{{Short description|Chariot racing factions}} {{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=400 | image1 = Mosaic green charioteer Massimo.jpg | image2 = Mosaic red charioteer Massimo.jpg | image3 = Mosaic white charioteer Massimo.jpg | image4 = Mosaic blue charioteer Massimo.jpg | footer = Charioteers of the Green, Red, White and Blue demes; part of a third-century AD mosaic in the Museo Nazionale Romano. }} The '''demes''' ({{langx|grc|δῆμοι|nocat=yes}}, {{langx|la|factiones|nocat=yes}}) were chariot racing factions in the Roman and later Byzantine Empires, which over time developed into social and political factions. There were four demes; the dominant two were the '''Blues''' ({{langx|el|Βένετοι|Vénetoi}}) and the '''Greens''' ({{langx|el|Πράσινοι|Prásinoi}}), which exercised patronage over the '''Whites''' ({{langx|el|Λευκοὶ|Leukoí}}) and the '''Reds''' ({{langx|el|Ῥούσιοι|Rhoúsioi}}) respectively.<ref name=ODB>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=769}}</ref>
The demes began in the Principate era as chariot racing factions. With the decline of urban self-governance, they took on broader responsibilities such as organizing the spectacles. The colour divisions gradually covered other aspects of daily life such as theatre, so that by the fifth century they had become more akin to political parties.
Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the demes grew so powerful that they participated in the political and religious conflicts of the time,<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=601}}</ref> terrorised the major Byzantine cities with their frequent riots (most notably the Nika riots in 532), had official militias,<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|p=622}}</ref> made and unmade emperors, and were sometimes called on by the emperors for tasks like repelling invasions and repairing the city walls.<ref name=Manojlovic626>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|pp=626–627}}</ref> Entire neighbourhoods and guilds were described as pro-Blue or pro-Green. Theodore Balsamon, in his commentary on the Council in Trullo, noted that even the emperor had no authority over the demes.<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|p=620}} "{{lang|grc|Καὶ (δήμων) ἐχόντων προσόδους χάριν τῶν ἱπποδρομιῶν, καὶ τοῦ βασιλέως προσκαλουμένου καὶ εἰς τοῦτο μὴ ἐξουσιάζοντος}}"</ref> However, beginning in the 7th century, the demes gradually weakened and became integrated into the imperial government.<ref name=ODB/>
Despite no longer being a significant social force, they retained ceremonial functions for several centuries afterwards. The 10th-century treatise ''De Ceremoniis'' describes various ceremonial processions and festive events in which the factions participated, most importantly the imperial coronations, starting with that of Justin I in 518.
There is scholarly debate over the extent to which the demes remained mere sporting factions, and the extent to which they morphed into political parties and wielded political power. Alfred Rambaud and Alan Cameron are representative of historians who minimize the political participation and influence of the demes, while Fyodor Uspensky, Alexander Dyakonov, and Gavro Manojlović are representative of historians who maximize it.
== Etymology == The factions were referred to in Greek using the word {{lang|grc|δῆμος|nocat=yes}} (plural {{lang|grc|δῆμοι|nocat=yes}}), which meant "people". There are two different opinions in scholarship about how the word for "people" came to also mean "circus factions". One position, that of Alan Cameron, is that it was a calque of the Latin {{lang|la|populi|nocat=yes}}, which meant both "people" and "members of a guild".<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|1976|pp=24–44}}</ref> Another view, espoused by French Byzantinist Constantin Zuckerman, is that both senses of the word {{lang|grc|δῆμοι}} (people and circus factions) actually referred to a specific class of citizens, who were entitled to public distributions of grain and who had an interest in public entertainment such as chariot racing.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=561}}</ref>
Another, more technical word for the factions was ''méros'' ({{lang|grc|μέρος|nocat=yes}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=562}}</ref>
==History== === Origin === thumb|left|A winner of a chariot race, from the Greens The origins of the demes lie in the Roman Republic, when certain individuals known as {{lang|la|domini factionum}} would hire out horses and other necessary equipment and personnel to the ''agonothetes'', who organised the chariot racing games. In practice, ''agonothetes'' could not organize games without them. After emperor Nero ({{reign}} 54–68) increased the number of prizes and, consequently, races, the {{lang|la|domini factionum}} began refusing to hire teams for less than a full day.<ref>Suetonius, Nero, 22</ref> Under these conditions, maintaining teams that did not win imperial prizes became unprofitable, and small entrepreneurs ceased their activities. The {{lang|la|domini}}, not the charioteers, were the primary force in their organizations. They were the ones capable of resolving conflicts. Suetonius recounts that when Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero's father, refused to pay a winner, only a complaint lodged by the chariot owners forced him to relent.{{sfn|Cameron|1976|p=6}}
