Rwandan genocide

{{Short description|Mass murder campaign in Rwanda}} {{Redirect|Tutsi Genocide|the killings of Tutsi in Burundi|1993 ethnic violence in Burundi|the 1963/1964 killings|Rwandan Revolution}} {{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=February 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox civilian attack | title = Rwandan genocide | partof = the [[Rwandan Civil War]] | image = Nyamata Memorial Site 13.jpg | image_size = 250 | caption = [[Human skull|Human skulls]] at the [[Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre]] | location = [[Rwanda]] | target = [[Tutsi]], moderate [[Hutu]], [[Twa]] | date = 7 April – 19 July 1994 | type = [[Genocide]], [[mass murder]], [[genocidal rape]], [[ethnic cleansing]], [[pogrom]], [[hate crime]] | motive = Anti-Tutsi sentiment, [[Hutu Power]] | fatalities = 520,000 to 702,000 total: * 500,000 to 662,000 [[Tutsis]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meierhenrich |first1=Jens |title=How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2020 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=72–82 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611 |s2cid=213046710 |issn = 1462-3528}} The lower bound for Tutsi deaths is 491,000 (McDoom), see page 75 mention</ref><ref name=":2"/> * 10,000 [[Twa]]<ref name=AmericanUniversity/> * 10,000 to 30,000 opposition and moderate [[Hutu]]s<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prunier |first1=Gérard |title=The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide |date=April 15, 1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=265}}</ref>

| victims = 250,000 to 500,000 [[Tutsi]] women raped during the genocide.{{sfn|Nowrojee|1996}} | perps = {{unbulleted list|[[Hutu]]-led government (led by [[Théoneste Bagosora]])| [[Interahamwe]] (led by [[Robert Kajuga (Interahamwe)|Robert Kajuga]]) |[[Impuzamugambi]] (led by [[Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza]] and [[Hassan Ngeze]])| Other militias and gangs|financed and co-ordinated by [[Félicien Kabuga]] and other [[Akazu]] elite members|local Hutu extremists}} | dfen = }} {{Rwandan genocide}}

The '''Rwandan genocide''', also known as the '''Tutsi genocide''', occurred from 7 April to 19 July 1994 during the [[Rwandan Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barnett |first=Michael |title=Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-8014-3883-7 |edition=Afterword |pages=1, 15, 131–132 |language=en}}</ref> Over a span of around 100 days, members of the [[Tutsi]] ethnic group, as well as some moderate [[Hutu]] and [[Great Lakes Twa|Twa]], were systematically killed by Hutu militias. While the [[Constitution of Rwanda|Rwandan Constitution]] states that over 1 million people were killed, most scholarly estimates suggest between 500,000 and 662,000 Tutsi died, mostly men.<ref name="Reydams">{{cite journal |last1=Reydams |first1=Luc |author-link=Luc Reydams |date=2020 |title='More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=48 |issue=168 |pages=235–256 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320 |s2cid=225356374 |quote=The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Guichaoua |first=André |date=2 January 2020 |title=Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=125–141 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329 |issn=1462-3528 |s2cid=213471539 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217170428/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |access-date=27 May 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=McGreal |first=Chris |date=29 March 2004 |title='It's so difficult to live with what we know' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/29/rwanda.chrismcgreal |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=1756-3224}}</ref> The [[genocide]] was marked by extreme violence, with victims often murdered by neighbours, and widespread sexual violence, with between 250,000 and 500,000 women raped.{{sfn|Nowrojee|1996}}{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=247}}

The genocide was rooted in long-standing ethnic tensions, most recently from the [[Rwandan Revolution|Rwandan Hutu Revolution]] from 1959 to 1962, which resulted in Rwandan Tutsi fleeing to [[Uganda]] due to the ethnic violence that had occurred. Hostilities were then exacerbated further due to the Rwandan Civil War, which began in 1990 when the [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF), a predominantly Tutsi rebel group, invaded Rwanda from Uganda. The war reached a tentative peace with the [[Arusha Accords (Rwanda)|Arusha Accords]] in 1993. However, [[Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira|the assassination]] of President [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] on 6 April 1994 ignited the genocide, as Hutu extremists used the power vacuum to target Tutsi and moderate Hutu leaders.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sullivan |first=Ronald |date=7 April 1994 |title=Juvenal Habyarimana, 57, Ruled Rwanda for 21 Years |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/07/obituaries/juvenal-habyarimana-57-ruled-rwanda-for-21-years.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613184943/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/07/obituaries/juvenal-habyarimana-57-ruled-rwanda-for-21-years.html |archive-date=13 June 2023 |access-date=19 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Despite the scale of the atrocities, the international community failed to intervene to stop the killings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ignoring Genocide (HRW Report – Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda, March 1999) |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028003802/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-01.htm |archive-date=28 October 2023 |access-date=16 June 2019 |website=www.hrw.org}}</ref> The RPF resumed military operations in response to the genocide, eventually defeating the government forces and ending the genocide by capturing all government-controlled territory. This led to the flight of the [[génocidaires]] and many Hutu refugees into [[Zaire]] (now the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]), contributing to regional instability and triggering the [[First Congo War]] in 1996.

The legacy of the genocide remains significant in Rwanda. The country has instituted public holidays to commemorate the event and passed laws criminalizing "genocide ideology" and "divisionism".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sullo |first1=Pietro |title=The Palgrave Handbook of State-Sponsored History After 1945 |date=2018 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-349-95306-6 |pages=69–85 |language=en |chapter=Writing History Through Criminal Law: State-Sponsored Memory in Rwanda}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Yakaré-Oulé |first=Jansen |date=11 April 2014 |title=Denying Genocide or Denying Free Speech? A Case Study of the Application of Rwanda's Genocide Denial Laws |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njihr/vol12/iss2/3/ |url-status=live |journal=Northwestern Journal of Human Rights |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=192 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616173200/https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njihr/vol12/iss2/3/ |archive-date=16 June 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref>

== Background == {{Main|Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa}} [[File:Mémorial_Rwanda,_Genève_8_avril_2019-17.jpg|thumb|Rwandan genocide memorial in [[Geneva]], Switzerland]] The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the [[Twa]], a group of aboriginal [[Pygmy peoples|pygmy]] hunter-gatherers who settled in the area between 8000 and 3000 [[BCE]] and remain in Rwanda today.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=44}}{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=61}} Between 700 BCE and 1500 [[Common Era|CE]], a number of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] groups migrated into Rwanda, and began to clear forest land for agriculture.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=61}}{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=58}} Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the [[Bantu expansion|Bantu migrations]]: An alternative claim suggests that the [[Tutsi|Tutsi people]] may have origins in the Horn of Africa, particularly from the city of [[Zeila]], and are linked ethnically to [[Somali clans]] particularly the [[Gadabuursi|Gadabuursi clan]]. However, this claim is not supported by mainstream historical or academic sources and remains outside widely accepted scholarship.

One theory is that the first settlers were [[Hutu]], while the [[Tutsi]] migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of [[Cushitic]] origin.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=16}} An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady from neighbouring regions, with incoming groups bearing high genetic similarity to the established ones,{{sfn|Luis|2004}} and integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=61}}{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=58}} Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was not a racial one, but principally a class or [[caste]] distinction in which the Tutsi herded cattle while the Hutu farmed the land.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=69}}{{sfn|Shyaka|pp=10–11}} The Hutu, Tutsi and Twa of Rwanda share a common language and are collectively known as the [[Banyarwanda]].{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=52}}

The population coalesced, first into [[Clans of Rwanda|clans]] (''ubwoko''),{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|pp=88–89}} and then, by 1700, into around eight kingdoms.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=482}} The [[Kingdom of Rwanda]], ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became the dominant kingdom from the mid-eighteenth century,{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=160}} expanding through a process of conquest and assimilation,{{sfn|Dorsey|1994|p=38}} and achieving its greatest extent under the reign of King [[Kigeli IV of Rwanda|Kigeli Rwabugiri]] in 1853–1895. Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north,{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=69}}{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=160}} and initiated administrative reforms which caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=69}} These included ''uburetwa'', a system of forced labour which Hutu had to perform to regain access to land seized from them,{{sfn|Pottier|2002|p=13}} and ''[[ubuhake]]'', under which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=13–14}} Although Hutu and Tutsi were often treated differently, they shared the same language and culture, the same clan names, and the same customs; the symbols of kinship served as a unifying bond between them.<ref name = Totten />{{rp|421}}

Rwanda and neighbouring Burundi were assigned to Germany by the [[Berlin Conference (1884)|Berlin Conference of 1884]],{{sfn|Appiah|Gates|2010|p=218}} and Germany established a presence in the country in 1897 with the formation of an alliance with the king.{{sfn|Carney|2013|p=24}} German policy was to rule the country through the Rwandan monarchy; this system had the added benefit of enabling colonization with small European troop numbers.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=25}} The colonists favoured the Tutsi over the Hutu when assigning administrative roles, believing them to be migrants from Ethiopia and racially superior.<ref>Bruce D. Jones, ''Peacemaking'', S. 17 f; Carsten Heeger, ''Die Erfindung'', S. 23–25.</ref> The Rwandan king welcomed the Germans, using their military strength to widen his rule.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|pp=217–18}} [[Belgian colonial empire|Belgian forces]] took control of Rwanda and Burundi in 1917 during [[World War I]],{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=25–26}} and from 1926 began a policy of more direct colonial rule.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=26}}{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=260}} The Belgians modernised the Rwandan economy, but Tutsi supremacy remained, leaving the Hutu disenfranchised.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=35}}

In the early 1930s, Belgium introduced a permanent division of the population by classifying Rwandans into three ethnic (ethno-racial) groups, with the Hutu representing about 84% of the population, the Tutsi about 15%, and the Twa about 1%. Compulsory identity cards were issued labelling (under the heading for "ethnicity and race") each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa, or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutus to become honorary Tutsis, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the groups{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|pp=56–57}} and made socio-economic groups into rigid ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/ethnicity-and-estate-the-galician-jacquerie-and-the-rwandan-genocide-compared/6BE393A65E77C1E2BECC4D17ACF8E3D8|title=Ethnicity and Estate: The Galician Jacquerie and the Rwandan Genocide Compared|first=Tomasz|last=Kamusella|date=19 July 2022|journal=Nationalities Papers|volume=50|issue=4|pages=684–703|via=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/nps.2021.12|s2cid=235573417|hdl=10023/23154|hdl-access=free|access-date=6 June 2021|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606082928/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/ethnicity-and-estate-the-galician-jacquerie-and-the-rwandan-genocide-compared/6BE393A65E77C1E2BECC4D17ACF8E3D8|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ethnic identities of the Hutu and Tutsi were reshaped and mythologized by the colonizers.<ref name = Totten /> [[Religion in Rwanda|Christian missionaries in Rwanda]] promoted the theory about the "[[Hamites|Hamitic]]" origins of the kingdom, and referred to the distinctively Ethiopian features and hence, foreign origins, of the Tutsi "caste".<ref name = Totten>{{cite book |author = [[Samuel Totten]] |author2=William S. Parsons| year = 2009 | title = Century of Genocide, Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts | location = New York | publisher = RoutledgeFalmer | page= 421 | isbn = 978-0-415-99085-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Linden |first1=Ian |title=Church and Revolution in Rwanda |date=1977 |publisher=Manchester: Manchester University Press}}</ref> These mythologies provide the basis for anti-Tutsi propaganda in 1994.<ref name = Totten />{{rp|421}} Starkly contrasted, the Tutsi origin myth holds that the ancient king [[Kanyarwanda I Gahima I|Kanyarwanda]] had several sons, including Gatutsi and Gahutu, ancestors of the Tutsi and Hutu who are therefore brothers. The Hutu origin myth holds that [[Kigwa]] (patrilineal ancestor of [[Ruhanga]] and the first Tutsi) fell from the sky onto an earth inhabited by Hutu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://archive.org/details/oraltraditionash0000vans/mode/2up?q=tutsi |title=Oral tradition as history |date=1985 |publisher=Madison, Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-299-10213-5}}</ref>{{rp|pages=65}}

=== Revolution and Hutu–Tutsi relations after independence === {{Main|Rwandan Revolution}}

After [[World War II]], a Hutu [[emancipation]] movement began to grow in Rwanda,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=43}} fuelled by increasing resentment of the inter-war social reforms, and also an increasing sympathy for the Hutu within the [[Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=43–44}} Catholic missionaries increasingly viewed themselves as responsible for empowering the underprivileged Hutu rather than the Tutsi elite, leading rapidly to the formation of a sizeable Hutu clergy and educated elite that provided a new counterbalance to the established political order.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=43–44}} The monarchy and prominent Tutsis sensed the growing influence of the Hutu and began to agitate for immediate independence on their own terms.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=43}} In 1957, a group of Hutu scholars wrote the "[[Bahutu Manifesto]]". This was the first document to label the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races, and called for the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu based on what it termed "statistical law".{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=45–46}}

[[File:Africa addio (1966) - Rwandan revolution 2.png|thumb|left|Tutsi [[Bugesera invasion#Repression and atrocities|murdered by Hutu militia in January 1964]] ]]

