{{Short description|King of Georgia (1446–1465) and Kakheti (1465–1476)}} {{for|George VIII of Imereti|George IV of Guria}} {{Infobox royalty | name = George VIII <br>გიორგი VIII | image = George VIII of Georgia charter 1460-2.jpg | caption = A royal charter regarding the blood money issued by King George VIII to the priest Giorgi Zhuruli, 1460. | succession = [[List of monarchs of Georgia|King of Georgia]] | moretext = ([[Style of the Georgian sovereign|more...]]) | reign = 1446–1465 | coronation = | predecessor = [[Vakhtang IV]] | successor = [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat VI]] | birth_date = 1415/1417 | birth_place = | death_date = 1476 | death_place = | burial_place = [[Svetitskhoveli Cathedral]] | spouse = Nestan-Darejan<br>Tamar | issue = {{plainlist| * [[Alexander I of Kakheti]] * Mariam}} | full name = | house = [[Bagrationi dynasty|Bagrationi]] | house-type = Dynasty | father = [[Alexander I of Georgia]] | mother = [[Tamar of Imereti (died 1455)|Tamar of Imereti]] | signature = George VIII signature.svg | signature_type = [[Khelrtva]] | religion = [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] | succession1 = [[Kingdom of Kakheti|King of Kakheti]] | reign1 = 1466–1476 | successor1 = [[Alexander I of Kakheti|Alexander I]] }}
'''George VIII''' (''{{lang-ka|გიორგი VIII|tr}}''; 1415/1417–1476), of the [[Bagrationi dynasty]], was the [[List of monarchs of Georgia|King]] (''[[mepe]]'') of the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] from 1446 to 1465 and later ruled the [[Kingdom of Kakheti]] as '''George I''' from 1466 until his death in 1476.
A member of the [[Bagrationi dynasty]], he was the third son of [[Alexander I of Georgia]]. In 1433, Alexander appointed George as co-ruler alongside his brothers [[Vakhtang IV]], [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]], and [[Zaal (son of Alexander I of Georgia)|Zaal]], in an attempt to strengthen the royal authority against the growing power of the nobility. However, the young George soon fell under the influence of the nobles, leading to his father's abdication in 1442. He subsequently assumed administrative control over the northeastern territories of the [[Caucasus]] under the supervision of his elder brother, Vakhtang IV. Upon Vakhtang's death in 1446, George seized the throne, disinherited his elder brother Demetrius, and forced him into exile.
George VIII is remembered as the last monarch to rule over a united Georgian kingdom, although the [[Collapse of the Georgian realm|formal division of the realm]] was not recognized until 1490. During his reign, he rapidly lost control of [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]] in the 1460s, when the ''atabeg'' [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli]] declared independence. Subsequently, Western Georgia broke away during the [[Georgian civil war of 1463-1491|Georgian Triumvirate War]], a civil conflict that marked the fragmentation of the kingdom. In 1465, George was captured and imprisoned by the ''atabeg'' of Samtskhe, leading to a further weakening of royal power and the rise of semi-independent principalities across Georgia. After his release in 1466, he established control over [[Kakheti]], declared it an independent kingdom, and ruled there peacefully until his death in 1476, laying the foundations for its early institutions.
On the international stage, George VIII witnessed major geopolitical upheavals in the [[Near East]], including the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453 and the [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|fall of Trebizond]] in 1461. Despite appeals for assistance from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], George chose not to intervene against the [[Ottoman Empire]] in either conflict. His plans to organize a [[Crusades|crusade]] against the Ottomans, in cooperation with [[Papal States|Rome]], ultimately failed due to the reluctance of European states to participate in the campaign.
== Early life == Born between 1415 and 1417, George VIII was the third son of [[Alexander I of Georgia]].{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=186}} His mother, [[Tamar of Imereti (died 1455)|Tamar]], was Alexander's second wife and the daughter of [[Alexander I of Imereti]], the rebellious monarch of [[Kingdom of Western Georgia|Western Georgia]].{{sfn|Montpéreux|1839|pp=93-165}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=164}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=271}}{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=181}}
George was educated at the royal court alongside his elder brothers [[Vakhtang IV|Vakhtang]] and [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]], and he is recorded as a prince in documents dating from 1417.{{Sfn|Brosset|1851|p=13}} He is mentioned together with his father in royal charters issued on 29 September 1417, 22 September 1419, 6 January 1424, in 1427, and on 21 January 1428.{{Sfn|Brosset|1851|pp=13–14}} However, certain other documents from the same period omit his name while referring to his brothers.{{Sfn|Brosset|1851|p=14}}
During George's youth, his father achieved several notable successes, including the capture of [[Lori Province|Lori]] in 1431.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=155}} Alexander I subsequently sought to strengthen the central authority of the kingdom and extend royal influence over the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]], preparing his son [[David II, Catholicos-Patriarch of Georgia|David]], George's brother, to become the future ''[[Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia]]''.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=189}}
== Co-rulership of Georgia == [[File:Constantine_I,_Alexander_I,_Vakhtang_IV,_George_VIII_relief.jpg|left|thumb|Relief of [[Constantine I of Georgia|Constantine I]], [[Alexander I of Georgia|Alexander I]], [[Vakhtang IV]], and George VIII.]] During the 1430s, [[Alexander I of Georgia]] initiated a program of royal centralization, aiming to strengthen the monarchy and suppress the great feudal lords who continued to defy royal authority.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} After confiscating many of their estates, he appointed his four sons — [[Vakhtang IV|Vakhtang]], [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]], George, and [[Zaal (son of Alexander I of Georgia)|Zaal]] — as co-rulers in 1433.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} According to historian [[Cyril Toumanoff]], Alexander was influenced by the Byzantine model of shared sovereignty, delegating administrative duties among his sons. However, this interpretation was rejected by the 18th-century chronicler [[Vakhushti of Kartli]], who denied any deliberate imitation of Byzantine practices.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|pp=204–2012}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|pp=1–6}} Alexander also promoted the military expansion of the kingdom and the reconstruction of numerous towns that had been devastated by centuries of warfare.{{Sfn|Allen|1932|pp=126–127}}
Each of the co-rulers was represented in the Georgian delegation that participated in the Council of [[Ferrara]] in 1438 and the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439 — two ecumenical assemblies presided over by [[Pope Eugene IV]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=157}} The king permitted his sons to send their representatives to these councils to balance the influence of [[Mingrelia]] and [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]], both of which sought the support of Rome in their efforts to gain independence from the crown.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=157}}
