George Gliddon

{{Short description|English-born American egyptologist}} {{Infobox person | name = George Robbins Gliddon | image =  | alt =  | caption = | birth_date = 1809 | birth_place = [[St Thomas, Exeter|St Thomas]], [[Devon]]shire, England | death_date = {{Death date and age|1857|11|16|1809||}} | death_place = Panama | other_names = | occupation = United States vice-consul in Egypt, Egyptologist, race scientist, lecturer | years_active = | spouse = {{marriage|[[Anne Gliddon]]|1846|1857|end=died}} | known_for = Theory that Egyptians descended from [[Generations of Noah|three sons of Noah]]—[[Hamites|Ham]], [[Shem]], and [[Japheth]]—each of whom migrated to different areas in Africa and the Middle East | notable_works = }} '''George Robbins Gliddon''' (1809 – November 16, 1857) was an English-born American [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]]. He worked as a United States vice-consul in Egypt and assisted [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha's plans to modernize Egypt]] by attaining sugar, rice, and other mills from the United States. In 1841, he became frustrated with Pasha's destruction of archaeological sites and wrote ''Appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe on the Destruction of the Monuments of Egypt''.

Gliddon worked with [[Samuel George Morton]] to define the race and physical type of the ancient Egyptians, published in the article ''Crania Aegyptiaca'', one of several publications that Gliddon worked on. He created interest in the field of [[Egyptology]] through his lectures in the United States, including the ''Panorama of the Nile'' with Egyptian mummies.

==Early life and career== He was born in 1809 in [[St Thomas, Exeter|St Thomas]], [[Devon]]shire, England, the son of cousins Eleanor Gliddon and John G. Gliddon.<ref name="Yale" />{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}} His father a banker in London.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}} Shortly after his birth, the Gliddons moved to [[Malta]] and lived there eight years. His father worked in the trade business. During that time, Gliddon's three sisters were born, Ellen, Johanna, and Emma.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}} His father was a merchant and United States consular agent at [[Alexandria]]. Gliddon spent the rest of his childhood in Egypt.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}}<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Gliddon, George Robins|volume=12|page=122}}</ref> He returned to England for his education, after which he worked in [[Glasgow]] at a counting house, but did not stay there long.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}}

Gliddon returned to Egypt by 1829, and worked for his father who was director of the Alexandrian Insurance Company. John was also promoted to consul, for the only consulate office in Egypt at that time.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}} He became a United States vice-consul<ref name="Appletons'">{{Source attribution}}{{cite book| title=Appletons' Cyclopedia of American Biography, 1600-1889 | chapter=George Robins Gliddon |volume= II: Crane - Grimshaw | page=665}}</ref> in the new consulate office in Cairo, subordinate to the office in Alexandria, beginning September 11, 1833.<ref name="Yale" />{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=98}} He was appointed to the position by his father.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=99}}

He took a great interest in [[Egypt]]ian antiquities.<ref name="EB1911" /> Father and son, in a quest for commercial enterprises between Egypt and America, developed relationships with Americans traveling to Egypt, including [[Sarah Rogers Haight|Sarah Rogers and Richard K. Haight]], for whom he offered a guided trip down the [[Nile]] on his boat in the 1830s.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=6}} In addition to several excursions, Gliddon sought to make American travelers comfortable by offering them lodging in his mansion and performed other favors which led to life-long connections with the Americans.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|pp=99–100}} Due to the stellar reviews that Gliddon received, including the actions he took when Cairo was quarantined due to epidemics, his request for the consulate to become an agency independent of Cairo was approved.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|pp=99–100}} He co-founded an organization to help foreigners in Egypt in 1836.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=100}}