On 1 November 1959 [[Dominique Mbonyumutwa]], a Hutu sub-chief, was attacked close to his home in Byimana, [[Gitarama Province|Gitarama prefecture]],{{sfn|Carney|2013|p=124}} by supporters of the pro-Tutsi party. Mbonyumutwa survived, but rumours began spreading that he had been killed.{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|pp=58–59}} Hutu activists responded by killing Tutsis, both the elite and ordinary civilians, marking the beginning of the [[Rwandan Revolution]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=48–49}} The Tutsi responded with attacks of their own, but by this stage the Hutu had full backing from the Belgian administration who wanted to overturn the Tutsi domination.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=51}}{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|p=60}} In early 1960, the Belgians replaced most Tutsi chiefs with Hutu and organised mid-year commune elections which returned an overwhelming Hutu majority.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=51}} The king was deposed, a Hutu-dominated republic created, and the country became independent in 1962.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=53}} As the revolution progressed, Tutsis began leaving the country to escape the Hutu purges, settling in the four neighbouring countries: Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and [[Zaire]].{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|pp=160–61}} These exiles, unlike the Banyarwanda who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial era, were regarded as refugees in their host countries,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=63–64}} and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=55–56}} They formed [[Inyenzi movement|armed groups who launched attacks]] into Rwanda; these were largely unsuccessful, and led to further [[Bugesera invasion#Repression and atrocities|reprisal killings]] of 10,000 Tutsis and further Tutsi exiles.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=55–56}} By 1964, more than 300,000 Tutsis had fled, and were forced to remain in exile for the next three decades.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=62}}

[[Grégoire Kayibanda]] presided over a Hutu republic for the next decade, imposing an autocratic rule similar to the pre-revolution feudal monarchy.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=57}} He was overthrown following [[1973 Rwandan coup d'état|a coup in 1973]], which brought President [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] to power. Pro-Hutu and Anti-Tutsi discrimination continued in Rwanda itself, although the indiscriminate violence against the Tutsi did decrease somewhat.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=74–76}} Habyarimana founded the [[National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development]] (MRND) party in 1975,{{sfn|Twagilimana|2007|p=117}} and promulgated a new constitution following a [[Rwandan constitutional referendum, 1978|1978 referendum]], making the country a [[one-party state]] in which every citizen had to belong to the MRND.{{sfn|Twagilimana|2007|p=116}}

At {{convert|408|PD/km2}}, Rwanda's population density is among the highest in Africa. [[Demographics of Rwanda|Rwanda's population]] had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land. Historians such as [[Gérard Prunier]] believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to population density.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=4}}

=== Rwandan Civil War === {{Main|Rwandan Civil War}}

[[File:Paul Kagame 2014.jpg|thumb|[[Paul Kagame]], commander of the Rwandan Patriotic Front for most of the Civil War|alt=Close up profile picture of Paul Kagame, taken in 2014]] In the 1980s, a group of 500 Rwandan refugees in Uganda, led by [[Fred Rwigyema]], fought with the rebel [[National Resistance Army]] (NRA) in the [[Ugandan Bush War]], which saw [[Yoweri Museveni]] overthrow [[Milton Obote]].{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=47}} These soldiers remained in the Ugandan army following Museveni's inauguration as [[President of Uganda|Ugandan president]], but simultaneously began planning an invasion of Rwanda through a covert network within the army's ranks.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=51–52}} In October 1990, Rwigyema led a force of over 4,000{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=14}} rebels from Uganda, advancing {{convert|60|km|abbr=on}} into Rwanda under the banner of the [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF).{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=94–95}} Rwigyema was killed on the third day of the attack,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=95–96}} and France and Zaire deployed forces in support of the Rwandan army, allowing them to repel the invasion.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=96}} Rwigyema's deputy, [[Paul Kagame]], took command of the RPF forces,{{sfn|Melvern|2000|pp=27–30}} organising a tactical retreat through Uganda to the [[Virunga Mountains]], a rugged area of northern Rwanda.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=114–15}} From there, he rearmed and re-organised the army, and carried out fundraising and recruitment from the Tutsi diaspora.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=117–18}}

Kagame restarted the war in January 1991, with a surprise attack on the northern town of [[Ruhengeri]]. The RPF captured the town, benefiting from the element of surprise, and held it for one day before retreating to the forests.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=120}} For the next year, the RPF waged a hit-and-run style [[guerrilla war]], capturing some border areas but not making significant gains against the Rwandan army.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=135}} In June 1992, following the formation of a multiparty coalition government in [[Kigali]], the RPF announced a ceasefire and began negotiations with the Rwandan government in [[Arusha]], Tanzania.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=150}} In early 1993, several extremist Hutu groups formed and began campaigns of large scale violence against the Tutsi.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=173–74}} The RPF responded by suspending peace talks and launching a major attack, gaining a large swathe of land across the north of the country.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=174–77}} Peace negotiations eventually resumed in Arusha; the resulting set of agreements, known as the [[Arusha Accords (Rwanda)|Arusha Accords]], were signed in August 1993 and gave the RPF positions in a Broad-Based Transitional Government (BBTG) and in the national army.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=190–91}}{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=187}} The [[United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda]] (UNAMIR), a peacekeeping force, arrived in the country and the RPF were given a base in the [[Parliament of Rwanda|national parliament]] building in Kigali, for use during the setting up of the BBTG.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|pp=126–31}}

=== Hutu Power movement === In the early years of Habyarimana's regime, there was greater economic prosperity and reduced violence against Tutsis.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=74–76}} Many hardline anti-Tutsi figures remained, including the family of the first lady [[Agathe Habyarimana]], who were known as the ''[[akazu]]'' or ''clan de Madame'',{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=85}} and the president relied on them to maintain his regime.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=12}} When the RPF invaded in October 1990, Habyarimana and the hardliners exploited the fear of the population to advance an anti-Tutsi agenda{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=108}} which became known as [[Hutu Power]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=188}} Tutsi were increasingly viewed with suspicion. A [[pogrom]] was organised on 11 October 1990 in a commune in [[Gisenyi Province]], killing 383 Tutsi.{{sfn|Guichaoua|2015|pp=34–36}} A group of military officers and government members founded a magazine called ''[[Kangura]]'', which became popular throughout the country.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=49}} This published anti-Tutsi propaganda, including the [[Hutu Ten Commandments]], an explicit set of racist guidelines, including labelling Hutus who married Tutsis as "traitors".{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=50}} In 1992, the hardliners created the [[Coalition for the Defence of the Republic]] (CDR) party, which was linked to the ruling party but more right-wing, and promoted an agenda critical of the president's alleged "softness" with the RPF.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=128}}

To make the economic, social and political conflict look more like an ethnic conflict, the President's entourage, including the army, launched propaganda campaigns to fabricate events of ethnic crisis caused by the Tutsi and the RPF. The process was described as "mirror politics", also known as "[[accusation in a mirror]]"{{sfn|Des Forges|1999}} whereby a person accuses others of what the person themselves actually wants to do.<ref name="ICTR Judgement">THE PROSECUTOR VERSUS JEAN-PAUL AKAYESU Case No. ICTR-96-4-T at paras. 99–100</ref>

Following the 1992 ceasefire agreement, a number of the extremists in the Rwandan government and army began actively plotting against the president, worried about the possibility of Tutsis being included in government.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=166}} Habyarimana attempted to remove the hardliners from senior army positions, but was only partially successful; ''akazu'' affiliates [[Augustin Ndindiliyimana]] and [[Théoneste Bagosora]] remained in powerful posts, providing the hardline family with a link to power.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=167}} Throughout 1992, the hardliners carried out campaigns of localised killings of Tutsi, culminating in January 1993, in which extremists and local Hutu murdered around 300 people.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=173–74}} When the RPF resumed hostilities in February 1993, it cited these killings as the primary motive,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=174}} but its effect was to increase support for the extremists among the Hutu population.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=180}}

From mid-1993, the Hutu Power movement represented a third major force in Rwandan politics, in addition to Habyarimana's government and the traditional moderate opposition.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=188}} Apart from the CDR, there was no party that was exclusively part of the Power movement.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=181–82}} Instead, almost every party was split into "moderate" and "Power" wings, with members of both camps claiming to represent the legitimate leadership of that party.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=181–82}} Even the ruling party contained a Power wing, consisting of those who opposed Habyarimana's intention to sign a peace deal.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=182}} Several radical youth militia groups emerged, attached to the Power wings of the parties; these included the ''[[Interahamwe]]'' ("those who stand together"), which was attached to the ruling party,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=129}} and the CDR's ''[[Impuzamugambi]]'' ("those who have the same goal").{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=165}} The youth militia began actively carrying out massacres across the country.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=25}} The army trained the militias, sometimes in conjunction with the French, who were unaware of their true purpose.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=165}}

== Prelude == To what extent the Rwandan genocide was planned in advance of the assassination of Habyarimana continues to be debated by historians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rwanda: the state of Research {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research |website=www.sciencespo.fr |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=en |date=26 January 2016 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173416/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research |url-status=live }}</ref> Prosecutors at the [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] or ICTR argued, but were unable to prove, that the defendants planned the genocide prior to Habyarimana's assassination.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sander |first1=Barrie |title=Doingr Justice to History: Confronting the Past in International Criminal Courts |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884687-1 |page=281 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Timeline === In 1990, the army began arming civilians with weapons such as machetes, and it began training the Hutu youth in combat, officially as a programme of "civil defence" against the RPF threat,{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=20}} but these weapons were later used to carry out the genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=243}} In particular, the Hutu Power leaders organized a paramilitary or militia force known as the ''Interahamwe'' and the ''Impuzamugambi''.{{sfn|Powell|2011|p=286}} These groups served to provide auxiliary slaughterhouse support to the police, the gendarmerie and the regular army.{{sfn|Totten|Parsons|2009|p=408}} These militias were primarily recruited from the vast pool of Hutu internally displaced persons driven from their homes in the North, and claimed a total membership of 50,000 on the eve of genocide.{{sfn|Totten|Parsons|2009|p=408}} Rwanda also purchased large numbers of grenades and munitions from late 1990; in one deal, future UN Secretary-General [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], in his role as Egyptian foreign minister, facilitated a large sale of arms from Egypt.{{sfn|Melvern|2000|pp=31, 32}} The [[Rwandan Armed Forces]] (FAR) expanded rapidly at this time, growing from less than 10,000 troops to almost 30,000 in one year.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=20}} The new recruits were often poorly disciplined;{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=20}} a divide emerged between ordinary rank-and-file soldiers and the elite, battle-ready Presidential Guard and [[gendarmerie]] units.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=69}}

In March 1993, Hutu Power began compiling lists of "traitors" whom they planned to kill, possibly including President Habyarimana,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=182}} who the CDR had publicly accused of treason.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=182}}

During 1993, the hardliners imported machetes on a scale far beyond that required for agriculture, along with other tools which could be used as weapons, such as razor blades, saws and scissors.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=56}} These tools were distributed around the country, ostensibly as part of the civil defence network.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=56}} In October 1993, [[Melchior Ndadaye]], elected in June as the Burundi's first-ever Hutu president, was assassinated by Tutsi army officers. The assassination sparked [[Burundi Civil War|a civil war]] between its Hutu and Tutsi population and the [[Burundi genocide (1993)|Burundi genocide]], with 50,000 to 100,000 people killed in the first year of war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Part V: Recommendations – II. Genocide |url=http://www.usip.org/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Burundi-Report.pdf |work=International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716020747/http://www.usip.org/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Burundi-Report.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=199}} The assassination reinforced the notion among Hutus that the Tutsi were their enemy and could not be trusted.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=200}} The CDR and the Power wings of the other parties realised they could use this situation to their advantage.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=200}} The idea of a deliberate and systematic genocide, first suggested in 1992 but remaining a fringe viewpoint, was now top of their agenda, and they began actively planning it.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=200}} Benefitting from RTLM propaganda and the public anger at Ndadaye's murder, they successfully persuaded the general Hutu population to participate in the genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=200}} The Power leaders began arming the ''interahamwe'' and other militia groups with [[AK-47]]s and other weapons; previously, they had possessed only machetes and traditional hand weapons.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=143}}

On 11 January 1994, General [[Roméo Dallaire]], commander of [[UNAMIR]], sent his "Genocide Fax" to UN headquarters.<ref name=huffrawanda>{{cite web|last1=Adams|first1=Smin|title=The UN, Rwanda and the "Genocide Fax" – 20 Years Later|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/simon-adams/rwanda-genocide-anniversary_b_4613571.html|website=Huffington Post|access-date=14 April 2015|date=21 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925010333/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/simon-adams/rwanda-genocide-anniversary_b_4613571.html|archive-date=25 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The fax stated that Dallaire was in contact with "a top level trainer in the cadre of Interhamwe-armed [''sic''] militia of [[National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development|MRND]]." The informant—now known to be [[Mathieu Ngirumpatse]]'s chauffeur, Kassim Turatsinze,{{sfn|Guichaoua|2015|pp=141, 127}} a.k.a. "Jean-Pierre"—claimed to have been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali. According to the memo, Turatsinze suspected that a genocide was being planned, and said "in 20 minutes his personnel could kill up to 1000 Tutsis".<ref name=GenocideFax>{{cite web |title=The Rwanda "Genocide Fax": What We Know Now |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB452/ |work=[[National Security Archive]] |date=9 January 2014 |access-date=18 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219044038/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB452/ |archive-date=19 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Dallaire's request to protect the informant and his family and to raid the weapons caches he revealed was denied.<ref name=GenocideFax/>