In 1439, Alexander I fell gravely ill, prompting his sons to assume control of the government.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}} Although physicians expected his death, he recovered in 1440 to find that the royal court had slipped from his authority.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} Encouraged by the powerful nobility, divisions deepened within the royal family, and the king's sons grew increasingly independent, refusing to obey their father's commands.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} The disunity became evident when the royal council failed to agree on a strategy to repel the invasion of the [[Qara Qoyunlu|Turcoman]] ruler [[Jahan Shah]], whose forces subsequently massacred nearly two thousand Georgians.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}}
By 1442, Alexander I could no longer maintain control over his fractious realm. After a reign of thirty years, he abdicated the throne and retired to monastic life under the name Athanasius.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}} Before his withdrawal, he arranged the marriage of George VIII to Princess Nestan-Darejan Bagrationi, daughter of his uncle [[Bagrat (son of Constantine I of Georgia)|Bagrat]], the son of [[Constantine I of Georgia]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=682}} The throne was reserved for his eldest son Vakhtang IV, while the remaining brothers divided the kingdom among themselves.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=184}} The youngest, Zaal, subsequently disappeared from historical records.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=190}} Alexander I died in 1446.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=178}}
=== Successor of Vakhtang IV === Following the abdication of his father [[Alexander I of Georgia|Alexander I]], [[Vakhtang IV]] succeeded to the throne with the title of ''King of Kings'', which conferred seniority over his younger brothers.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=682}} [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]] and George VIII, however, continued to administer certain regions of the kingdom. The sources remain uncertain regarding their exact titles: historians [[Cyril Toumanoff]] and [[Donald Rayfield]] suggest that they may still have been styled as kings, whereas the ''[[The Georgian Chronicles|Georgian Chronicles]]'' refer to them merely as ''princes'' ({{Lang-ka|მთავარი|tr}}'')''.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=682}} According to [[Vakhushti of Kartli]], George VIII was not formally designated co-ruler until 1445.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=682}} The ''Catholicos'' Anthony I, in his ''Twelfth Discourse on History'', was the first to mention George as governor of a substantial portion of the kingdom under his brother's authority.
{{blockquote|text=''[[Kakheti]], [[Hereti]], and the small nations of Tchari and Kaki,'' [[Shaki, Azerbaijan|''Shaki'']] ''— now possessed by Adji-Chalabi of Shirvan, whose capital is [[Shamakhi]] — were governed by George VIII, to whom Vakhtang IV granted not the title of king but that of [[mtavari]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=682}}''}}The 19th-century Georgian prince [[Prince David of Georgia|David]] recorded that Vakhtang IV assigned to George the northeastern territories of the [[Caucasus]], including [[Derbent]] on the [[Caspian Sea]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=682}} Vakhushti of Kartli, however, described the borders of his domains differently, extending from [[North Caucasus|Ciscaucasia]] in the north, along the [[Aragvi|Aragvi River]] in the west to Mount Lilo on the [[Iori Plateau]], the [[Kura (South Caucasus river)|Kura River]] in the south, and the Caspian Sea in the east.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|pp=683–684}} Meanwhile, [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]] and Vakhtang IV shared control over Western Georgia and [[Kartli]]. Vakhtang IV ruled only briefly before dying childless in 1446.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}} Under circumstances that remain obscure—possibly in accordance with the late king's will—George VIII assumed the crown and disinherited his elder brother, who was forced to retreat to Western Georgia.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=186}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}}
The official royal chronology compiled in the 18th century nonetheless recognizes Demetrius as the legitimate monarch until 1452.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|pp=684–685}} Surviving royal charters indicate that George VIII's reign began on 25 December 1446.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=186}}
The Georgian army, strengthened by the military reforms of Alexander I, remained a formidable force, as demonstrated by its victories over the Turcomans at the [[Battle of Akhaltsikhe (1444)|battle of Akhaltsikhe]] in 1444.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=643}} During his diplomatic missions, the king estimated that he could muster up to seventy thousand troops — a stark contrast to two decades later, when forty thousand Turcomans devastated the kingdom.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=268}} This military strength gave Georgia a significant strategic role within an [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] world increasingly threatened by the [[Ottoman Empire]].
In 1451, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] diplomat [[George Sphrantzes]] visited the Georgian court seeking a bride for Emperor [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=158–159}} The king agreed to marry his daughter to the emperor, but the negotiations became entangled in financial disagreements: while Sphrantzes requested a ''dowry'', Georgian custom demanded a ''bride price'', and the discussions even extended to the cession of several Byzantine towns.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=158–159}} The proposed alliance alarmed the Ottomans, who, preparing for the siege of [[Constantinople]], sought to eliminate potential Byzantine allies. In 1451, they launched a swift but devastating raid on the [[Abkhazia]]n coast, to which the Georgians did not retaliate.{{Sfn|Allen|1932|p=151}}
Ultimately, George agreed to provide fifty-six thousand [[ducat]]s, along with jewels, fine furnishings, ceremonial robes, and an annual payment of three thousand ducats.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} The scale of this commitment threatened to bankrupt the Georgian treasury; however, the marriage proposal was rendered moot by the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}}
=== Early challenges === From the very beginning of his reign, George VIII faced the separatist ambitions of Georgia's major principalities, including [[Mingrelia]], [[Guria]], and [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]], all of which had begun to pursue their own independent military and diplomatic policies.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=158–159}} Although he was nominally sovereign over the entire Georgian realm, his actual authority was limited ''de facto'' to [[Kartli]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=158–159}}
In 1447, a civil war broke out in Samtskhe when the ''[[atabeg]]'' (governor) [[Aghbugha II Jaqeli]], who was supported by the royal court, was overthrown by his brother [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli]].{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} Aghbugha fled to [[Tbilisi]], the royal capital, where he continued to be recognized as the legitimate ruler of his province until his death in 1451.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}} After Aghbugha's death, the king—persuaded by the "viziers" of the usurper—confirmed Qvarqvare II in his title as ''atabeg'' and officially recognized him as lord of Samtskhe. This, however, did little to ease the tension between the crown and its increasingly defiant vassal.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=207}}{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}}