The organizations of the {{lang|la|domini factionum}} took on contracts to arrange games; each had its own treasuries, menageries, permanent staff of ''auriga'' slave charioteers, and actors. They were distinguished by the colours their charioteers wore. According to Tertullian (155–220 AD), there were originally only the Reds and the Whites, representing summer and winter respectively. However, later, "due to increased luxury and the spread of superstitions," the Reds were dedicated to Mars, and the Whites to Zephyrus. He also mentions that the Greens were dedicated to Terra or spring, and the Blues to the sea and sky or to autumn.{{Sfn|Futrell|2006|p=207}} According to sixth-century sources, like the chronicle of John Malalas and the dependent ''Chronicon Paschale'', the circus factions represent the Solar System and correspond to the four elements: earth, water, fire, and air.{{Sfn|Uspensky|1894|p=2}} The Blues, Greens, Reds and Whites were established by the first century AD, with the first mention of them being by Pliny the Elder in 70.{{Sfn|Kulakovsky|2003|p=125}}
[[File:Mosaico del circo MCGR 2285.jpg|thumb|Mosaic from Lyon illustrating a chariot race with the four factions: Blue, Green, Red and White]] {{Quote box | title = Martial, XI, XXXIII{{Sfn|Martial|1897}} | quote = <poem> Since the death of Nero the charioteer of the Greens has often won the palm, and carried off many prizes. Go now, malicious envy, and say that you were influenced by Nero; for now assuredly the charioteer of the Greens, not Nero, has won these victories. </poem> | align = left | nobreak = yes }}
The majority of the {{lang|la|domini factionum}} were equites, and it concerned the senators that people of a lower class than them could earn so much wealth and power through the horse breeding industry. A series of laws were therefore passed to secure the imperial monopoly on the best horses. A law addressed to the prefect of Rome in 381 mandated that all winning horses be handed over to the city's residents, which ultimately undermined the financial incentive for private ''agonothetes''.{{Sfn|Cameron|1976|p=7}} By the 4th century, the horse racing industry, as well as that of the gladiatorial games, had been "imperialized", with administrative duties for organizing the games transferred to special imperial officials known as {{lang|la|actuarii thymelae et equorum currilium}}. {{Sfn|Cameron|1976|p=11}}{{Sfn|Liebeschutz|2000|p=225}} In provinces where the emperor could not personally organize games, festivities were tied to the imperial cult, ensuring that no one could receive the peoples' gratitude except the emperor. Although the {{lang|la|domini}} lost commercial interest in organizing games, they retained the responsibility of overseeing stables and training teams, which included, in addition to the charioteers themselves, a large number of support staff. In this capacity, they were called {{langx|la|factionarius}}.{{Sfn|Cameron|1976|p=9}}
It is commonly assumed that the Blues, Greens, Reds and Whites were equal once, but that the Blues and Greens slowly grew to dominate the Reds and Whites. However, from as early as the Julio-Claudians, almost every emperor whose favourite deme is known supported either the Blues (e.g. Vitellius, Caracalla) or the Greens (e.g. Caligula, Nero, Domitian, Lucius Verus, Commodus, Elagabalus). Marcus Aurelius stated that he was "neither Blue nor Green". From such evidence, some historians argue that the circus faction rivalry had always been between the Blues and Greens.<ref name="Cameron54">{{harvnb|Cameron|1976|p=54–55}}</ref>
From the 5th century onwards, the traditional faction colors spread to organizers of spectacles in theaters and amphitheaters. For example, Procopius recounts that the father of the future empress Theodora was a bear-keeper for the Greens.<ref name="Procopius">{{harvnb|Procopius|1896}}</ref>
A more fanciful origin story of the demes is given by John Malalas, who says that, when Romulus saw that the Romans "were angry and resistant to him on account of his brother's death", he invented the factions to divide them against each other. "So the inhabitants of Rome were divided into factions, and no longer were in concord with each other, because they desired their own victory and devoted themselves to their faction as to some religion".<ref name="Malalas 2019">{{harvnb|Malalas|2019}}</ref> This myth, or a version of it, appears in several other chronicles, and in the writings of Isidore of Pelusium, who speaks of the demes as a political machination.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=571}}</ref>
=== Height === [[File:Alexandrie Théâtre romain 2.jpg|thumb|left|Kom El Deka in Alexandria. 6th-century graffiti on the seats shows support for the Blues and Greens.]] Despite beginning as mere sports fanclubs, the demes became involved with the political and even religious disputes of the time. For example, during the Chalcedonian Schism, the Blues generally aligned with the Chalcedonians and the Greens with the non-Chalcedonians. Chrysaphius and Theodosius II, who convened the Second Council of Ephesus, both supported the Greens, while Marcian, who convened the opposing Council of Chalcedon, supported the Blues.<ref name=Frend158>{{harvnb|Frend|1972|p=158}}</ref> However, this was not a solid rule, as there were many Chalcedonian Greens (like Maurice) and non-Chalcedonian Blues (like Theodora).<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|1976|p=127}}</ref>