The [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|ICTR]] prosecution was unable to prove that a conspiracy to commit genocide existed prior to 7 April 1994.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reydams|first1=Luc|title=NGO Justice: African Rights as Pseudo-Prosecutor of the Rwandan Genocide|journal=Human Rights Quarterly|date=2016|volume=38|issue=3|page=582|doi=10.1353/hrq.2016.0041|s2cid=151351680|url=http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r35223.pdf#page=36|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220616/http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r35223.pdf#page=36|archive-date=18 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The supposed mastermind, [[Théoneste Bagosora]], was acquitted of that charge in 2008, although he was convicted of genocide.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Polgreen |first1=Lydia |title=Rwandan Officer Found Guilty of 1994 Genocide |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/world/africa/19rwanda.html?hp |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=18 December 2008 |language=en |access-date=16 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130063949/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/world/africa/19rwanda.html |archive-date=30 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rwandan genocide sentence reduced |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16185659 |work=BBC News |date=14 December 2011 |access-date=16 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814041404/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16185659 |archive-date=14 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> André Guichaoua, an expert witness for the ICTR prosecution, noted in 2010:

{{Blockquote|What the Office of the Prosecutor has consistently failed to demonstrate is the alleged existence of a "conspiracy" among the accused—presuming an association or a preexisting plan to commit genocide. This is the central argument at the core of its prosecution strategy, borrowing from the contentions initially put forth by academics and human rights defenders. With the exception of two judgements, confirmed on appeal, the Trial Chambers have uniformly found the prosecution's proof of a conspiracy wanting, regardless of the case.{{sfn|Guichaoua|2015|p=303|ps=: "The two judgments are the convictions of [[Jean Kambanda]], ex-prime minister, and [[Eliezer Niyitegeka]], ex-minister of information of the Interim Government."}}}}

=== Radio station RTLM === {{Main|Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines}}

The Power groups believed that the national radio station, [[Radio Rwanda]], had become too liberal and supportive of the opposition; they founded a new radio station, [[Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines]] (RTLM). The RTLM was designed to appeal to the young adults in Rwanda and had extensive reach. Unlike newspapers that could only be found in cities, the radio broadcasts were accessible to Rwanda's largely rural population of farmers. The format of the broadcasts mirrored Western-style radio talk shows that played popular music, hosted interviews, and encouraged audience participation. The broadcasters told crude jokes and used offensive language that contrasted strongly with Radio Rwanda's more formal news reports.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kirschke |first1=Linda |title=Broadcasting Genocide: Censorship, Propaganda & State-sponsored Violence in Rwanda 1990–1994 |date=1996 |publisher=Article 19 |isbn=978-1-870798-33-4 |pages=71, 84–85 |doi=10.1163/2210-7975_HRD-2210-0154}}</ref> Just 1.52% of RTLM's airtime was dedicated to news, while 66.29% of airtime featured the journalists discussing their thoughts on different subjects.<ref name="Kimani 110–124">{{cite book |last1=Kimani |first1=Mary |year=2007 |chapter=RTLM: The Medium That Became a Tool for Mass Murder |editor1-last=Thompson |editor1-first=Allan |title=The Media and the Rwanda Genocide |publisher=Pluto Press |pages=110–124 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt18fs550.14 |isbn=978-0-7453-2625-2 |jstor=j.ctt18fs550.14}}</ref> As the start of the genocide approached, the RTLM broadcasts focused on anti-Tutsi propaganda. They characterized the Tutsi as a dangerous enemy who wanted to seize the political power at the expense of Hutus. By linking the Rwandan Patriotic Army with the Tutsi political party and ordinary Tutsi citizens, they classified the entire ethnic group as one homogeneous threat to Rwandans. The RTLM went further than amplifying ethnic and political division; it also labeled the Tutsi as ''inyenzi'', meaning non-human pests or cockroaches, which must be exterminated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fujii |first1=Lee Ann |date=April 2007 |title=Jean Hatzfeld. Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005/Picador, 2006. Translated by Linda Coverdale. Preface by Susan Sontag. xiv + 253 pp. Maps. Chronology of Events. Photograph. Index. $24.00. Cloth. $14.00. Paper. |journal=African Studies Review |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=155–156 |doi=10.1353/arw.2005.0101 |s2cid=142781769}}</ref> Leading up to the genocide, there were 294 instances of the RTLM accusing the Rwandan Patriotic Army of atrocities against the Hutu, along with 252 broadcasts that called for Hutus to kill the Tutsi.<ref name="Kimani 110–124" /> One such broadcast stated, "Someone must{{nbsp}}... make them disappear for good{{nbsp}}... to wipe them from human memory{{nbsp}}... to exterminate the Tutsi from the surface of the earth."<ref>{{cite book |title=Bibliography on ICTR, ICTY and IRMCT 2018 |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-047319-4 |series=International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Special Bibliography |doi=10.18356/59527281-en-fr |s2cid=239791188}}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> By the time the violence began, the young Hutu population had absorbed months of propaganda that characterized all Tutsi as dangerous enemies that must be killed before they seized control of the country. The RTLM's role in the genocide earned it the nickname "Radio Machete" as it related to their incitement to genocide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Straus |first1=Scott |date=December 2007 |title=What Is the Relationship between Hate Radio and Violence? Rethinking Rwanda's 'Radio Machete' |journal=Politics & Society |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=609–637 |doi=10.1177/0032329207308181 |s2cid=154402375}}</ref> A 2014 study by [[Harvard Kennedy School]] researcher [[David Yanagizawa-Drott]] found that approximately 10% of the overall violence during the Rwandan genocide can be attributed to this new radio station.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yanagizawa-Drott |first1=David |date=1 November 2014 |title=Propaganda and Conflict: Evidence from the Rwandan Genocide * |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=129 |issue=4 |pages=1947–1994 |doi=10.1093/qje/qju020}}</ref> Gordon Danning, a researcher with the [[free speech]] advocacy group [[Foundation for Individual Rights in Education]] questioned the assumption of that paper that media availability correlated with media consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danning |first1=Gordon |date=2 October 2018 |title=Did Radio RTLM Really Contribute Meaningfully to the Rwandan Genocide?: Using Qualitative Information to Improve Causal Inference from Measures of Media Availability |journal=Civil Wars |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=529–554 |doi=10.1080/13698249.2018.1525677 |s2cid=150075267}}</ref>

=== Assassination of Habyarimana === {{Main|Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira}}

[[File:Juvénal Habyarimana (1980).jpg|thumb|Juvénal Habyarimana in 1980]]

On 6 April 1994, the airplane carrying Rwandan President [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] and [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]], the Hutu president of Burundi, was shot down as it prepared to land in [[Kigali]], killing everyone on board. Responsibility for the attack was disputed, with both the RPF and Hutu extremists being blamed. In 2006, an eight-year investigation by the French judge [[Jean-Louis Bruguière]] concluded that Paul Kagame had ordered the assassination.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |title=French judge accuses Rwandan president of assassination |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/nov/22/france.rwanda |work=The Guardian |date=22 November 2006 |access-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222082224/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/nov/22/france.rwanda |archive-date=22 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> An investigation by the Rwandan government made public in 2010 blamed Hutu extremists in the Rwandan army.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Mutsinzi Report |url=http://mutsinzireport.com/ |website=mutsinzireport.com |access-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220739/http://mutsinzireport.com/ |archive-date=18 February 2019 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> In January 2012, a French investigation<ref>{{cite web |author=Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris |title=Rapport d'expertise. Destruction en vol du Falcon 50 Kigali |url=http://francegenocidetutsi.org/rapport-balstique-attentat-contre-habyarimana-6-4-1994.pdf |date=5 January 2012 |language=fr |access-date=3 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110080358/http://francegenocidetutsi.org/rapport-balstique-attentat-contre-habyarimana-6-4-1994.pdf |archive-date=10 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> was widely published as exonerating the RPF,<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-genocide-report-idUSTRE80924720120110?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews Reuters: French probe exonerates Rwanda leader in genocide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401073828/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-genocide-report-idUSTRE80924720120110?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews |date=1 April 2023 }}, 10 January 2012</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jan/10/rwanda-at-last-we-know-truth|date=10 January 2012|title=Rwanda: at last we know the truth|first=Linda|last=Melvern|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=13 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230171919/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jan/10/rwanda-at-last-we-know-truth|archive-date=30 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> but according to [[Filip Reyntjens]], the report did not exonerate the RPF.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Reyntjens|first1=Filip|title=Rwanda's Untold Story. A reply to '38 scholars, scientists, researchers, journalists and historians'|url=http://africanarguments.org/2014/10/21/rwandas-untold-story-a-reply-to-38-scholars-scientists-researchers-journalists-and-historians-by-filip-reyntjens/|website=African Arguments|date=21 October 2014|access-date=13 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725222106/http://africanarguments.org/2014/10/21/rwandas-untold-story-a-reply-to-38-scholars-scientists-researchers-journalists-and-historians-by-filip-reyntjens/|archive-date=25 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In November 2014, Emmanuel Mughisa (also known as Emile Gafarita), a former Rwandan soldier who said he had evidence that Kagame had ordered Habyarimana's plane shot down, was abducted in Nairobi hours after he was called to testify at the French inquiry. He was reportedly "join[ing] a long list of Mr Kagame's opponents who have disappeared or died".<ref name = "Times abduction">{{cite news | last = Starkey | first = Jerome | date = 25 November 2014 | title = Soldier who accused Kagame of triggering genocide is abducted | url = https://www.thetimes.com/best-law-firms/profile-legal/article/soldier-who-accused-kagame-of-triggering-genocide-is-abducted-2mvxphfghwx | publisher = The Times (UK) | website = [[The Times]] | access-date = 26 November 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141125200701/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/africa/article4277015.ece | archive-date = 25 November 2014 | url-status=live | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Despite disagreements about the perpetrators, many observers believe the attack and deaths of the two Hutu presidents served as the catalyst for the genocide.

Following Habyarimana's death, on the evening of 6 April, a crisis committee was formed; it consisted of Major General [[Augustin Ndindiliyimana]], Colonel [[Théoneste Bagosora]], and a number of other senior army staff officers.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|pp=222–23}} The committee was headed by Bagosora, despite the presence of the more senior Ndindiliyimana.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=137}} Prime Minister [[Agathe Uwilingiyimana]] was legally next in the line of political succession,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=224}} but the committee refused to recognise her authority.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=224}} [[Roméo Dallaire]] met with the committee that night and insisted that Uwilingiyimana be placed in charge, but Bagosora refused, saying Uwilingiyimana did not "enjoy the confidence of the Rwandan people" and was "incapable of governing the nation".{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=224}} The committee also justified its existence as being essential to avoid uncertainty following the president's death.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=224}} Bagosora sought to convince UNAMIR and the RPF{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=225}} that the committee was acting to contain the presidential guard, which he described as "out of control",{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=223}} and that it would abide by the Arusha agreement.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=224}}

=== Killing of moderate leaders === UNAMIR sent an escort of ten Belgian soldiers to Prime Minister Uwilingiyimana, with the intention of transporting her to the [[Radio Rwanda]] offices to address the nation.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=230}} This plan was canceled because the presidential guard took over the radio station shortly afterward and would not permit Uwilingiyimana to speak on air.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=230}} Later in the morning, a number of soldiers and a crowd of civilians overwhelmed the Belgians guarding Uwilingiyimana, forcing them to surrender their weapons.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=230}} Uwilingiyimana and her husband were killed, although their children survived by hiding behind furniture and were rescued by Senegalese UNAMIR officer [[Mbaye Diagne]].{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=245}} The ten Belgians were taken to the [[Camp Kigali]] military base, where they were tortured and killed.{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|p=114}} Major [[Bernard Ntuyahaga]], the commanding officer of the presidential guard unit which carried out the murders, was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment by a court in Belgium in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-genocide-belgium-idUSL0469900520070704 |title=Rwandan convicted of killing Belgian peacekeepers |work=Reuters |date=4 July 2007 |access-date=30 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105120136/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/07/04/us-rwanda-genocide-belgium-idUSL0469900520070704 |archive-date=5 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In addition to assassinating Uwilingiyimana, the extremists spent the night of 6–7 April moving around the houses of Kigali with lists of prominent moderate politicians and journalists, on a mission to kill them.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=231}}{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=230}} Fatalities that evening included President of the Constitutional Court [[Joseph Kavaruganda]], Minister of Agriculture Frederic Nzamurambaho, Parti Liberal leader [[Landwald Ndasingwa]] and his Canadian wife, and chief Arusha negotiator Boniface Ngulinzira.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=230}} A few moderates survived, including prime minister-designate [[Faustin Twagiramungu]],{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=231}} but the plot was largely successful. According to Dallaire, "by noon on 7 April, the moderate political leadership of Rwanda was dead or in hiding, the potential for a future moderate government utterly lost."{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=232}} An exception to this was the new army chief of staff, [[Marcel Gatsinzi]]; Bagosora's preferred candidate [[Augustin Bizimungu]] was rejected by the crisis committee, forcing Bagosora to agree to Gatsinzi's appointment.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=139}} Gatsinzi attempted to keep the army out of the genocide,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=229}} and to negotiate a ceasefire with the RPF,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=292}} but he had only limited control over his troops and was replaced by the hardline Bizimungu after just ten days.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=229}}

== Genocide == {{external media | float = left | headerimage = [[File:60 Minutes logo.png|alt=CBS 60 Minutes|x40px|center]] via YouTube | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-H4TG50ppw Rwandan genocide: Hiding from death] }} Genocidal killings began the following day. Soldiers, police, and militia quickly executed key Tutsi and moderate Hutu military and political leaders who could have assumed control in the ensuing [[power vacuum]]. Checkpoints and barricades were erected to screen all holders of the national [[Ethnic groups in Rwanda#Ethnic identity cards in contemporary Rwanda|ID card of Rwanda]], which contained ethnic classifications. This enabled government forces to systematically identify and kill Tutsi.