Qvarqvare II soon acted as a fully independent ruler, pursuing a policy of complete separation from the Georgian monarchy.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} He seized [[Vardzia]] and other royal estates and proclaimed the [[Autocephaly]] of the Samtskhe Orthodox Church, supported by a Greek metropolitan sent by the clergy of [[Jerusalem]] and [[Antioch]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} As a result, the names of King George VIII and the ''Catholicos'' [[David IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of Georgia|David IV]] were omitted from regional prayers, and the governor elevated the bishop of [[Atskuri Church|Atskuri]] to the rank of [[Patriarch]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}}
In response, the ''Catholicos'' excommunicated the priests who had supported this declaration of autocephaly and ordered a boycott of churches in Samtskhe loyal to Qvarqvare's faction.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} Fearing financial collapse, the bishop of Atskuri eventually renounced the separatist movement and sought reordination in [[Mtskheta]], marking a strategic defeat for the rebels.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}}
Around 1452 or 1453, [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]] died in a hunting accident, leaving George VIII as the sole monarch of Georgia.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}}
== Reign as sole monarch of Georgia ==
=== A fragile peace === Following the death of [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]], George VIII was crowned the sole King of Georgia, assuming the traditional title of "King of Kings, Suzerain and Sovereign of two thrones and kingdoms, of the Abkhazians, Iberians, Ranis, Kakhetians and Armenians, descendant of [[Nimrod]]",{{Sfn|Takaishvili|1910|p=436}} His coronation took place in the religious capital of [[Mtskheta]], where the ceremony was conducted by his brother in the presence of the entire Georgian episcopate.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=685}}
Upon consolidating his rule, George sought to strengthen ties with the nobility of western Georgia. In 1455, he appointed his cousin [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat]] as [[Duchy of Samokalako|Duke of Samokalako]], thereby granting him authority over the region of [[Imereti]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=685}}
Early in his reign, George faced unrest in [[Shirvan]], a Muslim province on the Caspian Sea that was nominally a vassal of the Georgian crown.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=685}} The local Shirvanshah, [[Khalilullah I]], attempted to assert independence and ceased paying tribute to Georgia. In response, the king launched a campaign into the region, besieged [[Qabala]], and successfully restored Shirvan to Georgian suzerainty, forcing the resumption of tribute payments.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=685}}
In 1456, [[Uzun Hasan]], the Turcoman leader of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]], invaded Georgia. His forces ravaged [[Somkhiti]] and laid siege to the fortress of Orbeti.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=688}} The local governor avoided destruction by submitting to Uzun Hasan and aiding his raids throughout the kingdom. The Turcoman warlord then advanced into [[Kartli]], devastated the region, and occupied the town of [[Mukhrani]] before withdrawing to his domains.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=688}}
=== Preparations for a Crusade === [[File:Pio_II_Pont_Max_(detail).jpg|thumb|406x406px|[[Pope Pius II]] supported the crusade project.]] The [[fall of Constantinople]] isolated Georgia from any direct contact with [[Europe]]. The Europeans, in turn, faced a new geopolitical reality: the rise to power of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan [[Mehmed II]] could create a new common enemy for the [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] of the West.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} This drastic change in the regional balance compelled various Georgian nobles and rulers to form an apparent unity.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}} In 1459, an armistice was signed between the Crown and [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]].{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}} The king then saw an opportunity to react against the Muslim world and to establish himself as the center of a potential crusade.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=262}}
In 1452, [[Pope Nicholas V]] embarked on a project to reconquer [[Constantinople]], but his death in April 1455 put an end to these plans.{{Sfn|Sardar|Davies|2014|p=64}} In 1456, [[Ludovico da Bologna]], apostolic nuncio of the new [[Pope Callixtus III]], arrived in Georgia to prepare a detailed report for [[Papal States|Rome]] on the kingdom and the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]]. He praised the piety of its inhabitants but also emphasized the grave situation caused by ongoing civil conflicts in the region.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}} Following this report, the Holy See requested that George VIII send an embassy to Europe, and in September 1459 the successor of Callixtus III, [[Pope Pius II]], issued a public call for a new crusade against the Ottomans.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=158}} Beginning in November, regular correspondence was established between the king, [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli|Qvarqvare II]], Pius II, the Doge of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] [[Pasquale Malipiero]], and Duke [[Philip the Good|Philip III of Burgundy]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=158–159}}
The Georgians expected to mobilize a total of 120,000 soldiers (or 140,000 according to some sources) for this crusade: forty thousand [[Georgians]], thirty thousand [[Empire of Trebizond|Trapezuntines]] (then under Georgian protection), twenty thousand [[Armenians]], twenty thousand from [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]], and ten thousand [[Mingrelians]].{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=264}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} Additional contributions were anticipated from [[Principality of Guria|Guria]], along with thirty ships from the port of [[Anacopia]] and a contingent from [[Uzun Hasan]], who claimed the Ottoman city of [[Bursa]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=159}} The king also organized a plan for this potential campaign: Georgian forces would invade [[Anatolia]], with a contingent under Qvarqvare II advancing as far as [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], while the Europeans would open another front in [[Greece]].{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=265}}
In 1460, a large embassy composed of Georgians, Armenians, Trapezuntines, and Persians—led by Bishop Nicholas of Tbilisi and Qartchijan of [[Mingrelia]]—arrived in Europe and met with [[Frederick IV, Duke of Austria|Frederick III of Habsburg]], Emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], in [[Vienna]].{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}} In Venice, the delegation was received by the Senate of the ''Serenissima'' before continuing to [[Florence]] to attend an ecclesiastical council.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}} In [[Rome]], they were granted an audience with Pope Pius II in December 1460. The pontiff mistakenly referred to George VIII as the "King of the Persians" and to Duke [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat of Samokalako]] as the "King of the Iberians".{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}} From Rome, the pope dispatched the embassy across Europe in an effort to secure military support for the proposed crusade.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}}