There was a class division between the two demes. The Greens tended to be more working-class than the Blues, and were better represented among craftsmen, artisans, port-workers and countryfolk. Meanwhile, the Blues were better represented among elites and government officials, as well as the Jews.<ref>{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=67}} "It is not true to maintain that the Blues were the aristocratic faction and the Greens the faction supported by the lower social classes. On the whole the general masses were to be found in both parties, though the Blues tended to draw their leaders from members of the great landowners, the Graeco-Roman senatorial aristocracy, and the Greens from the representatives of trade and industry, as well as from those in court service or financial administration who often originated in the eastern lands of the Empire."</ref> During the Nika Riots, a leader of the Greens sarcastically told Justinian that he did not know where the palace and government offices were.<ref name=Frend158>{{harvnb|Frend|1972|p=158}}</ref>{{Sfn|Manojlović|1936|p=645}} Certain neighbourhoods (like Zeugma, now {{ill|Unkapanı|tr}}, and the quarter of Mazentiolos) were strongholds of the Greens, and others (like Pittakia and the quarters along the Mese) were strongholds of the Blues.{{Sfn|Diakonov|1945|p=156}}
After the death of Anastasius I Dicorus (who had supported the Reds) in 518, the excubitors hoped to make a man named John the next emperor, but were unable to because the Blues disapproved. Later, the Greens blocked Germanus's imperial ambitions on account of his favouritism towards the Blues. These incidents illustrate the growing power of the demes.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=573}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|p=692}}</ref>
According to the contemporary chroniclers Evagrius Scholasticus and Procopius, in the leadup to the Nika Riots, Justinian favoured the Blues "to such an excess, that they slaughtered their opponents at mid-day and in the middle of the city, and, so far from dreading punishment, were even rewarded; so that many persons became murderers from this cause. They were allowed to assault houses, to plunder the valuables they contained, and to compel persons to purchase their own lives; and if any of the authorities endeavoured to check them, he was in danger of his very life". They give examples of governors and judges who, after punishing Blues who had killed Greens, were themselves scourged or killed on Justinian's orders.<ref>{{harvnb|Scholasticus|1846}}</ref> Procopius also describes the characteristic "Hunnic" hairstyles and fashions worn by Blues in his time.<ref name="Procopius"/>
The Nika Riots in 532 are the deadliest and most famous of the many riots caused by the demes, but there were also other times when the Blues and Greens put aside their differences and united against the government. For example, in the famine-stricken year of 556, both demes jointly demanded bread from the emperor.{{sfn|Pigulevskaya|1946|pp=142–147}} John Malalas records another incident in 565,<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|Martindale|Morris|1992|p=1416}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= Malalas |first=John |author-link= John Malalas|year=563|title=De insidiis|page=94|url=http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/pgm/PG_Migne/Constantinus%20Porphyrogenitus_PG%20112-113/De%20insidiis.pdf|language=Greek|quote=Πέμψας τινὰς τῶν κομενταρησίων Ζίμαρχος ὁ ἔπαρχος ἐπὶ τῷ κρατῆσαί τινα νεώτερον ὄνομα Καισάριον, ἀντέστησαν οἱ τῆς γειτονίας τῶν Μαζεντιόλου καὶ ἐκύλλωσαν πολλοὺς στρατιώτας καὶ αὐτούς γε μὴν τοὺς κομενταρησίους... καὶ οὐ συνέβαλον μετὰ τῶν πρασίνων οἱ τοῦ βενέτου μέρους, ἀλλ' ἦν ἡ μάχη αὐτῶν μετὰ τῶν ἐξσκουβιτόρων καὶ τῶν στρατιωτῶν.}}</ref> in which the city prefect Zemarchus tried to arrest a young man from the Greens named Kaisarion, but for two days the Greens and Blues battled the imperial soldiers to protect him. Despite Justinian repeatedly sending excubitors as reinforcements, and all sides suffering heavy casualties, the Greens and Blues managed to push the soldiers to the Forum of Constantine, the Forum of Theodosius, and finally the ''praetorium''. Justinian eventually pardoned them and dismissed Zemarchus.<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|pp=649–650}}</ref>
According to Theophanes the Confessor, when Justinian died, the quarrels between the demes reached such an extent that Justinian's successor, Justin II, told the Blues "The emperor Justinian is dead and gone from among you", and the Greens "The emperor Justinian still lives among you". This temporarily calmed the factions down, and the riots ceased.<ref>{{harvnb|Theophanes|1997|p=358}}</ref>
===Militias=== [[File:CharioteerPapyrus.jpg|thumb|Charioteers in the red tunics of their faction from the Charioteer Papyrus (c. 500)]] The demes had their own militias, the ''demotai'' ({{lang|grc|δημόται|nocat=yes}}), with an official registry ({{lang|grc|κατάλογος|nocat=yes}}). The militias had a small nucleus of registered members (in 602, there were 900 Blues and Whites, and 1500 Greens and Reds) but could mobilise many more in times of need.<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|pp=622, 630}}</ref> On several occasions, they helped repair the Walls of Constantinople. When the walls were damaged by an earthquake on 26 January 447, the Blues and Greens supplied 16,000 men between them for the rebuilding effort, and restored the walls in a record 60 days.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2004|p=9}}; {{Harvnb|Bardill|2004|p=123}}; {{Harvnb|Philippides|Hanak|2011|pp=299–302}}</ref> The gate now known as {{lang|tur|Yeni-Mevlevihane-Kapısı}} was once called {{lang|grc|Πόλη τοῦ Ρουσίου}}, or "Gate of the Reds". According to {{ill|Andreas David Mordtmann|de}}, it was named so because it was built by the Reds.<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|p=621}}</ref>