They also recruited and pressured Hutu civilians to arm themselves with [[Machete|machetes]], clubs, blunt objects, and other weapons and encouraged them to rape, maim, and kill their Tutsi neighbors and to destroy or steal their property. The RPF restarted its offensive soon after Habyarimana's assassination. It rapidly seized control of the northern part of the country and captured Kigali about 100 days later in mid-July, bringing an end to the genocide. During these events and in the aftermath, the UN and countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Belgium were criticized for their inaction and failure to strengthen the force and mandate of the [[United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda|UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda]] (UNAMIR) peacekeepers. In December 2017, media reports revealed that the French government continued supporting the Hutu government after the genocide began.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/africa/rwanda-france-genocide.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210152843/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/africa/rwanda-france-genocide.html|date=10 December 2018}}, ''New York Times'', 13 December 2017</ref><ref>[https://www.cnn.com/2017/12/13/africa/french-officials-rwanda-genocide/index.html "French Officials Aided Rwanda Genocide"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203746/https://www.cnn.com/2017/12/13/africa/french-officials-rwanda-genocide/index.html |date=14 September 2018 }}, CNN, 13 December 2017</ref><ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/rwanda-genocide-french-connection-508940 "Rwanda Genocide: French Connection"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129025545/https://www.newsweek.com/rwanda-genocide-french-connection-508940 |date=29 January 2019 }}, ''Newsweek'',</ref><ref>[http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2017/06/27/genocide-au-rwanda-des-revelations-sur-le-role-de-la-france_5151690_3212.html "Genocide au Rwanda: des revelations sur le rôle de la France"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119132252/https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2017/06/27/genocide-au-rwanda-des-revelations-sur-le-role-de-la-france_5151690_3212.html |date=19 January 2019 }}, ''Le Monde'', 27 June 2017 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

=== Planning and organization === [[File:Ntrama Church Altar.jpg|thumb|Over 5,000 people seeking refuge in [[Ntarama Genocide Memorial Centre|Ntarama church]] were killed by grenade, machete, rifle, or burnt alive.]] [[File:Administrative divisions of Rwanda in 1994.svg|thumb|Rwanda was divided into 11 prefectures and 145 communes in 1994.<ref>{{cite report |first=André |last=Guichaoua |date=August 1998 |publication-place=Arusha |id=Record Number: 13685, Exhibit Number: P31B in ICTR-01-74 |title=Local government in Rwanda: Expert report prepared at the request of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda |page=14 |publisher=ICTR }}</ref>]] The large-scale killing of Tutsi<ref>{{Cite journal | year= 2015 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link1= Paul James (academic) | title= Despite the Terrors of Typologies: The Importance of Understanding Categories of Difference and Identity | url= http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM | journal= Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies | volume= 17 | issue= 2 | pages= 174–95 | doi= 10.1080/1369801x.2014.993332 | s2cid= 142378403 | access-date= 2 April 2015 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151017111914/http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM | archive-date= 17 October 2015 | url-status=live | df= dmy-all | url-access= subscription }}</ref> began within a few hours of Habyarimana's death.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=165}} The crisis committee, headed by [[Théoneste Bagosora]], took power in the country following Habyarimana's death,{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=172}} and was the principal authority coordinating the genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=240}} Following the assassination of Habyarimana, Bagosora immediately began issuing orders to kill Tutsi, addressing groups of ''interahamwe'' in person in Kigali,{{sfn|Melvern|2004|pp=146–47}} and making telephone calls to leaders in the prefectures.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=163}} Other leading organisers on a national level were defence minister [[Augustin Bizimana]]; commander of the paratroopers [[List of people indicted in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|Aloys Ntabakuze]]; and the head of the Presidential Guard, [[Protais Mpiranya]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=240}} Businessman [[Félicien Kabuga]] funded the RTLM and the Interahamwe, while Pascal Musabe and [[Joseph Nzirorera]] were responsible for coordinating the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi militia activities nationally.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=240}}

Military leaders in [[Gisenyi province|Gisenyi prefecture]], the heartland of the ''akazu'', were initially the most organized, convening a gathering of the ''interahamwe'' and civilian Hutus. The commanders announced the president's death (for which they blamed the RPF), and ordered the crowd to "begin your work" and to "spare no one", including infants.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=164}} The killing spread to [[Ruhengeri province|Ruhengeri]], [[Kibuye province|Kibuye]], [[Kigali province|Kigali]], [[Kibungo province|Kibungo]], [[Gikongoro province|Gikongoro]] and [[Cyangugu province|Cyangugu]] prefectures on 7 April;{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=236}} in each case, local officials, responding to orders from Kigali, spread rumours that the RPF had killed the president, followed by a command to kill Tutsi.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=169}} The Hutu population, which had been prepared and armed during the preceding months, and maintained the Rwandan tradition of obedience to authority, carried out the orders without question.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=244–45}} On the other hand, there are views that the genocide was not sudden, irresistible or uniformly orchestrated, but "a cascade of tipping points, and each tipping point was the outcome of local, intra-ethnic contests for dominance (among Hutu)".<ref>{{harvnb|Straus|2013|p=93}}</ref>{{sfn|Totten|Parsons|2009|p=411}} The protracted struggles for supremacy in local communes meant that a more determined stance from the international community would likely have prevented the worst from happening.<ref>{{harvnb|Straus|2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Totten|Parsons|2009|p=427}}

In Kigali, the genocide was led by the Presidential Guard, the elite unit of the army.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=242–43}} They were assisted by the ''Interahamwe'' and ''Impuzamugambi'',{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=243}} who set up roadblocks throughout the capital. Each person passing the roadblock was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were killed immediately.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} The militias also searched houses in the city, killing Tutsi and looting their property.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=243}} [[Tharcisse Renzaho]], the prefect of Kigali-ville, played a leading role, touring the roadblocks to ensure their effectiveness and using his position at the top of the Kigali provincial government to disseminate orders and dismiss officials who were not sufficiently active in the killings.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=204}}

In rural areas, the local government hierarchy was also in most cases the chain of command for the execution of the genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=244}} The prefect of each prefecture, acting on orders from Kigali, disseminated instructions to the [[Districts of Rwanda#Communes of Rwanda (pre-2002)|commune]] leaders (''bourgmestres''), who in turn issued directions to the leaders of the sectors, cells and villages within their communes.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=244}} The majority of the actual killings in the countryside were carried out by ordinary civilians, under orders from the leaders.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=247}} Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side in their villages, and families all knew each other, making it easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} Gerard Prunier ascribes this mass complicity of the population to a combination of "democratic majority" ideology,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=247}} in which Hutus had been taught to regard Tutsi as dangerous enemies,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=247}} a culture of unbending obedience to authority,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=245}} and duress—villagers refusing to kill were often branded Tutsi sympathisers and murdered.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=247}} ===Interim government===  There were few killings in the prefectures of [[Gitarama province|Gitarama]] and [[Butare province|Butare]] during the early phase, as the prefects of those areas were moderates opposed to the violence.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=169}} The genocide began in Gitarama after the interim government relocated to the prefecture on 12 April.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=195}} Butare was ruled by the only Tutsi prefect in the country, [[Jean-Baptiste Habyalimana]].{{sfn|Melvern|2004|pp=209–10}} Habyalimana refused to authorise any killings in his territory, and for a while Butare became a sanctuary for Tutsi refugees from elsewhere in the country.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|pp=209–210}} This lasted until 18 April, when the interim government dismissed him from his post and replaced him with government loyalist [[Sylvain Nsabimana]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}}

The crisis committee appointed an interim government on 8 April; using the terms of the 1991 constitution instead of the Arusha Accords, the committee designated [[Théodore Sindikubwabo]] as interim president of Rwanda, while [[Jean Kambanda]] was the new prime minister.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=171}} All political parties were represented in the government, but most members were from the "Hutu Power" wings of their respective parties.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=233}} The interim government was sworn in on 9 April, but relocated from Kigali to [[Gitarama]] on 12 April, ostensibly fleeing RPF's advance on the capital.{{sfn|Guichaoua|2015|p=212}}{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=193}} The crisis committee was officially dissolved, but Bagosora and the senior officers remained the de facto rulers of the country.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|pp=213–14}} The government played its part in mobilising the population, giving the regime an air of legitimacy, but was effectively a puppet regime with no ability to halt the army or the ''Interahamwe's'' activities.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|pp=213–14}}{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=278}} When Roméo Dallaire visited the government's headquarters a week after its formation, he found most officials at leisure, describing their activities as "sorting out the seating plan for a meeting that was not about to convene any time soon".{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=329}}

=== Death toll and timeline === During the remainder of April and early May, the Presidential Guard, ''gendarmerie'' and the youth militia, aided by local populations, continued killing at a very high rate.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} The goal was to kill every Tutsi living in Rwanda{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=248}} and, with the exception of the advancing rebel RPF army, there was no opposition force to prevent or slow the killings.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} The domestic opposition had already been eliminated, and UNAMIR were expressly forbidden to use force except in self-defence.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=233}} In rural areas, where Tutsi and Hutus lived side by side and families knew each other, it was easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} In urban areas, where residents were more anonymous, identification was facilitated using roadblocks manned by military and ''interahamwe''; each person passing the roadblock was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were killed immediately.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} Many Hutus were also killed for a variety of reasons, including sympathy for moderate opposition parties, being a journalist or simply having a "Tutsi appearance".{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} Thousands of bodies were dumped into the [[Kagera River]], which ran along the northern border between Rwanda and Uganda and flowed into [[Lake Victoria]]. Consumers refused to buy fish caught in Lake Victoria for fear that they were tainted by decomposing corpses, causing significant damage to the Ugandan fishing industry. The Ugandan government responded by dispatching teams to retrieve the bodies from the Kagera River before they entered the lake.<ref>{{cite AV media| people = Pauw, Jacques (reporter)| title = 1994 special report on the Rwandan genocide| medium = Television production| publisher = [[South African Broadcasting Corporation]]| date = 1994| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytxQmbNqiXo| access-date = 4 September 2020| archive-date = 1 October 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201001131833/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytxQmbNqiXo&gl=US&hl=en| url-status = live}}</ref> The RPF was making slow but steady gains in the north and east of the country, ending the killings in each area occupied.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} The genocide was effectively ended during April in areas of Ruhengeri, Byumba, Kibungo and Kigali prefectures.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} The killings ceased during April in the ''akazu'' heartlands of western Ruhengeri and Gisenyi, as almost every Tutsi had been eliminated.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} Fearing retribution, many Hutus fled RPF-conquered areas.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=312}} 500,000 Kibungo residents walked over the [[Rusumo Bridge|bridge]] at [[Rusumo Falls]] into Tanzania in a few days at the end of April,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=336}} and were accommodated in United Nations camps effectively controlled by ousted leaders of the Hutu regime,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=313–14}} with the former prefect of Kibungo prefecture in overall control.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=337}}