In May 1461, the delegation arrived in [[Paris]] to meet King [[Charles VII of France]], who, due to illness, was unable to make any significant decision on the matter.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=121}} In [[Saint-Omer, Pas-de-Calais|Saint-Omer]], they held talks with Philip III of Burgundy, who hesitated to join the crusade for fear of jeopardizing his duchy during his absence.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}} In [[Ghent]], the ambassadors met with representatives of the Burgundian nobility but failed to convince them of the advantages of the campaign.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}} On August 15, they returned to Paris to attend the coronation of [[Louis XI|Louis XI of France]], who declined to undertake any military expedition owing to pressing internal difficulties.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=159–160}}{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=121}}
The crusade project ultimately failed after the Western monarchs refused to participate.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=265}}{{Sfn|Babinger|1978|p=198}} As the Georgian-led embassy departed from Europe, its members are said to have declared:{{Blockquote|Because the favorable moment has been lost, Europe will one day see the Turks at the gates of Vienna.{{sfn|Salia|1980|p=265}}}}
=== Fall of Trebizond === [[File:Cassone_Conquest_of_Trebizond_Apollonio_di_Giovanni_di_Tomaso.png|thumb|300x300px|[[Cassone]] with the "[[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|Conquest of Trebizond]]" by [[Apollonio di Giovanni di Tommaso]].]] The neighboring [[Empire of Trebizond]] was the last stronghold of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] civilization after the [[fall of Constantinople]].{{Sfn|Salia|1980|pp=215–216}} Founded in 1204 with the support of Queen [[Tamar of Georgia]], an ancestor of George VIII, this [[Black Sea]] state had long been one of Georgia's closest allies.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|pp=215–216}} Emperor [[John IV of Trebizond|John IV Megas Komnenos]], who married the daughter of [[Alexander I of Georgia|Alexander I]], had lived at the Georgian court after attempting to usurp his father's throne in 1426.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2012|pp=260–262}} In his communications with Europe, King George VIII also promised a military contingent from Trebizond to participate in the projected crusade.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2012|pp=260–262}}
This close alliance aroused the hostility of [[Mehmed II]], the conqueror of Constantinople.{{Sfn|Miller|1969|p=100}} Fearing that his city might share the same fate, John IV sought military assistance from Georgia.{{Sfn|Nicol|2004|p=407}} The Ottomans, however, recognized that Trebizond was well protected by a complex system of fortifications and that an allied fleet might come to its defense.{{Sfn|Mihailović|2011|p=59}} [[Konstantin Mihailović]], who served in the Ottoman army, later recounted the sultan's incursion into Georgia—an attempt to intimidate its ruler and prevent him from aiding the Trapezuntines.{{Sfn|Mihailović|2011|p=59}} The Turkish forces advanced along the [[Rioni|Rioni River]] and through the mountains of [[North Caucasus|Ciscaucasia]], signaling a probable attack on [[Kutaisi]].{{Sfn|Mihailović|2011|p=59}}
On 14 September 1460, while the Georgian embassy was still in Europe, Mehmed II [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|laid siege to Trebizond]].{{Sfn|Nicol|2004|p=408}} Emperor [[David of Trebizond|David Megas Komnenos]], successor to John IV, waited in vain for assistance from his Georgian ally before finally surrendering the city on 15 August 1461—exactly two hundred years after the reconquest of Constantinople by [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]]. This event marked the end of the last remnant of Byzantine civilization.{{Sfn|Miller|1969|p=104}}{{Sfn|Babinger|1978|p=195}} [[Helena Kantakouzene, Empress of Trebizond|Helena Kantakouzene]], the emperor's consort, fled to Georgia, provoking the sultan's anger.{{Sfn|Nicol|1968|p=189}} A few years later, George, the last surviving son of Emperor David, escaped imprisonment in Constantinople and sought refuge at the court of George VIII.{{Sfn|Runciman|2015|p=185}}
=== The Rebellion of Bagrat === [[File:Caucasus_1450_map_de.png|left|thumb|Expansion of the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] during the reign of George VIII.]] The fragile unity among the Georgian states collapsed following the failure of King George VIII's diplomatic mission to Europe.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|pp=207–208}} Although [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli|Qvarqvare II of Samtskhe]] remained a nominal vassal and ally of the crown, he began encouraging Duke [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat of Samokalako]] to rise in rebellion against the king.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|pp=207–208}} Bagrat was a descendant of the [[Bagrationi dynasty]] of [[Imereti]]—the oldest branch of the royal family—whose last ruler, [[Constantine II of Imereti|Constantine II of Western Georgia]], had been deposed by [[George VII of Georgia|George VII]] in 1401. Bagrat now sought to reclaim the throne of his ancestors.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=265}} As a cousin of George VIII, his intentions initially aroused little suspicion among the local nobility, but he soon gained the support of powerful magnates from western Georgia.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|pp=249–250}}
In addition to his alliance with [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]], Bagrat secured the backing of [[Liparit I Dadiani|Liparit I of Mingrelia]], [[Mamia Gurieli|Mamia of Guria]], and the princes of [[Abkhazia]] and [[Svaneti]], promising to free them from central control.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} Together, the rebels captured numerous fortresses in Imereti in 1462. In response, George VIII abolished the [[Duchy of Samokalako]] and prepared to intervene militarily.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=265}} In 1463, the king crossed the [[Likhi Range]] and called upon Samtskhe for military support, convinced of its loyalty. Qvarqvare II, however, marched his troops into Imereti only to encamp far from the battlefield, waiting to see which side would prevail—a move widely interpreted as tacit support for the rebels.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=250}}
George VIII and Bagrat met in [[Battle of Chikhori|battle at Chikhori]], where the royal army suffered a decisive defeat.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} The king withdrew to [[Kartli]] and imposed harsh punishments on nobles he deemed disloyal.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=121}} Meanwhile, Bagrat seized [[Kutaisi]], the largest city in western Georgia, and was crowned [[Kingdom of Imereti|King of Imereti]] (as Bagrat II) in the presence of the high nobility of Mingrelia, Guria, Abkhazia, Samtskhe, and Svaneti. Despite his coronation, his authority remained weak, even within his capital.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=250}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=646}}
The Battle of Chikhori marked the beginning of the disintegration of the [[Kingdom of Georgia|unified Kingdom of Georgia]]. From that point onward, its monarchs would never again rule over the entire country.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=266}}