He also developed relationships with visiting British people and governmental and other Egyptian leaders.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=100}} He was friends of Egyptologists [[Jean-François Champollion]], [[Samuel Birch (Egyptologist)|Samuel Birch]], and [[Karl Richard Lepsius]].{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=100}} Gliddon assisted [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha's plans to modernize Egypt]] by suggesting the use of American machinery for mills. Gliddon traveled to the United States in 1836 and contracted for a variety of mills to be used in Egypt, including sugar and rice mills.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=100}}<ref name="ASB obit">{{Source attribution}}{{Cite news |date=1857-12-19 |title=Death of George R. Gliddon, Esq. |pages=4 |work=Anti-Slavery Bugle |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/anti-slavery-bugle-death-of-george-r-gl/128188433/ |access-date=2023-07-14}}</ref> The consulate office in Cairo was closed in 1840, after which Gliddon discontinued his work on commercial ventures with people in the United States and sailed to England.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=105}}

==Egyptology lectures== Gliddon took a deep interest in the studies of [[Jean-François Champollion]], [[Ignatius Bonomi]], [[Henry Salt (Egyptologist)|Henry Salt]], [[Howard Vyse]], and other Egyptian scholars and explorers.<ref name="ASB obit" /> He came to the United States in 1842 and lectured in New York, Philadelphia, Boston,<ref name="Appletons'" /> St. Louis, and other places along the east of the Mississippi.<ref name="Oliver" /><ref name="Yale" /> He succeeded in attracting attention to the subject of [[Egyptology]]. His lectures were published and well-read.<ref name="ASB obit" /><ref name="Jackson">{{cite book | first1=John P. |last1=Jackson |first2=Nadine M. |last2= Weidman |title= Race, racism, and science: social impact and interaction |year= 2005 |page=48 }}</ref> Richard K. Haight, sponsored Gliddon's lectures to spread knowledge about ancient Egypt in American cities. [[Sarah Rogers Haight]], his wife, wrote about their travels to Egypt, which also sparked interest.<ref name="Oliver">{{Cite book |last=Oliver |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rmpjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT293 |title=American Travelers on the Nile: Early US Visitors to Egypt, 1774-1839 |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-1-61797-632-2 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=6}} Richard Haight also supported Gliddon as he studied with Egyptian scholars in Europe.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=107}} Gliddon studied with [[Samuel Birch (Egyptologist)|Samuel Birch]], [[Baron Bunsen]], [[Émile Prisse d'Avennes]], [[Karl Richard Lepsius]], and [[Jean-Antoine Letronne]].<ref name="Stanton">{{Cite book |last=Stanton |first=William |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.29912 |title=Leopardʼs spots: scientific attitudes towards race in America 1815-59 |date=1960 |pages=47–48 |language=English}}</ref>

Gliddon created a ''Panorama of the Nile'' rolling painting show with four Egyptian mummies. In late 1851 he used it during a presentation at the [[Chinese Museum (Boston)|Chinese Museum]] in Boston. In Philadelphia in 1852 he made souvenirs of the material used to wrap the mummies.<ref name="Mummies" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gliddon |first=George Robins |date=1849 |title=Hand-book to the American Panorama of the Nile: Being the Original Transparent Picture Exhibited in London, at Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, Purchased from Its Painters and Proprietors, Messrs. H. Warren, J. Bonomi, and J. Fahey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIS8QAAACAAJ |access-date=2023-07-14 |publisher=James Madden |language=en}}</ref> Using mummies in presentations sparked interest and attendance at Egytology lectures.<ref name="Yale">{{Cite web |title=Unwrapped Egyptian mummy, female, with fragments of linen wrapping |url=https://echoesofegypt.peabody.yale.edu/mummy-mania/unwrapped-egyptian-mummy-female-fragments-linen-wrapping |access-date=2023-07-14 |website= Echoes of Egypt, Yale Peabody Museum}}</ref>