In the remaining prefectures, killings grew increasingly sporadic throughout May and June;{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} most Tutsi were already dead, and the interim government wished to rein in the growing anarchy and engage the population in fighting the RPF.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=236}} On 23 June, around 2,500 soldiers entered southwestern Rwanda as part of the French-led United Nations ''[[Opération Turquoise]]''.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=291}} This was intended as a humanitarian mission, but the soldiers were not able to save significant numbers of lives.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=292}} The genocidal authorities were overtly welcoming of the French, displaying the French flag on their own vehicles, but killing Tutsi who came out of hiding seeking protection.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=292}} In July, the RPF completed their conquest of the country, with the exception of the zone occupied by Operation Turquoise. The RPF took Kigali on 4 July,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=459}} and Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest on 18 July.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=298–99}} The genocide ended the following day, but as had occurred in Kibungo, the Hutu population fled en masse across the border, this time into Zaire, with Bagosora and the other leaders accompanying them.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=316}} [[File:Life expectancy development in Rwanda.svg|thumb|Impact of the genocide on average life expectancy]] The succeeding RPF government claims that 1,074,017 people were killed in the genocide, 94% of whom were Tutsi.<ref name=lemarchand>{{cite journal |first=René |last=Lemarchand |author-link=René Lemarchand |title=Rwanda: the state of Research {{!}} Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche |website=www.sciencespo.fr |date=25 June 2018 |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research |issn=1961-9898 |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173416/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research |archive-date=19 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> In contrast, [[Human Rights Watch]], following on-the-ground research, estimated the casualties at 507,000 people. According to a 2020 symposium of the ''[[Journal of Genocide Research]]'', the official figure is not credible as it overestimates the number of Tutsi in Rwanda prior to the genocide. Using different methodologies, the scholars in the symposium estimated 500,000 to 600,000 deaths—around two-thirds of the Tutsi population in Rwanda at the time.<ref name=McDoom>{{cite journal |last1=McDoom |first1=Omar Shahabudin |title=Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2020 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252 |s2cid=214032255 |url=https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/103205/ |quote=If one examines the claims for the overall number killed, at the higher end lies the figure of 1,074,017 Rwandan dead. This number originates with the Rwandan government which conducted a nationwide census in July 2000, six years after the genocide. Toward the lower end lies an estimate from Human Rights Watch, one of the first organizations on the ground to investigate the genocide, of 507,000 Tutsi killed... I have estimated between 491,000 and 522,000 Tutsi, nearly two thirds of Rwanda's pre-genocide Tutsi population, were killed between 6 April and 19 July 1994. I calculated this death toll by subtracting my estimate of between 278,000 and 309,000 Tutsi survivors from my estimate of a baseline Tutsi population of almost exactly 800,000, or 10.8% of the overall population, on the eve of the genocide... In comparison with estimates at the higher and lower ends, my estimate is significantly lower than the Government of Rwanda's genocide census figure of 1,006,031 Tutsi killed. I believe this number is not credible. |access-date=6 July 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731105754/https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/103205/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Meierhenrich">{{cite journal|last1=Meierhenrich|first1=Jens|author-link=Jens Meierhenrich|date=2020|title=How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=22|issue=1|pages=72–82|doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611|quote=Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of 1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible.|s2cid=213046710}}</ref> Thousands of widows, many subjected to rape, contracted HIV. There were about 400,000 orphans and nearly 85,000 of them were forced to become heads of families.<ref>Maximo, Dady De (2012). "A Genocide that could have been avoided". ''New Times''.</ref> An estimated 2,000,000 Rwandans, mostly Hutu, were displaced and became refugees.<ref>[http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide Rwandan Genocide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325012529/http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide |date=25 March 2016 }}, History.com</ref> Additionally, 30% of the [[pygmy]] [[Batwa people|Batwa]] were killed.<ref name=AmericanUniversity>{{cite web|last1=Sheshadri|first1=Raja|title=Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict|url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/pygmy.htm|website=[[American University]]|access-date=22 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025741/http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/pygmy.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref name=SurvivalInternational>{{cite web|title=The 'Pygmies'|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/pygmies|website=[[Survival International]]|access-date=22 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331170845/http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/pygmies|archive-date=31 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Means of killing === [[File:Rwandan Genocide Murambi skulls.jpg|thumb|Skulls and other bones kept at [[Murambi Technical School]]]] On 9 April, UN observers witnessed the [[Gikondo massacre|massacre of children at a Polish church in Gikondo]]. That same day, 1,000 heavily armed and well-trained European troops arrived to evacuate European civilians from Rwanda. The troops did not stay to assist UNAMIR.<ref>{{cite web |title=IGNORING GENOCIDE |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-01.htm |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=27 September 2024 |date=17 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Viret |title=RWANDA – A CHRONOLOGY (1867–1994) |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-chronology-1867-1994.html |website=Sciences Po University |access-date=27 September 2024 |date=10 March 2010}}</ref> Media coverage picked up on the 9th, as ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported the execution of Rwandan employees of relief agencies in front of their expatriate colleagues.

[[Butare Province|Butare prefecture]] was an exception to the local violence. [[Jean-Baptiste Habyalimana]] was the only Tutsi prefect, and the prefecture was the only one dominated by an opposition party.{{sfn|Prunier|1998|p=244}} Opposing the genocide, Habyalimana was able to keep relative calm in the prefecture, until he was deposed by the extremist Sylvain Nsabimana. Finding the population of Butare resistant to murdering their citizens, the government flew in militia from Kigali by helicopter, who readily killed the Tutsi.{{sfn|Prunier|1998|p=244}} [[File:Genocide Memorial site of Gisozi Kigali Genocide Memorial 036.jpg|thumb|upright|Photographs of genocide victims displayed at the [[Kigali Genocide Memorial|Genocide Memorial Center]] in Kigali]] Most victims were killed in their own villages or in towns, often by neighbors and fellow villagers. The militia typically used [[machete]]s, although some army units used rifles. Hutu gangs searched for victims hiding in churches and school buildings and [[massacre]]d them. Local officials and government-sponsored radio incited ordinary citizens to kill their neighbors, and those who refused to kill were often murdered on the spot: "Either you took part in the massacres or you were massacred yourself."{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=247}}

One such massacre [[Nyarubuye massacre|occurred at Nyarubuye]]. On 12 April, more than 1,500 Tutsi sought refuge in a Catholic church in Nyange, then in Kivumu commune. Local Interahamwe, acting in concert with the authorities, used bulldozers to knock down the church building.<ref name="appeals01">{{cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/tabid/155/Default.aspx?ID=91 |title=Appeals Chamber Decisions |publisher=International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda |access-date=13 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814074058/http://www.unictr.org/tabid/155/Default.aspx?ID=91 |archive-date=14 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The militia used machetes and rifles to kill every person who tried to escape. Local priest [[Athanase Seromba]] was later found guilty and sentenced to life in prison by the ICTR for his role in the demolition of his church; he was convicted of the crime of genocide and [[Crime against humanity|crimes against humanity]].<ref name="appeals01"/><ref>{{cite press release|title=Catholic Priest Athanase Seromba Sentenced to Fifteen Years|date=13 December 2006|url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/42/default.aspx?id=5&mnid=4|publisher=International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|access-date=13 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001004940/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/42/default.aspx?id=5&mnid=4|archive-date=1 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Prosecutor to Appeal Against Seromba's Sentence |publisher=International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda |date=22 December 2006 |url=http://69.94.11.53/ENGLISH/PRESSREL/2006/507.htm |access-date=7 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505122707/http://69.94.11.53/ENGLISH/PRESSREL/2006/507.htm |archive-date=5 May 2007 }}</ref> In another case, thousands sought refuge in the Official Technical School (''École technique officielle'') in Kigali where Belgian UNAMIR soldiers were stationed. On 11 April, the Belgian soldiers withdrew, and Rwandan armed forces and militia killed all the Tutsi.<ref>{{cite book|title=''ICTR Yearbook 1994–1996''|publisher=International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|pages=77–78|url=http://129.194.252.80/catfiles/0714.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627030034/http://129.194.252.80/catfiles/0714.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 June 2003|access-date=7 January 2007}}</ref>

=== Sexual violence === {{Main|Rape during the Rwandan genocide}}

Rape was [[Genocidal rape|used as a tool]] by the [[Interahamwe]], the chief perpetrators, to separate the consciously heterogeneous population and to drastically exhaust the opposing group.<ref name="Hayden">{{Harvnb|Hayden|2000}}.</ref> The use of propaganda played an important role in both the genocide and the gender specific violence. The [[Hutu]] propaganda depicted Tutsi women as "a sexually seductive '[[fifth column]]' in league with the Hutus' enemies". The exceptional brutality of the sexual violence, as well as the complicity of Hutu women in the attacks, suggests that the use of propaganda had been effective in the exploitation of gendered needs which had mobilized both females and males to participate.{{sfn|Jones|2010|pp=138–41}} Soldiers of the [[Army for the Liberation of Rwanda]] and the [[Rwandan Defence Forces]], including the Presidential Guard, and civilians also committed rape against mostly Tutsi women.<ref name="de Brouwer 2005 13">{{Harvnb|de Brouwer|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JhY8ROsA39kC&pg=PA13 13]}}</ref> Although Tutsi women were the main targets, moderate Hutu women were also raped.<ref name="de Brouwer 2005 13"/>

Along with the Hutu moderates, Hutu women who were married to or who hid Tutsis were also targeted.{{sfn|Nowrojee|1996}} In his 1996 report on Rwanda, the UN Special ''Rapporteur'' Rene Degni-Segui stated, "Rape was the rule and its absence was the exception."<ref name="Sandra">{{cite journal |last1=Chu |first1=S. Ka Hon |last2=de Brouwer |first2=A.M. |title=Rwanda's Rape Victims Speak Out |journal=Herizons |date=Spring 2009 |volume=22 |issue=4 |page=16 |url=http://www.herizons.ca/node/263 |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211034805/http://www.herizons.ca/node/263 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He also noted, "Rape was systematic and was used as a weapon." With this thought and using methods of force and threat, the [[genocidaires]] forced others to stand by during rapes. A testimonial by a woman of the name Marie Louise Niyobuhungiro recalled seeing local peoples, other generals and Hutu men watching her get raped about five times a day. Even when she was kept under watch of a woman, the woman would give no sympathy or help and furthermore forced her to farm land in between rapes.<ref name="Sandra"/>

Many of the survivors became infected with HIV from the HIV-infected men recruited by the genocidaires.<ref name="Elbe">{{Harvnb|Elbe|2002}}.</ref> During the conflict, Hutu extremists released hundreds of patients suffering from AIDS from hospitals, and formed them into "rape squads". The intent was to infect and cause a "slow, inexorable death" for their future Tutsi rape victims.<ref name = "Drumbl 2012">{{Harvnb|Drumbl|2012}}.</ref> Tutsi women were also targeted with the intent of destroying their reproductive capabilities. [[Sexual mutilation]] sometimes occurred after the rape and included mutilation of the vagina with machetes, knives, sharpened sticks, boiling water, and acid.{{sfn|Nowrojee|1996}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dallaire |first1=Roméo |title=Shake hands with the devil: the failure of humanity in Rwanda |last2=Beardsley |first2=Brent |date=2005 |publisher=Carroll & Graf |isbn=978-0-7867-1510-7 |edition=1. Carroll & Graf trade paperback |location=New York, NY}}</ref> Men were also the victims of sexual violation,<ref name="de Brouwer 2005 13"/> including public mutilation of the genitals.<ref name="de Brouwer 2005 13"/>

Some experts have estimated that between 250,000 and 500,000 women were raped during the genocide.{{sfn|Nowrojee|1996}}

== Killing of the Twa == The [[pygmy people]] called the [[Great Lakes Twa|Batwa]] (or "Twa") made up about 1% of Rwanda's population. A report shows that the group has been described as people who lived in forests and off lands, but currently the Twa are dispersed in the country in smaller groups while integrating into society.<ref>{{cite web |title=TWA |date=19 June 2015 |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/twa-2/ |access-date=25 November 2022 |publisher=Minority Rights Group International |archive-date=16 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116163337/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/twa-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the Twa were not directly targeted by the genocidaires,<ref>{{cite web |author=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) |date=25 March 2008 |title=Batwa |author-link=UNPO |url=http://www.unpo.org/members/7861 |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402134444/http://unpo.org/members/7861 |url-status=dead}}</ref> an estimated 10,000 of a population of 30,000 were nonetheless killed. They are sometimes referred to as the "forgotten victims" of the Rwandan genocide.<ref name=AmericanUniversity/> In the months leading up to the genocide, Hutu radio stations accused the Batwa of aiding the RPF and Twa survivors describe Hutu fighters as threatening to kill them all.<ref name=NewsAfrica>{{cite web|title=Rwanda's forgotten tribe which was nearly wiped off by genocide|url=http://newsafrica.co.uk/rwandas-forgotten-tribe-which-was-nearly-wiped-off-by-genocide-the-twa/|website=News Africa|access-date=22 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323144044/http://newsafrica.co.uk/rwandas-forgotten-tribe-which-was-nearly-wiped-off-by-genocide-the-twa/|archive-date=23 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Rwandan Patriotic Front's military campaign and victory == [[File:RPF advance Rwandan Genocide 1994.svg|thumb|300px|Map showing the advance of the RPF during the Rwandan genocide of 1994]] On 7 April, as the genocide started, RPF commander Paul Kagame warned the crisis committee and UNAMIR that he would resume the civil war if the killing did not stop.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=247}} The next day, Rwandan government forces attacked the national parliament building from several directions, but RPF troops stationed there successfully fought back.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|pp=264–65}} The RPF then began an attack from the north on three fronts, seeking to link up quickly with the isolated troops in Kigali.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=269}} Kagame refused to talk to the interim government, believing that it was just a cover for Bagosora's rule and not committed to ending the genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=268}} Over the next few days, the RPF advanced steadily south, capturing Gabiro and large areas of the countryside to the north and east of Kigali.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=288}} They avoided attacking the capital city Kigali or [[Byumba]], but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle the cities and cut off supply routes.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=299}} The RPF also allowed Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line in the RPF controlled areas.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=299}}

Throughout April, there were numerous attempts by UNAMIR to establish a ceasefire, but Kagame insisted each time that the RPF would not stop fighting unless the killings stopped.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=300}} In late April, the RPF secured the whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move west from Kibungo, to the south of Kigali.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|pp=326–27}} They encountered little resistance, except around Kigali and Ruhengeri.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=268}} By 16 May, they had cut the road between Kigali and [[Gitarama]], the temporary home of the interim government, and by 13 June, had taken Gitarama itself, following an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan government forces to reopen the road; the interim government was forced to relocate to [[Gisenyi]] in the far north west.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=410}} As well as fighting the war, Kagame was recruiting heavily to expand the army. The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and refugees from Burundi, but were less well trained and disciplined than the earlier recruits.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=270}}