=== War Against Samtskhe === [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli|Qvarqvare II]] once again began pursuing plans to assert independence from Georgia.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} He soon minted his own coinage in [[Akhaltsikhe]] and styled himself "[[Mepe|king]]" ({{Lang-ka|მეფე|tr}}) in his decrees before formally declaring war on King George VIII.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} For this campaign, he secured the support of [[Uzun Hasan]], who defeated the Georgian king in 1462—though some sources place the event in 1461 or 1463—and occupied the region of [[Lori Province|Lori]].{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=265}}{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=121}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} The alliance, however, turned against Qvarqvare II when the [[Aq Qoyunlu|White Sheep Turkomans]] ravaged and plundered Samtskhe during their advance.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=111}}
In retaliation, George VIII seized the opportunity to strike back. During the ''atabeg'''s visit to [[Imereti]]—where Qvarqvare II formally recognized [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat's]] coronation—the king invaded Samtskhe.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}} He gained the support of much of the local nobility, both great and small, who feared Qvarqvare's autocratic rule, and occupied the region without encountering resistance.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}} The ''atabeg'' was forced to flee temporarily to the court of the King of Imereti.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} The king's absence from central Georgia, however, allowed Uzun Hasan to return and launch another incursion in 1463, dispatching his generals Tavrij Gilak and Timur to devastate [[Kartli]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}} The Georgian army rushed to meet the invaders but was defeated, enabling the Turkomans to lay waste to eastern Georgia.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}} The kingdom quickly lost control of the situation, and the eastern provinces of [[Shirvan]], [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]], and Movakan broke away from Georgian authority.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}}
Meanwhile, Qvarqvare II—assisted by Bagrat's forces—returned to Samtskhe to reclaim his domains.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} After recapturing Akhaltsikhe, he exacted brutal retribution upon the local nobility, executing many of his opponents.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} The nobleman [[Zaza Panaskerteli-Tsitsishvili|Zaza of Panaskerti]] fled to the royal court, where he became one of the king's closest advisors.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} Later, the ''atabeg'' enlisted the aid of Duke [[Mamia Gurieli|Mamia of Guria]] to reconquer rebellious provinces, rewarding him with the territories of [[Adjara]] and [[Lazistan|Chaneti]]—further deepening the fragmentation of western Georgia.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}}
In 1465, George VIII narrowly survived an assassination attempt in which his courtier [[Iotam Zedgenidze]] was fatally stabbed while defending him.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=686}} In recognition of Zedgenidze's sacrifice, the king elevated his sons to the high nobility, granting them numerous fortresses in Kartli, the title of [[Mouravi|prefects]] ({{Lang-ka|მოურავი|tr}}) of [[Gori, Georgia|Gori]], and the hereditary rank of "Commanders-in-Chief of Kartli".{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|pp=686–687}} In the aftermath, George resolved to invade Samtskhe once more, having secured the support of the [[Duchy of Aragvi]].{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}}
A [[Battle of Paravani|decisive battle]] took place near [[Paravani Lake|Lake Paravani]], a day after a second assassination attempt and a failed round of negotiations.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} Initially, royal forces held the upper hand, but the ''atabeg'' succeeded in encircling their positions.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} The king was captured along with his personal guard.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=121}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} His nephew, the young [[Constantine II of Georgia|Constantine]], managed to escape and took command of the remaining forces, retreating northward before being besieged in Gori by Qvarqvare II and fleeing to western Georgia.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}} George VIII was imprisoned in Akhaltsikhe, marking the end of his reign as the sovereign of a unified Georgian kingdom.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=160}}
=== Captivity and Release === [[File:გიორგი_მერვეს_ხელნაწერი.jpg|left|thumb|Charter of King George VIII.]] With no central authority in place, the kingdom descended into political chaos.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=111}} Following the capture of George VIII and the flight of [[Constantine II of Georgia|Constantine]] to western Georgia, the Georgian throne was left vacant.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=111}} The king remained a hostage of [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli|Qvarqvare II]] until the early months of 1466.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=266}} In February of that year, [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat II of Imereti]] marched with his army to the Georgian capital and, after granting two villages to the ''catholicos'' [[David IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of Georgia|David]], was crowned [[List of monarchs of Georgia|King of Georgia]] under the name Bagrat VI, thereby deposing the imprisoned monarch.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=687}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=161}} The new ruler controlled most of Georgia except for the province of [[Kakheti]], which rebelled against his autocratic rule and proclaimed the noble David of Didoeti as its regional governor.{{efn|Georgian sources disagree on the status of this David:[[Prince Vakhushti of Kartli|Vakhushti of Kartli]] and [[Marie-Félicité Brosset]] say that he was a self-proclaimed king who later founded the dynasty of the kings of Kakheti. Modern historians, such as [[William Edward David Allen]], [[Kalistrat Salia]], and [[Donald Rayfield]], do not recognise the existence of this character. Nodar Asatiani mentioned that he was a local governor of mysterious origin who preceded George VIII as ruler of Kakheti.{{sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=161}}}}
Although Qvarqvare II had supported Bagrat's rise, he soon came to fear the growing power of the new monarch.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} For [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]], political stability in Georgia posed a direct threat to the separatist ambitions of the [[House of Jaqeli|Jaqeli dynasty]]—regardless of who sat on the throne.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=161}} The ''atabeg''—identified by contemporary historians as Qvarqvare II, or by [[Vakhushti of Kartli]] as his son Baadur—entered into negotiations with the deposed king.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=208}} Under the terms of their agreement, George VIII promised to pardon Samtskhe's rebellion, guarantee Akhaltsikhe's autonomy, and renounce his claims over western Georgia in exchange for his release.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=209}} A lesser-known version of events adds that he was compelled to marry Princess Tamar Jaqeli, the ''atabeg'''s daughter, despite still being wed to Nestan-Darejan, who was residing in Tbilisi at the time.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=160–161}}
