbɔ bo'obo / bɔ'a |soap gift |- |Uncountable nouns |Class 14 | colspan="2" | -m |bɛglʋm bĩ'isũm
dãam
dabeem
dõndʋ'ʋrʋm
gẽem
ɩɩlʋm
kaam
ko'om
kɔm
kũm
mẽelʋm
nõŋlʋm
nõtõorʋm
tɩɩm
valʋm
yaarʋm
yɛm
zẽem
zɩɩm
zom |mud breastmilk
beer, alcohol
fear
urine
sleep
milk
oil
water
hunger
death
dew
love
saliva
medicine, remedy
shame
salt
intelligence
potash
blood
flour |}
===Pronouns===
Source:<ref name=":2" />
====Personal Pronouns==== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Person !Subject/Possessor !Object !Emphatic ! ! ! |- | |'''SG''' |'''PL''' |'''SG''' |'''PL''' |'''SG''' |'''PL''' |- |1st |ma/n |tu |ma |tu |mam |tumam |- |2nd |fu |ya |fu |ya |fum |yamam |- |3rd |a |ba |e |ba |eŋ<nowiki/>a |bamam |}
====Emphatic Pronouns==== Only emphatic pronouns can appear in focus positions, whereas all other pronouns cannot appear in those positions. Emphatic pronouns are used in exclusive contexts, in which the speaker indicates that only one thing is true and not the other. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Mam ti a dikɛ bo. | 1SG.EMPH FOC 1SG take give | „It is me that he gave it to.“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Yamam n sagum loore lá. | 2PL.EMPH FOC destroy lorry DEF | „It is you guys (not us) who destroyed the lorry.“<ref name=":2" />}}
====Reciprocal Pronoun==== The reciprocal pronoun is ''taaba'' and occurs postverbally. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Budaa lá pɔka lá nɔŋɛ taaba mɛ. | man DEF woman DEF love RECP FOC | „The man and the woman love each other.“<ref name=":2" />}}
====Reflexive Pronouns==== To form a reflexive pronoun in Gurenɛ the morphem ''-miŋa'' for singular or ''-misi'' for plural is attached to a particular personal pronoun. While in other Gur languages, the reflexive morphem is not sensitive to number, in Gurenɛ there exist two forms, one for each number. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Person !Reflexive Morphem SG !Personal Pronoun SG !Reflexive Pronoun SG !Reflexive Morphem PL !Personal Pronoun PL !Reflexive Pronoun PL |- |1st | -miŋa |n |nmiŋa | -misi |tu |tumisi |- |2nd | -miŋa |fu |fumiŋa | -misi |ya |yamisi |- |3rd | -miŋa |a |amiŋa | -misi |ba |bamisi |} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Amaa mami daa guri nmiŋa. | but 1SG PST hold.PST 1SG.REFL | „But I restrained myself.“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Ba ka le ŋmɛ bamisi. | 3PL NEG again beat 3PL.REFL | „They will not beat themselves again.“<ref name=":2" />}}
====Relative Pronouns==== There are two relative pronouns, ''ti'' and ''n''. The former relativizes subjects, while the latter is used to relativize objects. Both pronouns are not sensitive to number or animacy, while this is the case in other Gur languages such as Dagbani for instance. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Budaa lá '''n''' wa'am kalam de là ma sɔ. | man DEF REL come here COP FOC 1SG father | „The man who came here is my father.“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Budaa lá '''ti''' fu nyɛ là de là ma sɔ. | man DEF REL 2SG see FOC COP FOCɛ 1SG father | „The man that you saw is my father.“<ref name=":2" />}}
====Interrogative Pronouns==== Interrogative pronouns can either occur sentence-initially or sentence-finally. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | '''Ani''' n di dia lá? | who FOC eat.PFV food DEF | „Who ate the food?“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Sukuu kɔma lá siŋɛ là '''bɛ'''? | school children DEF do FOC where | „Where did the students go?“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | '''Beni''' dia ti ba kɔɔsa da'a? | what food that 3PL sell market | „What food are they selling at the market?“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Naafu lá de là '''alɛ'''? | cow DEF COP FOC how.much | „How much is the price of the cow?“<ref name=":2" />}}
====Demonstrative Pronouns==== Each demonstrative pronoun refers to a single noun class. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Number !Gurenɛ !Gloss |- |'''SG''' |ina (CL1) |that/this |- | |kana (CL4) |that/this |- | |dina (CL5) |that/this |- | |kuna (CL7) |that/this |- |'''PL''' |bana (CL2) |these/those |- | |sina (CL4) |these/those |- | |tuna (CL8) |these/those |- | |buna (CL9) |these/those |}
==Syntax== ===Word Order=== The word order in Gurenɛ is strictly SVO.<ref name=":2" />
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | N wan kule beere. | 1SG FUT go.home tomorrow | „I will go home tomorrow.“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Dɔgeta lá wan lu ma. | doctor DEF FUT inject 1SG | „The doctor will inject me.“<ref name=":2" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | À bo ma ligeri lá. | 3SG give 1SG money DEF | „S/he gave me the money.“<ref name=":2" />}}
===Verb Phrase=== The verb phrase (VP) consists of pre- and postverbal particles surrounding the verb. Preverbal particles encode aspect, tense, negation, and mood, such as imperative and conditional. Postverbal particles also encode aspect and tense, but in addition to that they can also encode focus. The order of particles within the VP is strictly organized as shown below. Moreover, the maximal amount of pre- and postverbal particles is also strictly defined. There can be at maximum five preverbal and two postverbal particles within one clause in Gurenɛ.