Having completed the encirclement of Kigali, the RPF spent the latter half of June fighting for the city itself.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=421}} The government forces had superior manpower and weapons, but the RPF steadily gained territory as well as conducting raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy lines.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=421}} According to Dallaire, this success was due to Kagame's being a "master of psychological warfare";{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=421}} he exploited the fact that the government forces were concentrating on the genocide rather than the fight for Kigali, and capitalised on the government's loss of morale as it lost territory.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=421}} The RPF finally defeated the Rwandan government forces in Kigali on 4 July,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=459}} and on 18 July took Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest, forcing the interim government to flee into Zaire and finally ending the genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=298–99}} At the end of July 1994, Kagame's forces held the whole of Rwanda except for the zone in the south-west which had been occupied by a French-led United Nations force as part of [[Opération Turquoise]].{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|pp=474–75}}

The [[Liberation Day]] for Rwanda would come to be marked as 4 July and is commemorated as [[Public holidays in Rwanda|a public holiday]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Official holidays |url=http://www.gov.rw/Official-holidays |access-date=12 November 2013 |publisher=[[Government of Rwanda|gov.rw]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911035627/http://www.gov.rw/Official-holidays |archive-date=11 September 2013 }}</ref>

===Killings by the Rwandan Patriotic Front=== {{see also|Double genocide theory (Rwanda)}} During the genocide and in the months following the RPF victory, RPF soldiers killed many people, although the number of casualties is disputed. [[Alison Des Forges]] was one of the first researchers to conclude that RPF committed atrocities in a systematic fashion that were directed by officers with a high level of authority. She estimated that RPF killed around 30,000 people considered enemies of the Tutsi.<ref name="Meierhenrich" />{{sfn|Des Forges|1999|loc=[https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm "The Rwandan Patriotic Front"]|ps=: "certain kinds of RPF abuses occurred so often and in such similar ways that they must have been directed by officers at a high level of responsibility."}} Some witnesses blamed Kagame himself for ordering killings.{{sfn|Reyntjens|2013|pp=98–101|ps=: "In a number of cases, witnesses from within the RPA interviewed by the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICTR declared that Kagame himself ordered some of the killings."}} After ICTR investigators reportedly discovered two layers of bodies in a mass grave in [[Kibuye, Rwanda|Kibuye]] in early 1996—one of Tutsi victims of the genocide and another left by RPF killings of Hutu civilians—further forensic investigations were prohibited by the Rwandan government.{{sfn|Reydams|2020|ps=. In March 1996, the ICTR chief prosecutor requested funding to hire forensic investigators and a statistical/demographic advisor. 'Forensic analysis is critical to the investigation of the Tribunal. It is proposed to establish a Forensic Unit to undertake scientific analysis relating to the mass murders' (United Nations 1996, para. 40, emphasis added). A month later, the Tribunal's registrar announced: "Acting on the advice of the Government of Rwanda and with due respect to the wishes of the families of the deceased, no further mass graves will be exhumed by the Office of the Prosecutor" (Adede 1996, emphasis added).<br />What happened? An ICTR excavation in January–February 1996 of a mass grave in Kibuye, the first of its kind, had met with a street protest in the capital and disapproval from the government. According to a former tribunal official, excavations were "not something that the Rwandan government was happy with" (quoted in O'Brien 2011, 168; see also Korman 2015, 203–220). Investigators reportedly had discovered "two layers" of bodies, one of Tutsi genocide victims and one of Hutu civilians killed by the RPF (Guichaoua 2020, 132).}} French scholar [[André Guichaoua]] charged the post-genocide government with deliberate [[destruction of evidence]] regarding killings of Hutu to avoid prosecution by the ICTR.{{sfn|Guichaoua|2020|ps=. Hutu victims: deliberate destruction of evidence<br />Concerning this second aspect of the remembrance policy, the political barriers to counting victims have been ongoing and systematic since the war had begun in 1990 RPF offensive. Each major period and event mentioned above corresponds to significant numbers of Hutu, military and civilian victims, none of whom were ever counted. The only obstacle weighing on RPF leaders were, if necessary, eliminating or fighting off the threat of an ICTR prosecution. While only theoretical, the threat could have become real at any time.}} Some critics have suggested that these crimes should have been prosecuted by the ICTR,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waldorf |first1=Lars |title="A Mere Pretense of Justice": Complementarity, Sham Trials, and Victor's Justice at the Rwanda Tribunal |journal=Fordham International Law Journal |date=2011 |volume=33 |issue=4 |page=1221 |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ilj/vol33/iss4/3/ |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121058/https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ilj/vol33/iss4/3/ |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> or even [[double genocide theory (Rwanda)|amounted to genocide under international law]].{{sfn|Rever|2018|p=228|ps=: "The legal definition of genocide has nothing to do with numbers killed. It defines genocide as the 'intent to destroy, ''in whole or in part'', a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.'"}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=René |last=Lemarchand |author-link=René Lemarchand |title=Rwanda: the state of Research {{!}} Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche |website=www.sciencespo.fr |date=25 June 2018 |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research |issn=1961-9898 |quote=The double genocide thesis cannot be dismissed out of hand. After the publication of Judi Rever's expose of the crimes of the RPF, there appears to be considerable evidence to justify the use of the g-word to describe such atrocities. |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119173416/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/rwanda-state-research |archive-date=19 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |title=Kagame should be in court |url=http://www.france-rwanda.info/2018/05/kagame-should-be-in-court-prof-filip-reyntjens.html |publisher=La Tribune Franco-Rwandaise |date=26 May 2018 |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121157/http://www.france-rwanda.info/2018/05/kagame-should-be-in-court-prof-filip-reyntjens.html |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> In contrast, the post-genocide regime maintains that killings by RPF soldiers were perpetrated by undisciplined recruits seeking revenge and that all such transgressions were promptly punished.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=189}}

The first rumours of RPF killings emerged after 250,000 mostly Hutu refugees streamed into Tanzania at the border crossing of [[Rusumo, Rwanda|Rusumo]] on 28 April 1994.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lamair |first1=Philippe |title=Refugees Magazine Issue 97 (NGOs and UNHCR) – Cooperation crucial in Rwanda crisis |url=https://www.unhcr.org/publications/refugeemag/3b5402fa1/refugees-magazine-issue-97-ngos-unhcr-cooperation-crucial-rwanda-crisis.html |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |language=en |date=1 September 1994 |access-date=5 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106153247/https://www.unhcr.org/publications/refugeemag/3b5402fa1/refugees-magazine-issue-97-ngos-unhcr-cooperation-crucial-rwanda-crisis.html |archive-date=6 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The refugees had fled before the Tutsi rebels arrived because they believed the RPF were committing atrocities. A spokesperson for the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) observed that "There's a lot of propaganda by the Government radio aimed at the Hutu" which "makes them feel very anti-Tutsi."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lorch |first1=Donatella |title=Out of Rwanda's Horrors into a Sickening Squalor |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/08/world/out-of-rwanda-s-horrors-into-a-sickening-squalor.html |work=The New York Times |date=8 May 1994 |access-date=5 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010417/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/08/world/out-of-rwanda-s-horrors-into-a-sickening-squalor.html |archive-date=6 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the RPF took control of the border crossing at Rusumo on 30 April,{{sfn|Guichaoua|2015|p=xlvi}} refugees continued to cross the [[Kagera River]], ending up in remote areas of Tanzania.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lorch |first1=Donatella |title=Thousands of Fleeing Rwandans Huddle at Remote Tanzania Site |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/19/world/thousands-of-fleeing-rwandans-huddle-at-remote-tanzania-site.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 May 1994 |access-date=5 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010234/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/19/world/thousands-of-fleeing-rwandans-huddle-at-remote-tanzania-site.html |archive-date=6 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> In early May, the UNHCR began hearing concrete accounts of atrocities and made this information public on 17 May.{{sfn|Des Forges|1999|loc=[https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm#P987_304596 "The Rwandan Patriotic Front"]|ps=: "[The UNHCR] began hearing accounts of RPF killings from refugees in early May and became sufficiently concerned to make public the allegations on May 17."}}<ref>{{cite web|work=[[Refugees International]]|date=17 May 1994|last=Prutsalis|first=Mark|url=https://rwandadok.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/1994-05-17-rwandan-refugees-in-tanzania-new-arrivals-report.pdf|title=Rwandan Refugees in Tanzania, New Arrivals Report|id=Sitrep #10|access-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222855/https://rwandadok.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/1994-05-17-rwandan-refugees-in-tanzania-new-arrivals-report.pdf|archive-date=30 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Reyntjens|2013|p=100}}

After the RPF took power in Rwanda, UNHCR sent a team led by [[Robert Gersony]] to investigate the prospects for a speedy return of the nearly two million refugees that had fled Rwanda since April. After interviewing 300 people, Gersony concluded that "clearly systematic murders and persecution of the Hutu population in certain parts of the country" had taken place. Gersony's findings were suppressed by the United Nations.{{sfn|Des Forges|1999|loc=[https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm#P1002_309600 "The Rwandan Patriotic Front]}} The [[Gersony Report]] did not technically exist because Gersony did not complete it,{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=466n111|ps=: "[That the Gersony Report did not exist] was technically true because there were only field notes. Robert Gersony later told me that knowing full well that it would never be published, he had never done the work of writing out a fully developed version, keeping it only in synthetic documentary form."}} but a summary of an oral presentation of his findings was leaked in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://speakingout.msf.org/sites/default/files/47-19941010UNHCRGersonyreport.pdf|title=Summary of UNHCR presentation before commission of experts, 10 October 1994 – Prospects for early repatriation of Rwandan refugees currently in Burundi, Tanzania and Zaïre|last=Gersony|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Gersony|date=10 October 1994|access-date=17 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121209/http://speakingout.msf.org/sites/default/files/47-19941010UNHCRGersonyreport.pdf|archive-date=19 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rever |first1=Judi |title=Why we must listen to those who have fled Kagame's Rwanda |url=https://www.opencanada.org/features/why-we-must-listen-those-who-have-fled-kagames-rwanda/ |work=[[OpenCanada]] |date=9 April 2018 |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322205855/https://www.opencanada.org/features/why-we-must-listen-those-who-have-fled-kagames-rwanda/ |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Gersony's personal conclusion was that between April and August 1994, the RPF had killed "between 25,000 and 45,000 persons, between 5,000 and 10,000 persons each month from April through July and 5,000 for the month of August."{{sfn|Des Forges|1999}} The new authorities categorically denied the allegations of Gersony,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bakuramutsa |first1=Manzi |title=Letter Dated 28 September 1994 From the Permanent Representative of Rwanda to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council |id=S/1994/1115 |url=https://undocs.org/S/1994/1115 |publisher=United Nations |date=29 September 1994 |quote=We categorically deny the following unfounded allegations made by the officials of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): (a) That there are systematic and organized killings by the Government causing insecurity in the country; (b) That there is a mass exodus of people fleeing the country to the neighbouring United Republic of Tanzania; (c) That refugees do not return because of the alleged insecurity in the country. |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117013437/https://undocs.org/S/1994/1115 |archive-date=17 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> details of which leaked to the press.<ref name="Bonner1994">{{cite news |last=Bonner |first=Raymond |author-link=Raymond Bonner |title=U.N. Stops Returning Rwandan Refugees |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/09/28/world/un-stops-returning-rwandan-refugees.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=28 September 1994 |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121209/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/09/28/world/un-stops-returning-rwandan-refugees.html |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to an RPA officer, "There was not time to do proper screening. ... We needed a force, and some of those recruited were thieves and criminals. Those people have been responsible for much of our trouble today."{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=189}} In an interview with journalist [[Stephen Kinzer]], Kagame acknowledged that killings had occurred but stated that they were carried out by rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=191}}

The RPF killings gained international attention with the 1995 [[Kibeho massacre]], in which soldiers opened fire on a camp for [[internally displaced persons]] in [[Butare Province|Butare prefecture]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Lorch |first=Donatella |date=25 April 1995 |title=Mood Grim at Camp in Rwanda |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/25/world/mood-grim-at-camp-in-rwanda.html |access-date=16 November 2012 |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810024836/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/25/world/mood-grim-at-camp-in-rwanda.html |archive-date=10 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated at least 4,000 people were killed,<ref>{{cite web |title=Rwanda (UNAMIR), 1993 – 1996 |author=Australian War Memorial |author-link=Australian War Memorial |work=War history |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/U60680/ |access-date=28 April 2020 |archive-date=29 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629135459/https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/U60680/ |url-status=live }}</ref> while the Rwandan government claimed that the death toll was 338.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=42}}

== International involvement == {{Main|International response to the Rwandan genocide}}