The militias sometimes also helped the government repel foreign invasions. Theophanes the Confessor reports that, when Zabergan crossed the Anastasian Walls in 559, Belisarius drove him away using the imperial cavalry, the horses of all the citizens, and the horses of the Hippodrome.<ref name=Manojlovic626/>{{refn|group=note|"Belisarius took every horse, including those of the emperor, of the Hippodrome, of religious establishments, and from every ordinary man who had a horse."<ref>{{harvnb|Theophanes|1997|p=341}}</ref> ({{langx|el|ὁ δὲ Βελισάριος ἔλαβε πᾶσαν τὴν ἵππον, τήν τε βασιλικὴν καὶ τοῦ ἱππικοῦ καὶ τῶν εὐαγῶν οἴκων καὶ παντὸς ἀνθρώπου, ὅπου ἦν ἵππος}})<ref>{{cite web |author= Theophanes|author-link= Theophanes the Confessor|year=815|title=Θεοφάνης - Χρονογραφία 2 - Βυζαντινά κείμενα|url=https://byzantium.gr/keimena/theofanis2.php|language=Greek}}</ref>}} During the Avar invasions of 583–4, Maurice ordered the demes to guard the Long Walls.<ref>{{harvnb|Janssens|1936|p=500}} "{{lang|grc|τὰ τοῦ παλατίου στρατεύματα ἐξαγαγὼν τῆς πόλεως καὶ τοὺς δήμους φυλάττειν τὰ Μακρὰ τείχη ἐκέλευσεν}}"</ref> The ''demotai'' similarly helped defend Constantinople when it was besieged in 626. Another example of the ''demotai'' being recruited by the government occurs in the chronicle of John of Antioch. During the Heraclian revolt in 610, when Phocas saw the fleet of Heraclius on the horizon, he ordered the Greens to guard the Harbours of Caesarion and Sophia, and the Blues to guard the quarter of Hormisdas. Heraclius later had the banner of the Blues burned in the Hippodrome to shame them for their treason.<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|p=631}}</ref>
The extent of the demes' participation in the military is debated. While the majority of historians believe that it was significant, some historians (including Alan Cameron) argue that it was minimal.
===In the provinces=== [[File:Helladia comb-E 11874-IMG 4903-black.jpg|thumb|left|A 5th-century comb from Antinoöpolis with the inscription "Long live Helladia's fortune and the Blues! Amen!"]] The demes caused disturbances not only in Constantinople, but as far away as Syria and Egypt. For example, according to John Malalas, in 490 the Greens started a pogrom and massacred the Jewish population of Antioch, until Theodore, the Prefect of the East, suppressed them. When Emperor Zeno, who was a supporter of the Greens, heard of it, he joked "Why did you burn only the dead Jews? It was necessary to burn the living Jews as well."<ref name="Malalas 2019"/> On another occasion, the Greens and Blues ({{langx|el|πρασινοβενέτων}}) in Antioch rose up with the Judeo-Samaritan revolt of Julianus ben Sabar in 529, and killed their fellow Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Manojlović|1936|p=636}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= Malalas |first=John |author-link= John Malalas|year=563|title=De insidiis|page=521|url=http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/pgm/PG_Migne/Constantinus%20Porphyrogenitus_PG%20112-113/De%20insidiis.pdf|language=Greek|quote= Ὅτι ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ βασιλέως Ἰουστινιανοῦ ἐστασίασαν οἱ Σαμαρεῖται καὶ οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι ἐν Καισαρείᾳ τῆς Παλαιστίνης ποιήσαντες τὸ ἓν ὡς ἐν τάξει πρασινοβενέτων, καὶ ἐπῆλθον τοῖς χριστιανοῖς τῆς αὐτῆς πόλεως καὶ κατέκοψαν πολλοὺς καὶ ἐπῆλθον καὶ ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις τῶν ὀρθοδόξων.}}</ref> The Egyptian chronicler John of Nikiu wrote about the chaos caused by the demes in Egypt, such as the Aykelah revolt, while the monk Strategius complained that the Blues and Greens in Jerusalem were fighting each other and plundering Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|pp=560, 580}}</ref> The ''Miracles of Saint Demetrius'' also contains a particularly vivid description of their violence.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=84–85}} "The demes, not satisfied with shedding the blood of their fellow demesmen in the streets, have forced their way into each others' houses and mercilessly murdered those within, throwing down alive from the upper stories women and children, young and old, who were too weak to save themselves by flight; in barbarian fashion they have plundered their fellow-citizens, their acquaintances and relations, and have set fire to their houses."}}
During the Persian invasions of the 7th century, the Blues and Greens made the streets of Alexandria and Antioch "scenes of continual bloodshed".{{sfn|Bury|1889|p=200}} In 614, when the Persians besieged Jerusalem, the demes united against Patriarch Zacharias's decision to surrender the city, and during the Arab Siege of Alexandria in 641, two rival Byzantine commanders, Menas and Domentianus, were supported by the Greens and Blues respectively.{{sfn|Liebeschutz|2000|p=228}} Near the end of the 7th century, Anastasius of Sinai remarked "Today, even if the race of the Saracens were to depart from us, straightway tomorrow the Blues and Greens would rise up again, and the East and Arabia and Palestine and many other lands would bring slaughter upon themselves".{{sfn|Haldon|2016|p=83}}