Time > Tense > Conditional > Aspectual > Future > Negation > Emphatic > Epistemic > Purpose > Verb > Tense > Focus/Affirmative/Completive/Directional<ref name=":3" />
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Nɛreba lá zaamtext<sub>1</sub> nyaa<sub>2</sub> kɔ'ɔm<sub>3</sub> sirum<sub>4</sub> ta<sub>5</sub> iŋɛ ba'asum<sub>1</sub> gaŋɛ mɛ<sub>2</sub>. | people DEF yesterday then just surely in.order do certainly more AFF | „The people yesterday certainly did more than what was just expected.“<ref name=":3" />}}
====Particles==== There are a lot of particles in Gurenɛ, such that the total number is not fully clear.<ref name=":10" /> The following table provides an overview of the most common particles.<ref name=":3" /> {| class="wikitable" |+ !Aspect !Gurenɛ |- |now, after this |nyaa |- |in a determined way |wa |- |intention |ta |- |an action/event still lasts |naŋ |- |only |kɔ'ɔm |- |even |pugum |- |again |le |- |already |pìlum |- |just |kɔ'ɔm |- |rather |tugum |- |necessairly |yɛrum |- |instead |yi |- |ever |tabelɛ |- |as usual |ya'am |- |habitual |ná |- |'''Tense''' | |- |past |daa |- |two days ago |daarɛ |- |three days ago |datata |- |years ago |yuum |- |the next day |dagi |- |'''Imperative''' | |- |must |ta |- |need |wa |- |'''Conditional''' | |- |if |san |}
====Verb==== The verb in Gurenɛ consists of an obligatory stem or root, that can take one or more morphemes.<ref name=":3" /> Verbs appear either in the perfective or imperfective form, depending on its aspect. The perfective expresses actions in the present, whereas the imperfective denotes actions in the past or progressive.<ref name=":5" /> {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Root/Stem/Infinitive''' ! !Perfective -ri !Imperfective -ra |- | | |(single) closed event |open event |- |'''Gurenɛ''' |'''Gloss''' |'''follows Object/Adverb''' |'''follows Pronominal''' |- |nyu |drink |nyuuri |nyuura |- |da' |buy |da'ari |da'ara |- |lebe |return |leberi |lebera |- |dikɛ |take |dikɛri |dikɛra |- |pagesɛ |imitate |pagesɛri |pagesɛra |- |pa'alɛ |teach |pa'ali |pa'ala |- |di |eat |diti |dita |- |darɛ |disturb |dati |data |- |parɛ |be a lot |pati |pata |- |kiŋɛ |go |kini |kina |- |siŋɛ |walk |sini |sina |- |sigum |come down |sigeni |sigena |}
===Question Formation=== There are several ways of forming a question in Gurenɛ, but importantly the strict word order SVO is always to obey.
====Ex situ==== In subject questions the question word occurs as the first element of the clause and can either function as the subject or as the agent of the clause.
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Ani n tum? | who FOC work.PFV | „Who worked?“<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=The VP-periphery in Mabia languages {{!}} Gurene |url=http://mabia-vp.com/tiki-index.php?page=Gurene |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=The VP-periphery in Mabia languages |language=en}}</ref> }} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Ani n tun-i? | who FOC work-IPFV | „Who is working?“<ref name=":10" />}}
====In situ==== In general, questions are formed by raising intonation of the final tone. Questions without an explicit question word have a clause-final question marker ''-ì''. {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Fʊ nyɛ ʔí-ì? | 2SG see 3SG-Q | „Did you see him?“<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Kropp-Dakubu |first=M.E. |title=Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. |publisher=L`Harmattan |year=2009 |location=Paris}}</ref> }} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Fʊ n nyɛ ʔí. | 2SG FOC see 3SG | „You saw him.“<ref name=":5" /> }}
====Embedded==== Questions can be embedded and are then preceded by the complementizer ''tí''.