===Media=== On April 11, the events were described for the first time as [[genocide]] by the Swiss journalist [[Jean-Philippe Ceppi]], in the French daily newspaper [[Libération]].<ref>{{cite journal|language=fr |last=Le Pape |first=Marc |title=Des journalistes au Rwanda – L'histoire immédiate d'un génocide |journal=[[Les Temps Modernes]] |volume=583 |date=July–August 1995 |pages=161–180 |location=Paris}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Tommy |last=Gustafsson |title=Historical Media Memories |url=https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/pub/media/ebooks/9781399517355.pdf |page=51 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2024 |isbn=9781399517355}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |language=fr |title=Planification et mise en œuvre du génocide perpétré contre les Tutsis au Rwanda : Rwanda 1991-1994 |page=89 |publisher=Commission Nationale de Lutte contre le Génocide (CNLG) |year=2021 |url=https://issuu.com/diplomatica/docs/genocide}}</ref>

=== United Nations === {{Main|UNAMIR}}

[[File:Belgian Soldier Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|The building in which ten Belgian UNAMIR soldiers were massacred and mutilated. Today the site is preserved as a memorial for the soldiers.]] The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda ([[United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda|UNAMIR]]) had been in Rwanda since October 1993,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=98}} with a mandate to oversee the implementation of the Arusha Accords.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=194}} UNAMIR commander [[Roméo Dallaire]] learned of the Hutu Power movement during the mission's deployment,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=146}} as well as plans for the mass extermination of Tutsi.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=150}} He also became aware of secret weapons caches through an informant, but his request to raid them was turned down by the UN [[Department of Peacekeeping Operations]] (DPKO),{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=146}} which felt that Dallaire was exceeding his mandate and had to be kept "on a leash".<ref name="GenocideFax"/><ref name="pogge">{{cite book|last1=Pogge|first1=Thomas|title=Politics as Usual|date=2010|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3892-8|pages=168–70}}</ref> Seizing the weapons was argued to be squarely within UNAMIR's mandate; both sides had requested UNAMIR and it had been authorized by the UN Security Council in [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 872|Resolution 872]].<ref name="pogge"/>

UNAMIR's effectiveness in peacekeeping was also hampered by President Habyarimana and Hutu hardliners,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=205}} and by April 1994, the Security Council threatened to terminate UNAMIR's mandate if it did not make progress.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|pp=219–20}} Following the death of Habyarimana, and the start of the genocide, Dallaire liaised repeatedly with both the Crisis Committee and the RPF, attempting to re-establish peace and prevent the resumption of the civil war.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=236–37}} Neither side was interested in a ceasefire, the government because it was controlled by the genocidaires, and the RPF because it considered it necessary to fight to stop the killings.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=247}} UNAMIR's [[Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter|Chapter VI mandate]] rendered it powerless to intervene militarily,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=261}} and most of its Rwandan staff were killed in the early days of the genocide, severely limiting its ability to operate.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=247}}

UNAMIR was therefore largely reduced to a bystander role, and Dallaire later labelled it a "failure".{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=6}} Its most significant contribution was to provide refuge for thousands of Tutsi and moderate Hutu at its headquarters in [[Amahoro Stadium]], as well as other secure UN sites,{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=270}} and to assist with the evacuation of foreign nationals. On 12 April, the Belgian government, which was one of the largest troop contributors to UNAMIR,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=204}} and had lost ten soldiers protecting Prime Minister Uwilingiliyimana, announced that it was withdrawing, reducing the force's effectiveness even further.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=197}} On 17 May 1994, the UN passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 918|Resolution 918]], which imposed an arms embargo and reinforced UNAMIR, which would be known as UNAMIR II.{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=229}} The new soldiers did not start arriving until June,{{sfn|Melvern|2004|p=411}} and following the end of the genocide in July, the role of UNAMIR II was largely confined to maintaining security and stability, until its termination in 1996.{{sfn|United Nations}}

=== France and Opération Turquoise === {{Main|Role of France in the Rwandan genocide}}

[[File:French milouf DF-ST-99-05514.JPEG|thumb|upright|[[French marine]] parachutists stand guard at the airport, August 1994.]]

During President Habyarimana's years in power, France maintained close relations with him, as part of its ''[[Françafrique]]'' policy,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=89}} and assisted Rwanda militarily against the RPF during the Civil War;{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=100–01}} France considered the RPF, along with Uganda, as part of a "plot" to increase Anglophone influence at the expense of French influence.{{sfn|Melvern|2008}} During the first few days of the genocide, France launched ''Amaryllis'', a military operation assisted by the Belgian army and UNAMIR, to evacuate expatriates from Rwanda.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=234}} The French and Belgians refused to allow any Tutsi to accompany them, and those who boarded the evacuation trucks were forced off at Rwandan government checkpoints, where they were killed.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=235}} The French also separated several expatriates and children from their Tutsi spouses, rescuing the foreigners but leaving the Rwandans to likely death.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=235}} They rescued several high-profile members of Habyarimana's government, as well as his wife, Agathe.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=235}}

In late June 1994, France launched ''[[Opération Turquoise]]'', a UN-mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for [[displaced person]]s, [[refugee]]s, and civilians in danger. From bases in the Zairian cities of [[Goma]] and [[Bukavu]], the French entered southwestern Rwanda and established the ''zone Turquoise'', within the [[Cyangugu]]–[[Kibuye, Rwanda|Kibuye]]–[[Gikongoro]] triangle, an area occupying approximately a fifth of Rwanda.{{sfn|United Nations}} Radio France International estimates that Turquoise saved around 15,000 lives,{{sfn|RFI|2014}} but with the genocide coming to an end and the RPF's ascendancy, many Rwandans interpreted ''Turquoise'' as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide.{{sfn|Fassbender|2011|p=27}} The French remained hostile to the RPF, and their presence temporarily stalled the RPF's advance.{{sfn|McGreal|2007}}

A number of inquiries have been held into French involvement in Rwanda, including the 1998 [[French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda]],{{sfn|BBC News (I)|1998}} which accused France of errors of judgement, including "military cooperation against a background of ethnic tensions, massacres and violence",{{sfn|Whitney|1998}} but did not accuse France of direct responsibility for the genocide itself.{{sfn|Whitney|1998}} A 2008 report by the Rwandan government-sponsored [[Mucyo Commission]] accused the French government of knowing of preparations for the genocide and helping to train Hutu militia members.{{sfn|BBC News (III)|2008}}{{sfn|Asiimwe|2008}} In 2019, President Macron decided to reopen the issue of French involvement in the genocide by commissioning a new team to sort through the state archives.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Genin |first=Aaron |date=30 April 2019 |title=France Resets African Relations: a Potential Lesson for President Trump |url=https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501003400/https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/ |archive-date=1 May 2019 |access-date=1 May 2019 |website=The California Review |language=en-US}}</ref>

In April 2021, the Rwandan government announced the study they had commissioned, alleging France "did nothing" to prevent what they deemed the "foreseeable" April and May 1994 massacres in the genocide.<ref>{{cite news |title=France "enabled" 1994 Rwanda genocide, report says |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/19/france-enabled-1994-rwanda-genocide-report-says |agency=Al Jazeera |date=19 April 2021 |access-date=3 May 2021 |archive-date=3 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503221619/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/19/france-enabled-1994-rwanda-genocide-report-says |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== United States === [[File:SETAF HISTORY 0004.JPEG|thumb|Convoy of American military vehicles bring fresh water from Goma to [[Great Lakes refugee crisis|Rwandan refugees]] located at camp Kimbumba, Zaire in August 1994.]] Intelligence reports indicate that United States president [[Bill Clinton]] and his cabinet were aware before the height of the massacre that a deliberate and systematic genocide to eliminate all Tutsis was planned.<ref>{{cite news|last=Carrol|first=Rory|title=US chose to ignore Rwandan genocide|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/31/usa.rwanda|publisher=theguardian|location=London|date=1 April 2004|access-date=13 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228191139/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/31/usa.rwanda|archive-date=28 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Fear of a repeat of the events in Somalia shaped US policy at the time, with many commentators identifying the graphic consequences of the [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]] as the key reason behind the US's failure to intervene in later conflicts such as the Rwandan genocide. After the battle, the bodies of several US casualties of the conflict were dragged through the streets of Mogadishu by crowds of local civilians and members of [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid|Aidid]]'s [[Somali National Alliance]]. According to the former US deputy special envoy to Somalia, Walter Clarke: "The ghosts of Somalia continue to haunt US policy. Our lack of response in Rwanda was a fear of getting involved in something like a Somalia all over again."<ref>{{cite web |title=Ambush in Mogadishu: Transcript |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=27 October 2009 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ambush/etc/script.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506142008/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ambush/etc/script.html |archive-date=6 May 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."<ref>{{cite news|last=Chozick|first=Amy|title=In Africa, Bill Clinton Toils for a Charitable Legacy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/us/politics/in-africa-bill-clinton-works-to-leave-a-charitable-legacy.html |access-date=18 October 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022022004/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/us/politics/in-africa-bill-clinton-works-to-leave-a-charitable-legacy.html |archive-date=22 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Eighty percent of the discussion in Washington concerned the evacuation of American citizens.<ref name = "Rwanda Revisited">{{cite web | last = Lynch | first = Colum | date = 5 April 2015 | title = Exclusive: Rwanda Revisited | url = https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/05/rwanda-revisited-genocide-united-states-state-department/ | website = foreignpolicy.com | access-date = 8 April 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150408050432/http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/05/rwanda-revisited-genocide-united-states-state-department/ | archive-date = 8 April 2015 | url-status=live | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Arms sales to Rwanda === In her 2004 book, Linda Melvern documented that "in the three years from October 1990, Rwanda, one of the poorest countries in the world, became the third largest importer of weapons in Africa, spending an estimated $US 112 million." She cited a significant contract with Egypt in 1992, and with France and South Africa, the next year.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://m.huffpost.com/us/entry/5135559?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAABJKuaNTOxlYWbhsLlgPMEXAXdgcbv2XcAr5B84Hhvv009MaZ20vA2__90WowDyO5-z1Q0suv0C23fhXs9IrnLOG6xVb9vsmyR6VXW5MOFonfMGgajuG1QM8lwihbu9ar0AjlrXLPS10ct26hWoYq35ux3wT-6CHhk0CtD7Dxvm9 |title=A Closer Look at Where Rwanda's Lethal Weapons Came From |last=Gallimore |first=Tim |work=Huffington Post |date=11 April 2014 |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051251/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/a-closer-look-at-where-rw_b_5135559?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAABJKuaNTOxlYWbhsLlgPMEXAXdgcbv2XcAr5B84Hhvv009MaZ20vA2__90WowDyO5-z1Q0suv0C23fhXs9IrnLOG6xVb9vsmyR6VXW5MOFonfMGgajuG1QM8lwihbu9ar0AjlrXLPS10ct26hWoYq35ux3wT-6CHhk0CtD7Dxvm9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a7fc8.html |title=Arming Rwanda – the Arms Trade and Human Rights Abuses in the Rwandan War |work=Human Rights Watch |date=1 January 1994 |issue=A601 |via=refworld.org |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814202808/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a7fc8.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Before the international embargo against Rwanda on 17 May 1994, South Africa and France were two of the main suppliers of arms to Rwanda. According to [[Human Rights Watch]], after the embargo, they diverted their arms trade through [[Goma]] airport in [[Zaire]]. Zaire played a key role in supplying arms and facilitating arms flows to the Rwandan army. Some officials also encouraged arms trafficking by private dealers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm |title=RWANDA/ZAIRE Rearming with Impunity International Support for the Perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide |work=Human Rights Watch |volume=7 |number=4 |date=May 1995 |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426155415/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2017, according to [[Haaretz]], Israel or Israeli private arms dealers had sold arms to the Rwandan government.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2015-01-03/ty-article/.premium/the-israeli-guns-in-the-rwanda-genocide/0000017f-db06-df9c-a17f-ff1ef7130000 |title=The Israeli Guns That Took Part in the Rwanda Genocide |url-status=live |last=Misgav |first=Uri |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002164844/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.635058 |archive-date=2 October 2017 |work=Haaretz |date=3 January 2015}}</ref> Israeli officials repeatedly denied this allegation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/africa/1556826403-israel-was-aware-of-violence-against-hutus-before-rwandan-genocide-new-documents-show |title=Israel was aware of violence against Hutus before Rwandan genocide, new documents show |work=i24news.tv |date=2 May 2019 |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523223431/https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/africa/1556826403-israel-was-aware-of-violence-against-hutus-before-rwandan-genocide-new-documents-show |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2016, a petition was submitted to the [[Israeli Supreme Court]], which ruled that the records which document Israel's arms sales, notably to Rwanda, will remain sealed, citing section nine of Israel's Freedom of Information Act which allows for non-disclosure if in releasing "the information there is a concern over harming national security, its foreign relations, the security of its public or the security or well-being of an individual".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/records-of-israeli-arms-sales-during-rwandan-genocide-to-remain-sealed/ |title=Records of Israeli arms sales during Rwandan genocide to remain sealed |last=Gross |first=Judah Ari |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112202315/https://www.timesofisrael.com/records-of-israeli-arms-sales-during-rwandan-genocide-to-remain-sealed/ |archive-date=12 January 2018 |work=The Times of Israel |date=12 April 2016}}</ref>