=== Formalisation and decline === [[File:Gunthertuch.jpg|thumb|Detail of the ''Gunthertuch'', a 10th-century Byzantine silk tapestry depicting John I Tzimiskes being greeted by the Blues and Greens at a triumph]] Beginning in the 7th century, the demes gradually became official. The first mention of both demarchs (official leaders of a deme) and of an official registry of Blues and Greens dates back to 602, and occurs in the History of Theophylact Simocatta, with the first two demarchs being Sergius for the Greens and Cosmas for the Blues.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=572}}</ref> Sergius was replaced by John Crucis, who started a riot and was burned alive by Phocas.<ref name=Booth577>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=577}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whitby|1989|p=145}}</ref> The Blue demarch Cosmas may have been elevated by Phocas to urban prefect, and tortured Greens on Phocas' orders.<ref>{{harvnb|Booth|2011|p=578, 599}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Olster|1993|p=78}}</ref> John of Nikiu also names two demarchs who were active in Egypt during the Siege of Babylon Fortress in 640: Menas, the leader of the Greens, and Cosmas the son of Samuel, the leader of the Blues.
In 695, following a rumour that Justinian II was planning to exterminate the Blues, they and the Patriarch Callinicus overthrew him and placed Leontius on the throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=1212}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=74}}</ref> Leontius himself was overthrown when Tiberius III allied with the Greens, who opened the gates of Constantinople for him.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=2084}}</ref><ref name="Ostrogorsky140">{{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=140–141}}</ref>
Over the next few centuries, the demes, whose leaders were appointed by the government, came to be subordinate to it. Historians debate when the political significance of the demes ended, with estimates ranging from the end of the seventh century (according to Nikolaos Oikonomides) to the beginning to the ninth century (according to Jacques Jarry and {{ill|André Maricq|fr}}).<ref name="Ostrogorsky140"/><ref>{{harvnb|Charanis|1978|p=71}}</ref> During his second reign, Justinian II built {{lang|la|phialae|nocat=yes}} (platforms with fountains) for the demes in the Great Palace, demolishing a church to do so. He placed the Greens' {{lang|la|phiale}} adjacent to his new throne room, possibly out of favouritism towards them.<ref>{{harvnb|Magdalino|2015|p=177}}</ref> The iconoclast emperor Constantine V (741–775) was adept at manipulating the demes; he would theatrically stage conversions of iconodule monks to iconoclasm in the Hippodrome, publicly humiliate them for the demes' entertainment (like by forcing monks and nuns to walk hand in hand), and encourage the demes to lynch iconodule monks such as Stephen the Younger.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|1976|pp=302–304}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Magdalino|2015|p=178}}</ref> These events contributed to the demes' loss of independence.
Gradually losing their influence on public life, the factions continued their sporting activities. One faction still enjoyed greater imperial favor, with the Blues often preferred in the 9th–10th centuries. At the Hippodrome of Constantinople, they were the first to greet the emperor and held precedence over the Greens during ceremonies. Unlike in previous centuries, this situation no longer provoked discontent or led to conflicts.{{sfn|Guilland|1968|p=27}} Under Emperor Basil I (867–886), the factional {{lang|la|phialae}} built under Justinian II were dismantled, making the distinctions between factions even less pronounced.{{sfn|Belyaev|1893|pp=35–37}}{{sfn|Guilland|1968|p=33}}
By 899, when the {{Transliteration|grc|Klētorologion}} was written, only the Blues and Greens still existed. They separated further into those "of the city" ({{lang|grc|πολιτικοὶ}}·, {{Transliteration|grc|politikoi}}), under a {{Transliteration|grc|dēmarchos}}, and the "suburban" ({{lang|grc|περατικοὶ}}, {{Transliteration|grc|peratikoi}}), under a {{Transliteration|grc|dēmokratēs}}, a role which was entrusted to senior military officials: the Domestic of the Schools for the Blues, and the Domestic of the Excubitors for the Greens.{{sfn|Bury|1911|p=105}} Their salaries were paid by the praipositos, and they had dedicated places in the Hippodrome, in the Great Palace and in imperial processions.<ref name=ODB/> Ceremonies involving demarchs in this capacity are described by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, Michael Attaleiates in the 11th century and Theodore Prodromos in the 12th century.{{sfn|Guilland|1969|p=8}}
The official use of the title of {{Transliteration|grc|dēmarchos}} (usually in conjunction with another office like {{Transliteration|grc|symponos}} or {{Transliteration|grc|logariastēs}}) continued even after the demes themselves disappeared. The {{Transliteration|grc|dēmarchoi}} served as military commanders during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453; pseudo-Sphrantzes relates that Constantine XI appointed Giustiniani Longo as a "{{Transliteration|grc|demarchos}} and {{Transliteration|grc|strategos}}" over 400 soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=603}}</ref>