Placed in command of a Samtskhe army, George VIII attempted to invade [[Kartli]] in 1466 but faced widespread resistance from the local nobility, who feared his retribution should he return to power.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}}{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=266}} Defeated in Kartli, he retreated with the ''atabeg'' and his troops to Kakheti, then under the rule of David of Didoeti.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=209}}{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} In this eastern Georgian province, George gained the support of the petty nobility—likely out of respect for his earlier tenure as its governor.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} He soon defeated David, despite the latter's military backing from King Bagrat VI, forcing him to retreat into the mountainous regions of Kakheti.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=687}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=147}} George established himself in the province's central territories but lacked the strength to consolidate full control.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=687}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=147}}
Meanwhile, the ''atabeg'' returned to Samtskhe and declared its independence, while George VIII remained in Kakheti. This marked the beginning of a definitive fragmentation of the Georgian kingdom and the end of its political unity.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=209}}{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=161}}
== King of Kakheti == [[File:Patriarch_Nikolaoz,_king_George_and_his_son_Bagrat_(Svetitskhoveli).jpg|thumb|Patriarch Nikolaoz, king George VIII and his son [[Alexander I of Kakheti|Alexander]]. A miniature by Rossi based on the 17th century fresco from [[Svetitskhoveli Cathedral]] (1830s)]] [[File:Kingdom_of_Georgia_after_dissolution_as_a_unified_state,_1490_AD.svg|thumb|The Kingdom of Georgia after its dissolution as a unified state.]] The deposed monarch was crowned [[Kingdom of Kakheti|king of Kakheti]] at the [[Bodbe Monastery]], the religious center of Georgia{{efn|Christian tradition holds Bodbe to be the place of death of [[Saint Nino]], who converted the [[Kingdom of Iberia]] to [[Christianity]] in the 4th century.{{sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}}}} as '''George I''', thereby restoring an ancient kingdom that had been abolished by Georgia in the 12th century.{{efn|The [[first Kingdom of Kakheti]] existed between 1014 and 1104, before being conquered by [[David IV of Georgia]].{{sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=161}}}} However, he faced considerable challenges in asserting his authority at the time of his accession. Although the mountainous province of David of Didoeti acknowledged him as monarch in exchange for his freedom, the remaining northern regions formally remained subject to the [[Kingdom of Georgia]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} Thus, [[Khevsureti]], [[Tusheti]], and [[Pshavi]] recognized him only as lord of Kakheti, and it was only after reaching an agreement with [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat VI]] that these provinces were incorporated into George I's domains.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}}
Confronted with a powerful nobility opposed to Kakheti's independence, George I forged alliances with the peasantry, the lower nobility, and even with his former enemy, Bagrat VI.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} Around 1467, he concluded a military alliance with Bagrat to support him in his conflict against [[Constantine II of Georgia|Constantine]], his former protégé who also claimed the Georgian crown, in exchange for formal recognition of Kakheti as an independent kingdom.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} The two monarchs invaded [[Kartli]] and expelled Constantine from central Georgia, enabling Bagrat VI to recover [[Tbilisi]] and his royal title.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} Subsequently, a royal detachment was dispatched to subdue recalcitrant nobles in Kakheti and to help George I consolidate his authority.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}}
Following an attempted uprising in 1470 aimed at placing David of Didoeti on the throne, George I undertook reforms of the Kakhetian system of governance to curb the power of the nobility.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} He abolished the semi-autonomous duchies and established a number of prefectures, including Kiziki, Elisseni, Chukheti, Didoeti, [[Tianeti]], Chiauri, Shilda, [[Kvareli]], [[Martkopi]], [[Gremi]], and [[Pankisi]].{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} These administrative units were headed by prefects (''[[mouravi]]s'') appointed by the king, responsible for collecting taxes and delivering them to the capital, [[Gremi]].{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}} The prefects were rotated regularly, thereby eliminating the power of the hereditary aristocracy.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}}
George I also implemented a military reform, dividing the kingdom into four districts known as ''[[sadrosho]]'', each with its own troops commanded by a bishop appointed by the king—a stark contrast to western Georgia, where military forces were led by powerful hereditary princes.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|p=165}}{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=122}}
He further elevated the abbot of the [[Alaverdi Monastery]] to the rank of bishop, granting him a diocese and placing him above other regional prelates.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} Although Kakheti continued to recognize the authority of the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]], this reform effectively made the province an autonomous region within the Catholicosate.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=112}} The city of [[Gremi]] was proclaimed the capital, expanded, and fortified, while the province's autonomy and the name [[Hereti]] were abolished.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} These reforms brought lasting peace and stability to the kingdom, eliminating the problem of rebellious nobility that plagued [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]] and [[Kingdom of Imereti|Imereti]] until the 18th century.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=113}}
On the international stage, Kakheti's situation remained precarious due to its border with Persia.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} [[Uzun Hasan]] soon invaded the kingdom, ravaging the provinces of Kherki, [[Saguramo Range|Saguramo]], Martkopi, and Tianeti. George I was compelled to recognize Uzun Hasan's suzerainty in order to secure peace and agreed to pay him an annual tribute consisting of male and female slaves.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} During the 1470s, he refused to assist his neighbor in Kartli when Turkomans devastated the region, opting instead to preserve peace in his own realm through diplomatic means.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}} According to [[Vakhushti of Kartli]], George I spent his later years unsuccessfully attempting to reconquer the rest of Georgia.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=687}}
George I died in 1476, though the exact date remains unknown.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=202}} He was succeeded by his eldest son, [[Alexander I of Kakheti|Alexander]], who had been associated with him as co-ruler since 1460.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=202}}
== Family == Like the course of George VIII's life, his family remains a subject of debate in Georgian historiography.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}} Two names are associated with the title of his queen consort in contemporary sources: Tamar and Nestan-Darejan.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}} A royal charter dated 7 August 1453 refers to "our consort, the queen of queens, Tamar", identifying her as the mother of at least some of his children.{{efn|At least one of George VIII's daughters was engaged to the Byzantine Emperor [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] in 1451.{{sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}}}} Documents from 1458, 1460, and 1463 mention Queen Daria (Nestan-Daredjan),{{efn|This Daria continued to be mentioned in the letters of [[Alexander I of Kakheti]] until 1503.{{sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}}}} as well as the king's eldest son, [[Alexander I of Kakheti|Alexander]], who is also recorded as her child.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}}