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup| | Má m sokè ʔì tí 3SG nyɛ Ádʊŋɔ. | 1SG FOC ask 3SG SUBR 3SG see Adongo | „I asked him whether he had seen Adongo.“<ref name=":5" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Má m sokè ʔì lá-à ánɪ tì à nyɛ-ɛ`. | 1SG FOC ask 3SG TOP-Q whom SUBR 3SG see-Q | „I asked him whom he saw.“<ref name=":5" />}}
====Multiple Questions==== Question can also be formed by more than one question word. In these cases one question word occurs ex situ and the other(s) in situ. Again, a question word can only appear ex situ, if it replaces the subject or agent of the clause.
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Ani n da (*là) beni? | who FOC buy.PFV FOC what | „Who bought what?“<ref name=":10" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | *Beni ti ani da? | what FOC who buy.PFV | „*What bought who?“<ref name=":10" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Napari *(n) da yire. | Napari FOC buy.PFV house | „Napari bought a house..“<ref name=":10" />}}
====Long distance extraction==== Question words in Gurenɛ can also cross clause boundaries, such that they originated in the embedded clause and have been fronted to the clause-initial position.
{{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Beni ti Ama soke ti John kõregɛ ya *(là). | what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter COMPL FOC | „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“<ref name=":10" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Beni ti Ama spoke ti John kõregɛ-ri/-*ra ya *(là)? | what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter-IPFV COMPL FOC | „What did Ama ask that John is slaughtering?“<ref name=":10" />}} {{interlinear|indent=2|lang = nup | Beni ti Ama bɔta ti John kõregɛ? | what FOC Ama want SUBR John slaughter | „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“<ref name=":10" />}}
== Greetings == {| class="wikitable" !Gurunɛ !Phonetic !English |- |Bulika |/bulika/ |morning (Greeting in the morning) |- |Wuntɛɛŋa |/wʊn.tɛ:.ŋa/ |sun (Greeting around noon) |- |Zaanuurɛ |/za:jʋɻɛ/ |Evening (Greeting in the evening) |- |Zaare |/za:r̝e/ |Welcome |- |Tuuma Tuuma |/to:.ma.to:.ma/ |a greeting similar to "Hello" (every time of the day) |- |Nambaa |/ˈnaːm.ba:/ |Response to these greetings |}
== Geography == {| class="wikitable" |+Continents !English !Gurunɛ |- |Africa |Afrika |- |America |Amerika |- |Antarctica |Antartika |- |Asia |Asia |- |Australia |Australia |- |Europe |Europa |- |Oceania |Okeania |} ''Solemitẽŋa'' means "land of the white man" and is used to refer to all non-African countries.
''Soleminɛ'' is theoretically referring to all non-African languages, however it is only used to refer to English.
==Notes== {{Notelist}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== *Atintono, Samuel (2011). ''Verb Morphology: Phrase structure in a Gur Language (Gurenɛ).'' Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing. *Bodomo, Adams, Hasiyatu Abubakari & Samuel Alhassan Issah (2020). ''Handbook of the Mabia Languages of West Africa''. Glienicke: Galda Verlag *Kropp-Dakubu, M.E., S. Awinkene Antintono, and E. Avea Nsoh, ''A Gurenɛ–English Dictionary and accompanying English–Gurenɛ Glossary'' *Kropp-Dakubu, M.E. (2009). ''Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs''. Paris: L`Harmattan * {{Cite book |last1=Niggli |first1=Idda |url=http://sil-burkina.org/fr/content/de-la-phonologie-%C3%A0-lorthographe-le-ninkare-du-burkina-faso |title=De la phonologie à l'orthographe : Le ninkãrɛ au Burkina Faso |last2=Niggli |first2=Urs |publisher=SIL |year=2007}} *[https://ninkare.webonary.org/ Ninkare Frafra Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809081100/https://ninkare.webonary.org/ |date=2019-08-09 }}
== External links == {{InterWiki|code=gur}} * {{Cite web|title=Ninkare {{!}} SIL Burkina Faso|url=http://sil-burkina.org/fr/langue/ninkare|access-date=2021-07-29|website=sil-burkina.org}} *[https://mabia-vp.com/tiki-index.php?page=Welcome! The VP-periphery in Mabia languages]
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