==Study of Egyptian peoples' origins== ===''Crania Aegyptiaca''=== With his father, Gliddon collected mummy skulls for [[Samuel George Morton]],<ref name="Yale" /> for a total of 137 crania that remained intact after shipping. He collected the skulls from ancient tombs, sepulchral caverns of Egypt, and Cairo's vast [[necropolis]]<ref name="ASB obit" />{{sfn|Robinson|2016|p=89}}{{efn|The collection of skulls later went to the [[University of Pennsylvania]].<ref name="Mummies">{{Cite web |title=Mummies |url=https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/mummies/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia |language=en-US}}</ref>}} Morton, author of ''Crania Americana'',<ref name="ASB obit" /> acquired 100 Egyptian crania specimens.<ref name="Jackson" /> The two men shared many views on human races and ultimately collaborated on their studies and publications.<ref name="Jackson" />

Gliddon measured and studied the skulls and concluded, like [[Augustus Granville]], that ancient Egyptians were racially European.{{sfn|Robinson|2016|p=89}} The result was an elaborate work dedicated to Gliddon and published the [[American Philosophical Society]] in Philadelphia, entitled ''Crania Aegyptiaca'' (1844), about the race and physical type of the ancient Egyptians.<ref name="ASB obit" /> Their theory, and that of [[John Speke]]'s, was the reigning opinion of Europeans for some time about Africans of foreign descent—[[Caucasus|Caucasian]], [[Aryan]], [[Hamites|Hamitic]], [[Abyssinian people|Abyssinian]], [[Oromo people|Galla]], and [[Wahinda|Wahuma]]—which was that,

{{blockquote|all were the progeny of ancient invaders from the Middle East who had conquered Abyssinia and then moved into East Africa, sometimes intermarrying with black Africans, sometimes driving them out, and sometimes ruling over them as a racially separate royal class.{{sfn|Robinson|2016|p=132}}}}

===Biblical theory and polygenesis=== [[File:Noahsworld map.jpg|thumb|The world as known to the [[Hebrews]] according to the [[Biblical cosmology|Mosaic account]] (1854 map, ''Historical Textbook and Atlas of Biblical Geography'' by [[Lyman Coleman]]). A color-coded map of Noah's sons'—[[Hamites|Ham]], [[Shem]], and [[Japheth]]—land]] Gliddon concluded that there were three types of Caucasians—[[Hamites|Ham]], [[Shem]], and [[Japheth]]—based upon on a Biblical perspective (i.e., [[Generations of Noah|three sons of Noah]]). Gliddon and Morton's theories are based upon where the sons and their groups moved to and what indigenous people they came in contact with in their new homelands.{{sfn|Robinson|2016|p=91}} The conclusion bolstered the [[wikt:polygenist|polygenist]] argument and lead to [[Louis Agassiz]] sharing the same opinion and beginning of the "American School" of anthropology.{{sfn|Robinson|2016|p=89}}

[[File:Races and skulls.png|upright|left|thumb|Drawings from [[Josiah C. Nott]] and George Gliddon's ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857), which promoted [[scientific racism]] with the suggestion that [[black people]] ranked between [[white people]] and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence]] From his studies of ancient Egyptian monuments and hieroglyphics, Gliddon developed his theory that early ancient Egyptians had been white, and that even in the ancient world there had been distinctly different races. He posited that Whites and Negroes had never changed their racial appearance and features. He believed that neither environment or climate could change a race into another. He rejected [[wikt:Monogenesis|Monogenesis]], and claimed that the Bible supported [[wikt:Polygenesis|Polygenesis]]. Gliddon believed the differences of the races had been impressed upon them by the Creator himself since the beginning.<ref name="Jackson"/>

Upon further research, Morton and Gliddon's opinions about Biblical genealogical theory changed, doing away with Hamitic, Japhetic, and Semitic terms to categorize racial and linguistic groups.{{sfn|Robinson|2016|pp=151–152}}

===Craniology and cephalic index=== Gliddon and Morton relied on [[craniology]], evaluating facial angle and volume, to identify racial and linquistic groups. Other race scientists used the [[cephalic index]], which resulted in more groups and greater commonality of skull shapes within those groups. Other elements, often hard to discern, were the gender, age, and whether they had sufficient food to avoid starvation to perform a meaningful study.{{sfn|Robinson|2016|p=207}}