[[Cyril Toumanoff]] argues that Tamar and Nestan-Darejan were the same person—a cousin of George VIII and daughter of his uncle [[Bagrat (son of Constantine I of Georgia)|Bagrat]].{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}} According to Toumanoff, such a polyonymy was common among the Georgian nobility, reflecting the dual cultural heritage of the country: Hellenic-Christian (Tamar) and Iranian-Caucasian (Nestan-Darejan).{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}}
Other modern historians, however, do not follow this interpretation and assume that George VIII had two marriages, as indicated by the ''[[The Georgian Chronicles|Georgian Chronicles]]''.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=160–161}} [[Donald Rayfield|Donald Rayfield's]] version identifies Tamar as his second wife, the daughter of the ''atabeg'' [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli|Qvarqvare II of Samtskhe]], whom George was forced to marry during his captivity.{{Efn|According to [[Donald Rayfield]], George VIII and Tamar had three children—Vakhtang, Ketevan, and Helen—who disappeared from history.{{Sfn|Rayfield|2012|pp=160–161}}}} Another version takes the opposite view, identifying Daria as the second wife and suggesting that she held the status of queen dowager during the reign of Alexander I.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}}
These theories, however, do not reconcile with contemporary documents naming Alexander as both the king's eldest son and the son of Daria.{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=188}}
According to [[Cyril Toumanoff]], George VIII had two children:
* [[Alexander I of Kakheti]] (1445/1457 – 1511), [[Kingdom of Kakheti|King of Kakheti]] ({{Reign|1476|1511}}).{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=203}} * Mariam ({{Floruit|1465}}), who married Giorgi [[Shaburidze]], son of Vameq, Duke of [[Duchy of Aragvi|Aragvi]]. Mariam has been identified by Cyril Toumanoff as the unnamed daughter of George VIII who was betrothed in 1451 to Emperor [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]].{{Sfn|Toumanoff|1949–1951|p=201}}
== Legacy == [[File:Zaza_panaskerteli_-_qincvisi.jpg|left|thumb|[[Zaza Panaskerteli-Tsitsishvili|Zaza Panaskerteli]] undertook many cultural projects in Georgia under the patronage of George VIII.]] The reign of George VIII coincided with the [[fall of Constantinople]], one of the most significant events in 15th-century [[Europe]].{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} The conquest of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 1453, followed by that of [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]] in 1461, opened Georgia to a new and formidable enemy—the [[Ottoman Empire]]—posing not only a military threat, but also an economic one.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} The disruption of trade routes through [[Constantinople]] isolated Georgia from its commercial partners in the maritime republics of [[Italy]], severely impoverishing the kingdom and compelling Western Europe to seek new trade routes.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}}
During George VIII's reign, the nobility gained increasing power—a trend that had begun under King [[Vakhtang IV]]—resulting in enduring political instability.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=120}} The lesser nobility, or ''[[aznauri]]'' class (village lords), achieved considerable autonomy and often withheld taxes from the central authorities.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=121}} The higher nobility became semi-independent, refusing to recognize royal jurisdiction within their domains and supporting [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat VI's]] usurpation in 1462.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=121}} The final fragmentation of the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] began with the declaration of independence by [[Samtskhe-Saatabago|Samtskhe]] and the rise of a new noble class, the ''[[tavadi]]s''—independent princes ''de facto''—making George VIII the last monarch of a unified Georgia, although the division was formally recognized only in 1490.{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=123}}
In contrast, his later reign in [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]] was marked by a series of reforms that ushered in a long period of stability, standing in stark opposition to the disorder prevailing in [[Kingdom of Imereti|Imereti]] and [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]]. These reforms curtailed the power of the nobility and elevated the status of his most loyal retainers,{{Sfn|Asatiani|Janelidze|2009|p=132}} resulting not only in peace but also in the repopulation of the region.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}}
Culturally, George VIII served as a patron of [[Zaza Panaskerteli-Tsitsishvili|Zaza Panaskerteli]], a nobleman from [[Meskheti|Samtskhe]] who sought refuge at the royal court during his conflict with [[Qvarqvare II Jaqeli|Qvarqvare II]].{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=127}} Zaza later authored the medical treatise ''Karabadini'', established a Transcaucasian cultural center at [[Mdzovreti fortress|Mdzovreti]] in [[Shida Kartli]], and restored the [[Kintsvisi Monastery]].{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=127}} In [[Jerusalem]], the king appointed Beena Cholokashvili as abbot of the [[Monastery of the Cross]]; under his leadership, the Georgian presence in the [[Holy Land]] expanded, expelling French Catholic and Armenian Orthodox clergy from the [[Cathedral of Saint James, Jerusalem|Cathedral of Saint James]].{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=128}} The caves of Vani also preserve cultural remains dating from the [[Georgian civil war of 1463-1491|Georgian Triumvirate War]] of the 1460s, which drove many minor nobles into exile from Samtskhe; a small rock-hewn church there contains inscriptions of poems written by the exiled nobles' wives.{{Sfn|Asatiani|2008|p=131}}
The Italian novel ''L'ultimo Paleologo'' by Emanuele Rizzardi (2017) is set in Georgia during the fall of the Byzantine Empire. George VIII appears as one of the main antagonists, though he is erroneously portrayed as Duke of Imereti and a usurper to the throne.
== Chronological Uncertainty == The life of George VIII represents one of the most debated episodes in the history of the Georgian monarchy.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=6}} The ''Georgian Chronicles''—the principal source on the lives of Georgia's medieval kings—are notably confused regarding this ruler's reign, family, and chronology.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=6}} [[Vakhushti of Kartli]], following the anonymous author of George VIII's biography, attributes to him a reign of only ten years, while [[Marie-Félicité Brosset]] assigns a reign of twenty-four years, consistent with the period between 1442—the year of his father's abdication—and 1476, the date of his death.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=6}}
The earliest royal charter bearing George VIII's signature dates to 1447, one year after the death of [[Vakhtang IV]]. However, a document from 1449 refers to the fifth year of his reign, implying an accession in 1444 for reasons that remain unexplained.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=381}} Another charter, equally puzzling, cites 1454 as the fifteenth year of his reign.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=381}}