==Modern parallels== The Blues and Greens are often compared to modern-day football hooligans. The Internet Medieval Sourcebook noted some similarities to the rivalry between Glasgow's two Old Firm football clubs: Celtic and Rangers. Celtic fans wear green to support their team, while Rangers fans wear blue. Their rivalry had religious and political aspects, with Celtics fans being generally Catholic and voting Labour, and Rangers fans being Protestant and voting Conservative.<ref>{{cite web |last= Halsall |first=Paul |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Circus Factions in Egypt|url=https://origin.web.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/nikiu1.asp}}</ref>
==List of factional alignments of emperors== Below is a list of Roman and Byzantine emperors whose preferred demes are known. {| width=90% class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- style="background:#cccccc" ! Name ! Reign ! Deme ! Source |- | '''Caligula''' | 37–41 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Nero''' | 54–68 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Vitellius''' | 69 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Domitian''' | 81–96 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Lucius Verus''' | 161–169 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Marcus Aurelius''' | 161–180 | '''{{color|grey|Neither}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Commodus''' | 180–192 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Geta''' | 211 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Caracalla''' | 211–217 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Elagabalus''' | 218–222 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron54"/> |- | '''Constantine I''' | 306–337 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Jarry349">{{harvnb|Jarry|1960|p=349–350}}</ref> |- | '''Theodosius II''' | 408–450 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127">{{harvnb|Cameron|1976|p=127}}</ref> |- | '''Marcian''' | 450–457 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127"/> |- | '''Leo I''' | 457–474 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Jarry349"/> |- | '''Zeno''' | 474–491 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127"/> |- | '''Anastasius I''' | 491–518 | '''{{color|red|Reds}}''' | <ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|1976|p=71–72}}</ref> |- | '''Justinian I''' | 527–565 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127"/> |- | '''Maurice''' | 582–602 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127"/> |- | '''Phocas''' | 602–610 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127"/> |- | '''Heraclius''' | 610–641 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Cameron127"/> |- | '''Justinian II''' | 685–695 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Haldon74">{{harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=74}}</ref> |- | '''Leontius''' | 695–698 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Ostrogorsky140"/> |- | '''Tiberius III''' | 698–705 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Ostrogorsky140"/> |- | '''Justinian II''' | 705–711 | '''{{color|green|Greens}}''' | <ref name="Haldon74"/> |- | '''Philippicus''' | 711–713 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Jarry540">{{harvnb|Jarry|1968|p=540}}</ref> |- | '''Constantine V''' | 741–775 | '''{{color|blue|Blues}}''' | <ref name="Jarry540"/> |}
==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== === Primary sources === * {{cite book |last=Malalas|first=John |author-link= John Malalas|translator-first= John|translator-last= Kiesling|translator-link= John Brady Kiesling|title=Malalas, Chronography Bks 1-7, 10-18|year=2019|orig-year=563|url=https://topostext.org/work/793}} * {{cite book |last=Martial |first=Marcus Valerius |author-link=Martial |translator-first= Henry George|translator-last= Bohn|translator-link= Henry George Bohn| title=Martial, Epigrams. Book 11. Mainly from Bohn's Classical Library (1897) |year=1897 |url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/martial_epigrams_book11.htm}} * {{cite book |last=Suetonius, Gaius |title=The Lives of the Twelve Caesars |publisher=Nauka |year=1964 |series=Literary Monuments |location=Moscow |pages=376 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Theophanes Continuator |title=Biographies of Byzantine Emperors |publisher=Aleteia |year=2009 |isbn=978-5-91419-146-4 |series=Byzantine Library. Sources |location=St. Petersburg |pages=400 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |author=Procopius|author-link=Procopius |title=The Secret History of the Court of Justinian |translator=The Athenian Society |year=1896 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/12916/pg12916-images.html}} * {{cite book |author=Theophanes|author-link= Theophanes the Confessor|translator-first= Cyril|translator-last= Mango|translator-link= Cyril Mango|title=The Chronicle Of Theophanes Confessor, Trans. By Cyril Mango (1997)|year=1997 |orig-year=815|url=https://archive.org/details/chronicle-of-theophanes-the-confessor/}} * {{cite book |last=Scholasticus |first=Evagrius |author-link= Evagrius Scholasticus|title=Ecclesiastical History (431–594 AD), Book 4 |translator-first=Edward |translator-last=Walford |translator-link=Edward Walford |url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/evagrius_4_book4.htm |year=1846 |orig-year=593}} * {{cite book |last=Simocatta |first=Theophylact |author-link=Theophylact Simocatta |title=History |publisher=Arktos |year=1996 |pages=272 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Whitby|first=Michael|author-link= Michael Whitby|title=Chronicon Paschale 284-628 AD |year=1989 |url=https://cristoraul.org/BYZANTIUM/Chronicon_Paschale_284-628.pdf}}