===''Types of mankind''=== [[File:Figure 126.jpg|thumb|Figure 148 ''Types of Mankind '' p. 226 illustrated by [[Anne Gliddon]]{{sfn|Nott|Gliddon|1854|p=226}}]] Gliddon went to [[Mobile, Alabama]] to work with [[Josiah C. Nott]] on their book ''Types of Mankind''. It was a one-year endeavor that included his wife, [[Anne Gliddon]] who illustrated the book. It was completed in 1853 and published in 1854.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=109}}<ref name="Types of mankind">{{Cite book |last1=Nott |first1=Josiah Clark |url=http://archive.org/details/60411950R.nlm.nih.gov |title=Types of mankind : or ethnological researches, based upon the ancient monuments, paintings, sculptures, and crania of races and upon their natural, geographical, philological, and biblical history |last2=Morton |first2=Samuel George |last3=Agassiz |first3=Louis |last4=Usher |first4=W. |last5=Patterson |first5=Henry S. (Henry Stuart) |last6=Gliddon |first6=George R. (George Robins) |others=Illustrated by Anne Gliddon|date=1857 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott |pages=n18}}</ref>

==Evolving views on race of the Egyptians == {{See also|Hamites#Constructing_the_"Hamitic_race"{{!}}Hamitic Hypothesis}}While originally believing that the Egyptians were purely Caucasian, the authors of ''Types of Mankind'' (1854) modified their views based on excavations from earlier dynasties. In their view, the earliest Egyptians were neither Caucasian or Negro but an intermediate Negroid type.{{sfn|Nott|Gliddon|1854|p=225}} However, they still believed that pure Negroes existed in Egypt only as slaves:

{{blockquote|But, while it must be conceded that Negroes, at no time within the reach even of monumental history, have inhabited any of Egypt, save as captives; it may, on the other hand, be equally true, that the ancient Egyptians did present a type intermediate between other African and Asiatic races; and, should such be proved to have been the case, the autocthones of Egypt must cease to be designated by the misnomer of "Caucasian."{{sfn|Nott|Gliddon|1854|p=217}}}}

Specifically, in 1854, Josiah Nott and George R. Gliddon noted that according to majority of ethnographers and Samuel George Morton's own anthropological works, "the Fellahs of Upper and Middle Egypt, at the present day, continue to be an unmistakable race, and are regarded by most travelled authorities as the best living representatives of the ancient population of Egypt." They would also take the position that, "the iconographic monuments of the IVth, Vth, and VIth dynasties, is closely analogous to the predominant type of that day; which fact serves to strengthen our view that the Egyptians of the early dynasties were rather of an African or Negroid type-resembling the [[Bishari tribe|Bishari]] in some respects, and in others the [[Fellah|modern Fellah]], or peasantry of Upper Egypt."{{sfn|Nott|Gliddon|1854|p=238}}

In the 19th century the word "Negro" is reserved only for people who display the highest degree of stereotypical black African characteristics, with the suffix [[wiktionary:-oid|oid]] in "Negroid" making the word literally mean "Negro like".<ref>{{Cite web |title=negroid {{!}} Etymology, origin and meaning of negroid by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/negroid |access-date=2023-07-31 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref> From the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica "It is most convenient, however, to refer to the dark-skinned inhabitants of this zone by the collective term of Negroids, and to reserve the word Negro for the tribes which are considered to exhibit in the highest degree the characteristics taken as typical of the variety."<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Negro |volume = 19 |last1= Joyce |first1= Thomas Athol |author1-link= Thomas Athol Joyce|last2= Willcox |first2= Walter Francis |author2-link= Walter Francis Willcox |pages=344-349 |short=Greco, El1}}</ref>