The medieval source, followed by W. E. D. Allen, identifies George VIII—sometimes also referred to as "George IX", since the chronicle counts [[George (son of Constantine I of Georgia)|Prince George]], the son of [[Constantine I of Georgia]], and George I of Kakheti as separate rulers—as distinct monarchs, a claim rejected by modern historians.{{Sfn|Allen|1932|p=138}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=322}} According to this interpretation, George ascended the throne not in 1446 but in 1453, following the death of his brother [[Demetrius, son of Alexander I of Georgia|Demetrius]]. He was said to be the father of the future [[Constantine II of Georgia|Constantine II]] and to have become King of Kakheti in 1471, succeeding David of Didoeti—possibly a son of Demetrius—and ruling until 1492.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=11}}
The historical existence of David of Didoeti remains uncertain; modern scholarship neither recognizes him as a king nor as a relative of George VIII.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|pp=147–148}} The same medieval source claims that George died in 1469.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=148}}
The ''Georgian Chronicles'' further mention a certain Vakhtang as George VIII's successor in Kakheti.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=322}} Marie-Félicité Brosset identifies this figure with [[Prince Vakhtang of Imereti|Vakhtang]], brother of [[Bagrat III of Imereti]], who rebelled against him in the early 16th century, although this individual bore no connection to Kakheti.{{Sfn|Brosset|1858|p=330}}
== Ancestors == {{ahnentafel|1. '''George VIII of Georgia'''|2. [[Alexander I of Georgia]]|3. [[Tamar of Imereti (died 1455)|Tamar of Imereti]]|4. [[Constantine I of Georgia]]|5. Natia Amirejibi|6. [[Alexander I of Imereti]]|7. Ana|8. [[Bagrat V of Georgia]]|9. [[Anna of Trebizond, Queen of Georgia|Anna of Trebizond]]|10. [[Kutsna Amirejibi]]|11. Rusa|12. [[Bagrat I of Imereti]]|13. Unknown [[Jaqeli]] woman|collapsed=yes|align=center|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;}}
==Notes== {{notelist}}
== References == {{reflist|30em}}
== Bibliography == {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=W.E.D. |title=A History of the Georgian People |publisher=Routledge & Keagan Paul |year=1932 |location=London}} * {{Cite book |last=Asatiani |first=Nodar |title=Საქართველოს ისტორია II |publisher=Tbilisi University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-9941-13-004-5 |location=Tbilisi |language=ka |trans-title=History of Georgia, Volume 2}} * {{cite book |last1=Asatiani |first1=Nodar |title=History of Georgia |last2=Janelidze |first2=Otar |date=2009 |publisher=Publishing House Petite |isbn=978-9941906367 |location=Tbilisi}} * {{cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |author-link=Franz Babinger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC |title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-691-01078-6 |editor1-last=Hickman |editor1-first=William C. |location=Princeton, New Jersey |translator-last=Manheim |translator-first=Ralph |translator-link=Ralph Manheim}} * {{cite book |last=Brosset |first=Marie-Félicité |author-link=Marie-Félicité Brosset |url=https://archive.org/details/additionsetclai00fgoog |title=Additions et éclaircissements à l'histoire de la Géorgie depuis l'Antiquité jusqu'en 1469 de J.-C. |publisher=Imprimerie de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences |year=1851 |location=St.-Petersbourg |language=French |trans-title=Additions and clarifications to the history of Georgia from Antiquity to AD 1469}} * {{Cite book |last=Brosset |first=Marie-Félicité |url={{GBurl|hc1CAAAAcAAJ}} |title=Histoire de la Géorgie depuis l'Antiquité jusqu'au XIXe siècle. Volume I |publisher=Imperial Academy of Sciences |year=1849 |location=Saint-Petersburg |language=fr |trans-title=History of Georgia from Ancient Times to the 19th Century, Volume 1}} * {{cite book |last=Brosset |first=Marie-Félicité |year=1858 |title=Introduction et Tables des Matières |location=Paris |publisher=Imprimerie de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences|language=French}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kaldellis |first1=Anthony |date=2012 |title=The Interpolations in the Histories of Laonikos Chalkokondyles |url=https://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/view/13961 |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies |volume=52 |issue=2}} * {{cite book |last=Mihailović |first=Konstantin |author-link=Konstantin Mihailović |title=Memoirs of a Janissary |date=2011 |isbn=9781558765313 |translator-last1=Stolz |translator-first1=Benjamin}} * {{cite book |last=Miller |first=William |title=Trebizond; the last Greek empire of the Byzantine era, 1204-1461 |date=1969 |isbn=978-0824401122}} {{Cite book |last=Montpéreux |first=Frédéric Dubois de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDwEAAAAYAAJ&dq=1293+David+VI+Narin&pg=PA164 |title=Voyage autour du Caucase, chez les Tcherkesses et les Abkhases, en Colchide, en Géorgie, en Arménie et en Crimée |publisher=Librairie de Gide |year=1839 |volume=II |location=Paris |pages=93–165 |language=fr}}<!-- {{sfn|Montpéreux|1839|pp=93-165}} --> * {{cite book |last=Nicol |first=Donald M. |author-link=Donald Nicol |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantinefamilyo0000dona |title=The Byzantine family of Kantakouzenos ca. 1100-1460; A genealogical and prosopographical study |date=1968 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies}} * {{cite book |last=Nicol |first=Donald M. |author-link=Donald Nicol |title=The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521439916 |edition=2}} * {{Cite book |last=Rayfield |first=Donald |title=Edge of Empires, a History of Georgia |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-78023-070-2 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last1=Runciman |first1=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |url=https://archive.org/details/fallofconstantin0000unse |title=The fall of Constantinople, 1453 |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521398329}} * {{Cite book |last=Salia |first=Kalistrat |title=Histoire de la nation géorgienne |publisher=Nino Salia |year=1980 |location=Paris |language=fr |trans-title=History of the Georgian nation}} * {{cite book |last=Sardar |first=Ziauddin |author-link=Ziauddin Sardar |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/no-nonsense-guide-to-islam/oclc/1041823297&referer=brief_results |title=The No-Nonsense Guide to Islam |last2=Davies |first2=Merryl Wyn |author2-link=Merryl Wyn Davies |publisher=New Internationalist |year=2014 |isbn=9781906523626 |language=en |oclc=1041823297}} * {{cite book |url=http://dspace.gela.org.ge/handle/123456789/621 |title=Antiquities of Georgia, Volume III |year=1910 |editor-last=Takaishvili |editor-first=Ekvtime |editor-link=Ekvtime Takaishvili |location=Tiflis |language=ka|publisher= Historical and Ethnographic Society of Georgia}} * {{cite journal |last=Toumanoff |first=Cyril |year=1949–1951 |title=The Fifteenth-Century Bagratids and the Institution of Collegial Sovereignty in Georgia |journal=Traditio |volume=7 |pages=169–221 |doi=10.1017/S0362152900015142 |jstor=27830207 |s2cid=149043757}} {{refend}}
{{s-start}} {{succession box | title = [[List of the Kings of Georgia|King of Georgia]] | before = [[Vakhtang IV]] | after = [[Bagrat VI of Georgia|Bagrat VI]] | years = 1446–1465 }} {{succession box | title = [[List of sovereigns of Kakheti|King of Kakheti]] | before = New creation | after = [[Alexander I of Kakheti|Alexander I]] | years = 1466–1476 }} {{s-end}} {{Kings of United Georgia}} {{Triarchy in Georgia}}
{{Subject bar|Biography|History|Russia|auto=1|d=yes}} {{Authority control| state=collapsed }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:George 08 Of Georgia}} [[Category:Kings of Georgia]] [[Category:Kings of Kakheti]] [[Category:1417 births]] [[Category:1476 deaths]] [[Category:Burials at Svetitskhoveli Cathedral]] [[Category:Bagrationi dynasty of the Kingdom of Georgia]]