=== Secondary sources === ==== In English ==== * {{cite book |last=Ando |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BXqIG1NIU2IC |title=Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-520-22067-6 |location=Berkeley |pages=494}} * {{citation | first = Jonathan | last = Bardill | title = Brickstamps of Constantinople, Volume I: Text | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0199255221 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YS_AAzcjdK8C }} * {{cite book |last=Bell |first=P. 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H. C. Frend |url=https://archive.org/details/ancient-christian-writers-no.-51.-cassiodor.-walsh-patrick-gerard-senator-cassio/Frend%2C%20The%20Rise%20of%20the%20Monophysite%20Movement/ |title=The Rise of the Monophysite Movement |date=1972 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-0227172414}} * {{cite book |last=Haldon |first=John |author-link=John Haldon|title=Byzantium in the seventh century : the transformation of a culture |date= 1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiuminseven0000hald |isbn=978-0521319171}} * {{cite book |last=Haldon |first=John |author-link=John Haldon|title=The Empire That Would Not Die: The Paradox of Eastern Roman Survival, 640–740 |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Harvard |isbn=978-0-674-08877-1}} * {{cite book|last=Humphrey|first=John H.|title=Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing|year=1986 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|publisher=University of California|isbn=978-0-520-04921-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=couetXBQO9AC}} * {{Cite book |first1=A. H. M. |last1=Jones |author-link1=A. H. M. Jones |first2=J. R |last2=Martindale|author-link2=John Robert Martindale |first3=John |last3=Morris |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |url=https://archive.org/details/plre-01-260-395/PLRE03B_527-641/page/1416 |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-20160-5| volume=III: A.D. 527–641}} * {{cite book |last= Kazhdan|first= Alexander|author-link= Alexander Kazhdan|year= 1991|title= Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|url= https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/2084/mode/2up|publisher= Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Liebeschutz |first=W. |chapter=Administration and politics in the cities of the fifth to the mid seventh century: 425–640 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-32591-2 |editor-last=Cameron |editor-first=A. |volume=XIV |location=Cambr. |pages=207–237 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History}} * {{cite book|last=Liebeschuetz|first=John Hugo Wolfgang Gideon|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman City |chapter=Shows and Factions|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-926109-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3H6YSunqO8IC}} * {{cite book |last=Magdalino |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Magdalino |editor-first1=Michael |editor-first2=Jean-Michel |editor-first3=Gülru |editor-first4=Ulrike |editor-last1=Featherstone |editor-last2=Spieser |editor-last3=Tanman |editor-last4=Wulf-Rheidt |chapter=The People and the Palace |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2015 |isbn=978-3-11-038228-0 |series=Urban Spaces, vol IV |location=B. |pages=169–180 |doi=10.1515/9783110331769 |title=The Emperor's House}} * {{cite book|last=Olster|first=David Michael |title=The Politics of Usurpation in the Seventh Century: Rhetoric and Revolution in Byzantium|year=1993|isbn=978-9025610104}} * {{cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|title=History of the Byzantine State|date=1956|isbn=978-0-813-51198-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti00ostr |url-access=registration |location=New Brunswick |publisher=Rutgers University Press}} * {{citation | last1=Philippides | first1=Marios | last2=Hanak | first2=Walter K. | title=The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453: Historiography, Topography and Military Studies | publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. | year=2011 | isbn=978-1409410645 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvvdVXckfqQ }} * {{citation |last= Turnbull |first= Stephen |author-link = Stephen Turnbull (historian) |title= The Walls of Constantinople AD 324–1453 |series= Fortress Series |volume= 25 |publisher= Osprey Publishing |year= 2004 |isbn= 184176759X |url= https://archive.apan.gr/gr/util/document/14709?type=DOCUMENT |access-date = 21 October 2021 }} * {{cite book |last=Whitby |first=M. |chapter=The violence of the circus factions |publisher=Classical Press of Wales |year=2009 |isbn=9781910589359 |location=Swansea |pages=278 |title=Organised Crime in Antiquity}}