[[Samuel George Morton#Evolving views on race of the Egyptians|Samuel Morton]] addressed several letters to George Gliddon and stated that he modified many of his old views on ancient Egypt, believing their origins to be similar to [[Barabra]] populations, but not Negroes.{{sfn|Nott|Gliddon|1854|pp=231–232}}

==Personal life== For a period of time, Gliddon lived in [[Bayswater]], home to fashionable London socialites who lived a "kind of conjugal experiment". Gliddon was related to [[Leigh Hunt]] and his children, his sister Kate was the wife of [[Thornton Leigh Hunt]] and Hunt's daughter married George's brother John. Gliddon visitd the house, but never lived there. He was remembered as "that handsome Egyptologist, George Gliddon" by a regular visitor.<ref name="Stanton" />

Gliddon married his cousin [[Anne Gliddon]], daughter of John Gliddon of Holly Terrace, [[Highgate]], London. They married in [[Paddington]], London in April 1846.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=107}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=NYC Marriage & Death Notices 1843-1856 |url=https://www.nysoclib.org/collection/nyc-marriage-death-notices-1843-1856 |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=New York Society Library}}</ref> Anne was an artist and illustrator.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|p=107}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anne Gliddon |url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp07016/anne-gliddon |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=National Portrait Gallery, UK |language=en}}</ref> Gliddon and a 17-year-old Henry A. Gliddon<ref>{{citation | title=George Gliddon |via=Ancestry.com | work=New York, U.S., Arriving Passenger and Crew Lists (including Castle Garden and Ellis Island), 1820-1957 | year=2010 | publisher=The National Archives and Records Administration | location=Washington, D.C. }}</ref> went to the United States for another lecture series in major cities like Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia from October 1846 until August 1848.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|pp=107–108}}

The couple had a son, Charles Americus Quarite Gliddon, who was born about 1847 with birth defects.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|pp=107–108}}<ref name="Ship 1856" /> Charles at age 9 traveled with his parents to New York City in 1856.<ref name="Ship 1856">{{citation| title=Charles A. Q. Gliddon, arrival May 20, 1856, ''Amazon'' | via=Ancestry.com | work= New York, U.S., Arriving Passenger and Crew Lists (including Castle Garden and Ellis Island), 1820-1957 [database on-line] | year=2010 }}</ref>

==Later years and death== George Robbins Gliddon was an agent for the Honduras Railroad Company in 1857, hired for his experience opening the Suez or Overland route to India. He took a medical leave of absence and died in his hotel room in Panama of [[yellow fever]] on November 16, 1857.<ref name="ASB obit" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=1857-11-29 |title=George R. Gliddon |pages=1 |work=The Times-Picayune |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-george-r-gliddon/128188027/ |access-date=2023-07-14}}</ref> He was buried in Panama but later re-interred in Philadelphia at [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] at the instigation of his friend, archaeologist [[E. G. Squier]].<ref name="Squier">Squier, E.G. (1877) Peru: Incidents and Explorations in the Land of the Incas, pp.17-19</ref>

Three years after his death, Anne (52, born in England) and Charles (13, born in England) lived on [[Long Island]] in [[Islip, New York]].<ref>{{Citation| title=Ann Gliddons, Islip, New York | work=U.S. Federal Census | year= 1860 | location=Washington, D.C. | publisher=National Archives and Records Administration }}</ref> Charles was a talented artist, who died as a young man in 1872.{{sfn|Vivian|2012|pp=107–108}}<ref name="Charles death" /> He was buried in Kensington and Chelsea, London, England.<ref name="Charles death">{{Citation | title=Charles A. Q. Glifford, died 1872 | work=The central database for UK burials and cremations. Deceased Online |url=https://www.deceasedonline.com/ | date=2016}}</ref> She died in 1878.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Part of North Terrace, South Adelaide, South Australia [picture] |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-135763710 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Trove |language=en}}</ref>

==Publications== Significant publications * {{cite book| first1=George R. |last1=Gliddon |url=https://archive.org/details/amemoironcotton00glidgoog |title=Memoir on the Cotton of Egypt |publisher=James Madden & Company |location=London | year= 1841 }} * {{citation|title=An appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe on the destruction of the monuments of Egypt|year=1841| first1=George R. |last1=Gliddon |publisher=James Madden & Company |location= London }} * {{citation|title=Ancient Egypt| first1=George R. |last1=Gliddon | year=1843 |publisher=New world |location=New York }} * {{citation|title=Crania Aegyptiaca |first1=Samuel George | last1= Morton | publisher= [[American Philosophical Society]] |others=Contributor George R. Gliddon |year=1844 | location= Philadelphia}} * {{cite book| first1=George R. |last1=Gliddon|url=https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_Sn1JAAAAMAAJ#page/n15/mode/2up |title=Otia Aegytpiaca: Discourses on Egyptian Archaeology |location=London, New York |publisher=J. Madden; Bartlett and Welford| year=1849}} * {{Cite web |date=1849 | first1=George R. |last1=Gliddon |title=Hand-book to the American Panorama of the Nile |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIS8QAAACAAJ |location=London |publisher=James Madden |language=en}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/typesmankindore01pattgoog |title=Types of Mankind|year=1854 |first1=Josiah C. |last1=Nott |author-link1=Josiah C. Nott | first2=George R. |last2=Gliddon | first3=Samuel George |last3=Morton |author-link3=Samuel George Morton|first4= Louis |last4=Agassiz |author-link4=Louis Agassiz |first5= William |last5=Usher |first6=Henry S. |last6= Patterson | others=[[Anne Gliddon]] (illustrator of 360 wood-cuts, as well as the lithographed Berlin-effigies), A. Frey (Artist) | publisher= Lippincott, Grambo & Company | location= Philadelphia}}{{efn|Later published with the title ''Encyclopaedia of ethnology'' by Cosmo Publications.}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Nott |editor1-first=Josiah C. | editor2-last=Gliddon |editor2-first=George R. |first1= L.-F.-Alfred |last1=Maury |first2= Ferencz Aurelius |last2=Pulszky | first3= James Aitken |last3=Meigs | publisher=J.B. Lippincott | location=Philadelphia | title=Indigenous Races of the Earth | year=1857}}

==Notes== {{notelist}}

==References== {{reflist}}

==Bibliography== * {{Source attribution}} {{Cite book |last1=Nott |first1=Josiah Clark |author-link=Josiah C. Nott |first2=George R. |last2=Gliddon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kN03EGxwVLUC&pg=PA225 |title=Types of Mankind Or Ethnological Researches, Based Upon the Ancient Monuments, Paintings, Sculptures, and Crania of Races, and Upon Their Natural, Geographical, Phililogical, and Biblical History |date=1854 |publisher=Trübner |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Michael F. (Michael Frederick) |url=http://archive.org/details/lostwhitetribeex0000robi |title=The lost white tribe : explorers, scientists, and the theory that changed a continent |date=2016 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-997848-9}} * {{cite book |chapter=Chapter 8. The Gliddons and the Beginning of American-Egyptian Relations |pages=95–111 |first1=Cassandra |last1=Vivian |year=2012| title=Americans in Egypt, 1770-1915 |publisher=McFarlane | isbn=978-0-7864-9116-2}}

==External links== * [https://collections.si.edu/search/results.htm?q=Gliddon Ancient Egyptian artifacts collected by George Gliddon], Smithsonian Institution * [https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=George+R.+Gliddon&author=Gliddon%2C+George+R George R. Gliddon], WorldCat

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gliddon, George Robbins}} [[Category:1809 births]] [[Category:1857 deaths]] [[Category:American Christian creationists]] [[Category:American Egyptologists]] [[Category:American expatriates in Egypt]] [[Category:American white supremacists]] [[Category:English emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia)]] [[Category:British white supremacists]] [[Category:People involved in race and intelligence controversies]] [[Category:Proponents of scientific racism]]