==== In Russian ==== * {{cite book |last=Belyaev |first=Dmitry Fyodorovich |title=Обзор главных частей Большого дворца византийских царей|trans-title=Overview of the Main Parts of the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors |publisher=Имп. Академии наук |year=1891 |edition=BYZANTINA: Очерки, материалы и заметки по византийским древностям |volume=I |location=St. Petersburg |pages=200 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Belyaev |first=Dmitry Fyodorovich |title=Ежедневные и воскресные приёмы византийских царей и праздничные выходы их в храм св. Софии в IX—X в.|trans-title=Daily and Sunday Receptions of Byzantine Emperors and Their Festive Processions to the Hagia Sophia in the 9th–10th Centuries |publisher=И.Н. Скороходова |year=1893 |edition=BYZANTINA: Очерки, материалы и заметки по византийским древностям |volume=II |location=St. Petersburg |pages=308 |language=Russian}} * {{cite journal |last=Diakonov |first=Alexander Petrovich |author-link=Alexander Dyakonov |year=1945 |title=Византийские димы и факции (τα μέρη) в V—VII вв.|trans-title=Byzantine Demes and Factions (ta merē) in the 5th–7th Centuries |journal=Византийский сборник |location=Moscow-Leningrad |pages=144–227 |language=Russian}} * {{cite journal |last=Kozlov |first=A. S. |year=1982 |title=Основные направления политической оппозиции правительству Византии в первой половине V в.|trans-title=Main Directions of Political Opposition to the Byzantine Government in the First Half of the 5th Century |journal=Ancient and Medieval History |location=Sverdlovsk |publisher=Уральский государственный университет им. А. М. Горького |issue=19 |pages=5–31 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Kulakovsky |first=Yulian Andreevich |title=История Византии|trans-title=History of Byzantium |publisher=Алетейя |year=2003 |isbn=5-89329-618-4 |edition=3rd |series=Byzantine Library. Studies |volume=I |location=St. Petersburg |pages=492 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Kurbatov |first=Georgy Lvovich |title=Ранневизантийский город: (Антиохия в IV в.)|trans-title=The Early Byzantine City: (Antioch in the 4th Century) |publisher=Publishing House of Leningrad University |year=1962 |location=Leningrad |pages=262 |language=Russian}} * {{cite journal |last=Levchenko |first=Mitrofan Vasilyevich |year=1947 |title=Венеты и прасины в Византии V—VII вв.|trans-title=Veneti and Prasini in Byzantium in the 5th–7th Centuries |journal=Византийский временник |volume=1 |pages=164–183 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Pigulevskaya |first=Nina Viktorovna |title=Byzantium and Iran at the Turn of the 6th–7th Centuries |publisher=Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR |year=1946 |editor-last=Struve |editor-first=Vasily Vasilyevich |series=Proceedings of the Institute of Oriental Studies, vol. XLVI |location=Moscow-Leningrad |pages=291 |language=Russian}} * {{cite journal |last=Uspensky |first=Fyodor Ivanovich |author-link=Fyodor Uspensky |year=1894 |title=Партии цирка и димы в Константинополе|trans-title=Circus Parties and Demes in Constantinople |journal=Византийский временник |location=St. Petersburg |volume=1 |pages=1–16 |language=Russian}} * {{cite book |last=Chekalova |first=Aleksandra Alekseevna |title=Константинополь в VI веке. Восстание Ника|trans-title=Constantinople in the 6th Century: The Nika Revolt |publisher=Алетейя |year=1997 |isbn=5-89329-038-0 |edition=2nd ed., revised and expanded |series=Византийская библиотека. Исследования |location=St. Petersburg |pages=329 |language=Russian}}
==== In French ==== * {{cite journal |last=Grégoire |first=H. |year=1946 |title=Le peuple de Constantinople ou les Bleus et les Verts |trans-title=The People of Constantinople or the Blues and the Greens |journal=Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=568–578 |doi=10.3406/crai.1946.78039}} * {{cite journal |last=Guilland |first=R. |year=1968 |title=Études sur l'Hippodrome de Byzance |trans-title=Studies on the Hippodrome of Byzantium |journal=Byzantinoslavica |volume=29 |pages=24–33}} * {{cite journal |last=Guilland |first=R. |year=1969 |title=Études sur l'Hippodrome de Byzance |trans-title=Studies on the Hippodrome of Byzantium |journal=Byzantinoslavica |volume=30 |pages=1–17}} * {{cite journal |last= Janssens|first= Yvonne|year= 1936|title= LES BLEUS ET LES VERTS SOUS MAURICE, PHOCAS ET HERACLIUS |url= https://archive.org/details/byzantion-06-1931/Byzantion-11-%281936%29/page/499/|journal= Byzantion|language= French|volume= 11|issue= 2|pages= 499–536}} * {{cite journal |last= Jarry|first= Jacques|author-link= Jacques Jarry|year= 1960|title= Hérésies et factions a Constantinople du Ve au VIIe siècle|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/4197368|journal= Syria|language= French|volume= 37|issue= 3-4|pages= 348–371}} * {{cite book | last=Jarry|first= Jacques|author-link= Jacques Jarry|year= 1968| title=Hérésies et factions dans l'empire byzantin du IVe au VIIe siècle | url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=VtUWAAAAIAAJ |language= French }} * {{cite journal |last= Manojlović|first= Gavro|author-link= Gavro Manojlović|year= 1936|orig-year= 1904|title= LE PEUPLE DE CONSTANTINOPLE|url= https://archive.org/details/byzantion-06-1931/Byzantion-11-%281936%29/page/n627/|journal= Byzantion|language= French|volume= 11|issue= 2|translator-last= Grégoire|translator-first= Henri |translator-link= Henri Grégoire (historian)|pages= 627–726}} * {{cite book |last=Patlagean |first=E. |title=Pauvreté économique et pauvreté sociale à Byzance 4e–7e siècles |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |year=1977 |isbn=978-3-11-080519-2 |series=Civilisations et Sociétés |volume=48 |pages=483 |trans-title=Economic and Social Poverty in Byzantium, 4th–7th Centuries}}
Category:Culture of the Byzantine Empire Category:Hooliganism Category:Hippodrome of Constantinople