===Catholic Church=== [[File:Bouquets on Mass Grave - Catholic Church Memorial - Nyamata - Rwanda.jpg|thumb|A memorial in a Catholic Church]] [[Pope John Paul II]] expressed his deep concern about what was happening in April 1994. On 9 April, in a message to Rwandan Catholics he urged them "not to give way to feelings of hatred and revenge but to courageously practice dialogue and forgiveness".<ref>{{cite web |title=VATICAN – The Pope's anguished and repeated calls during the genocide in Rwanda: "Do not give in to the temptation of hatred and revenge. At this tragic stage of the life of your country, be builders of peace and love" |url=http://www.fides.org/en/news/2156-VATICAN_The_Pope_s_anguished_and_repeated_calls_during_the_genocide_in_Rwanda_Do_not_give_in_to_the_temptation_of_hatred_and_revenge_At_this_tragic_stage_of_the_life_of_your_country_be_builders_of_peace_and_love |website=agenzia fides |publisher=Information service of the Pontifical Mission Societies |access-date=3 June 2022 |date=6 April 2004 |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603204453/http://www.fides.org/en/news/2156-VATICAN_The_Pope_s_anguished_and_repeated_calls_during_the_genocide_in_Rwanda_Do_not_give_in_to_the_temptation_of_hatred_and_revenge_At_this_tragic_stage_of_the_life_of_your_country_be_builders_of_peace_and_love |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Catholic Church]] affirms that genocide took place but states that those who took part in it did so without the permission of the Church.<ref name="wf"/> Though religious factors were not prominent, in its 1999 report [[Human Rights Watch]] faulted a number of religious authorities in Rwanda, [[Catholic Church in Rwanda|including Catholics]], [[Anglican Church of Rwanda|Anglicans]] and other [[Protestantism|Protestant denominations]], for failing to condemn the genocide, though that accusation was belied over time.<ref name="ADF 1999 Orgnztn Clergy">{{Harvnb|Des Forges|1999|loc=[https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno4-7-03.htm#P893_245534 "The Organization » The Clergy"]}}</ref> Many other clergymen gave their lives to prevent Tutsis from being killed.<ref name="ADF 1999 Orgnztn Clergy"/>

Some clergy participated in the massacres. Catholic nuns [[Maria Kisito]] and Gertrude Mukangango were convicted in 2001 of involvement in the murders of 5,000–7,000 Tutsis who had sought refuge at their convent in [[Sovu, Rwanda|Sovu]]. Witnesses testified that they had directed a death squad to the hiding place of 500-700 victims and had given petrol with which to burn down the building.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 June 2001 |title=Nuns jailed for genocide role |language=en-GB |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1376692.stm |access-date=2022-11-10 |archive-date=10 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110183310/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1376692.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2006, Father [[Athanase Seromba]] was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment (increased on appeal to life imprisonment) by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda for his role in the massacre of 2,000 Tutsis. The court heard that Seromba lured the Tutsis to the church, where they believed they would find refuge. When they arrived, he ordered that bulldozers should be used to crush the refugees who were hiding inside the church and if any of them were still alive, Hutu militias should kill them all.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna16189347 |title=Ex-priest jailed for Rwanda genocide |work=NBC News |date=13 December 2006 |access-date=30 September 2012 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019104905/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16189347/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/mar/29/pope-catholics-rwanda-genocide-church |title=For Rwandans, the pope's apology must be unbearable |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=30 September 2012 |location=London |first=Martin |last=Kimani |date=29 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909151415/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/mar/29/pope-catholics-rwanda-genocide-church |archive-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some in the Catholic Church's religious hierarchy were later tried and convicted for their participation in the genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.<ref name="wf">{{Harvnb|Totten|Bartrop|Jacobs|2008|p=380}}.</ref> Bishop Misago was accused of corruption and complicity in the genocide, but he was cleared of all charges in 2000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/791907.stm |work=BBC News |title=Rwandan bishop cleared of genocide |date=15 June 2000 |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051222040414/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/791907.stm |archive-date=22 December 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 20 March 2017, [[Pope Francis]] acknowledged that while some Catholic nuns and priests in the country were killed during the genocide, others were complicit in it and took part in preparing and executing the genocide.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Amatulli |first1=Jenna |title=Pope Francis Asks For Catholic Church To Be Forgiven For Role in Rwandan Genocide |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/pope-francis-asks-for-catholic-church-to-be-forgiven-for-role-in-rwandan-genocide_us_58cff7cee4b0ec9d29dda49e |work=Huffington Post |date=20 March 2017 |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010043248/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/pope-francis-asks-for-catholic-church-to-be-forgiven-for-role-in-rwandan-genocide_us_58cff7cee4b0ec9d29dda49e |archive-date=10 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Aftermath == [[File:Rwandan refugees at the Kitali refugee camp DF-ST-99-05606.jpg|thumb|Kitali [[refugee camp]], [[Zaire]] (1994)]] Hutu refugees particularly entered the eastern portion of [[Zaire]] (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or DRC). Hutu ''genocidaires'' began to regroup in refugee camps along the border with Rwanda. Declaring a need to avert further genocide, the RPF-led government made military incursions into Zaire, resulting in the [[First Congo War|First]] (1996–97) and [[Second Congo War|Second]] (1998–2003) Congo Wars. Armed struggles between the Rwandan government and their opponents in the DRC have continued through battles of proxy militias in the [[Goma]] region, including the [[M23 rebellion (2012–2013)|M23 rebellion]] (2012–2013). Large Rwandan Hutu and Tutsi populations continue to live as refugees throughout the region.

===Refugee crisis, insurgency, and two Congo Wars=== {{main|Great Lakes refugee crisis|First Congo War|Second Congo War}}

[[File:Rwandan refugee camp in east Zaire.jpg|thumb|Kimbumba refugee camp in [[Goma]], Zaire (1994)|alt=View of refugee camp on foggy day, showing tents of various colours and the refugees]] Following the RPF victory, approximately two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries, particularly [[Zaire]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-long-wait-the-rwandan-refugees-in-zaire/|title=The long wait: The Rwandan refugees in Zaire|date=13 November 1995|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726023133/https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-long-wait-the-rwandan-refugees-in-zaire/|url-status=live}}</ref> fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan genocide.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=312}} The camps were crowded and squalid, and thousands of refugees died in disease epidemics, including [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bb60.pdf |title= Ch. 10: "The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath" |access-date= 13 August 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070925211343/http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bb60.pdf |archive-date= 25 September 2007 |url-status=live |df= dmy-all }} in ''State of the World's Refugees 2000'', [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]</ref> The camps were set up by the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR), but were effectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime, including many leaders of the genocide,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=313–14}} who began rearming in a bid to return to power in Rwanda.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=381–382}}<ref name="Pomfret1997">{{cite news |last=Pomfret |first=John |date=9 July 1997 |title=Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/congo/stories/070997.htm |access-date=16 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030193237/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/congo/stories/070997.htm |archive-date=30 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

By late 1996, Hutu militants from the camps were launching regular cross-border incursions, and the RPF-led Rwandan government launched a counteroffensive.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=382}} Rwanda provided troops and military training to the [[Banyamulenge]],<ref name="Pomfret1997"/> a Tutsi group in the Zairian [[South Kivu]] province,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=384–85}} helping them to defeat Zairian security forces. Rwandan forces, the Banyamulenge, and other Zairian Tutsi, then attacked the refugee camps, targeting the Hutu militia.<ref name="Pomfret1997"/>{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=384–85}} These attacks caused hundreds of thousands of refugees to flee;{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=118}} many returned to Rwanda despite the presence of the RPF, while others ventured further west into Zaire.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=122–23}} The refugees fleeing further into Zaire were [[Hutu Genocide in Democratic Republic of Congo|relentlessly pursued by the RPA]] under the cover of the [[Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo|AFDL]] rebellion{{sfn|Reyntjens|2013|pages=110–15}} and 232,000 Hutu refugees were killed, according to one estimate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emizet |first1=Kisangani N. F. |title=The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law |journal=[[Journal of Modern African Studies]] |date=July 2000 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=163–202 |jstor=161648 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X0000330X |s2cid=154818651 }}</ref> The defeated forces of the former regime continued a cross-border insurgency campaign,{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=209}} supported initially by the predominantly Hutu population of Rwanda's northwestern prefectures.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=216}} By 1999,{{sfn|Brittain|1999}} a programme of propaganda and Hutu integration into the [[Rwandan Defence Forces|national army]] succeeded in bringing the Hutu to the government side and the insurgency was defeated.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=215–18}}

In addition to dismantling the refugee camps, Kagame began planning a war to remove long-time dictator [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] from power.<ref name="Pomfret1997"/> Mobutu had supported the ''genocidaires'' based in the camps, and was also accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within Zaire.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Byman |first1=Daniel |last2=Chalk |first2=Peter |last3=Hoffman |first3=Bruce |last4=Rosenau |first4=William |last5=Brannan |first5=David |year=2001 |title=Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements |publisher=Rand Corporation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0a11NarYXcC |isbn=978-0-8330-3232-4 |page=18 |access-date=22 August 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051253/https://books.google.com/books?id=R0a11NarYXcC |url-status=live }}</ref> Together with Uganda, the Rwandan government supported an alliance of four rebel groups headed by [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]], which began waging the [[First Congo War]] in 1996.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=113–16}} The rebels quickly took control of the [[North Kivu|North]] and [[South Kivu]] provinces and later advanced west, gaining territory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian army with little fighting,{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=128–33}} and controlling the whole country by 1997.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=136}} Mobutu fled into exile, and Zaire was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).{{sfn|BBC News (II)|2006}} Rwanda fell out with the new Congolese government in 1998, and Kagame supported a fresh rebellion, leading to the [[Second Congo War]], which would last up until 2003 and caused millions of deaths and massive damage.{{sfn|BBC News (II)|2006}}{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=182–83}} In 2010, a United Nations (UN) report accused the Rwandan army of committing wide-scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Congo during those wars, charges denied by the Rwandan government.<ref>{{cite news|last=McGreal|first=Chris|date=1 October 2010|title=Delayed UN report links Rwanda to Congo genocide|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/01/un-report-rwanda-congo-genocide|access-date=1 February 2017|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821165059/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/01/un-report-rwanda-congo-genocide|archive-date=21 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[A. Dirk Moses]] and two other scholars, Rwanda as well as Israel are the main states citing a traumatic past "to challenge the injunction against violent territorial expansion" under the guise of preventing future atrocities.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.noemamag.com/the-new-politics-of-territorial-expansion/ |access-date=7 June 2025 |title=The New Politics of Territorial Expansion |last1=Gilman |first1=Nils }}</ref>

===Domestic situation=== [[File:Rwanda-demography.png|thumb|Graph showing the population of Rwanda from 1961 to 2003<ref>UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>]] The infrastructure and economy of the country had suffered greatly during the genocide. Many buildings were uninhabitable, and the former regime had carried with them all currency and moveable assets when they fled the country.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=181}} Human resources were also severely depleted, with over {{Percentage|40|100|0}} of the population having been killed or fled.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=181}} Many of the remainder were traumatised:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/burying-the-machete-in-rwanda/|title=Burying the machete in Rwanda|date=1 March 1995|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=23 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723230835/https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/burying-the-machete-in-rwanda/|url-status=live}}</ref> most had lost relatives, witnessed killings or participated in the genocide.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |title=Rwanda |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |author-link=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007216 |access-date=16 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202235012/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007216 |archive-date=2 December 2012 }}</ref> The long-term effects of [[war rape]] in Rwanda for the victims include social isolation, [[sexually transmitted diseases]], unwanted pregnancies and babies, with some women resorting to self-induced abortions.<ref name="de Brouwer 2005 14">{{Harvnb|de Brouwer|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JhY8ROsA39kC&pg=PA14 14]}}</ref> The army, led by Paul Kagame, maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the country's structures.<ref name="Bonner1994"/>{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=187}}

[[Non-governmental organization|Non-governmental organisations]] began to move back into the country, but the [[international community]] did not provide significant assistance to the new government, and most [[Aid|international aid]] was routed to the refugee camps which had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from Rwanda.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=327–28}} Kagame strove to portray the new government as inclusive and not Tutsi-dominated. He directed the removal of ethnicity from Rwandan citizens' national identity cards, and the government began a policy of downplaying the distinctions between Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.<ref name="Bonner1994"/>

=== Justice system after genocide === The systematic destruction of the judicial system during the genocide and civil war was a major problem. After the genocide, over one million people (nearly one-fifth of the population remaining after the summer of 1994) were potentially culpable for a role in the genocide. The RPF pursued a policy of mass arrests for those responsible and for those persons who took part in the genocide, jailing over 100,000 people in the two years after the genocide. The pace of arrests overwhelmed the physical capacity of the Rwandan prison system, leading to what Amnesty International deemed "[[cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment]]".<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=The Abolition of the Death Penalty in Rwanda.|journal=Human Rights Review|volume=10|issue=99 }}</ref> The country's 19 prisons were designed to hold about 18,000 inmates total, but at their peak in 1998 there were over 100,000 people in crowded detention facilities across the country.<ref name=":0"/>

Government institutions, including judicial courts, were destroyed, and many judges, prosecutors, and employees were murdered during the genocide. Of Rwanda's 750 judges, 506 did not remain after the genocide—many were murdered and most of the survivors fled Rwanda. By 1997, Rwanda only had 50 lawyers in its judicial system.<ref name="Alana">{{Harvnb|Tiemessen|2004}}.</ref> These barriers caused the trials to proceed very slowly: with 130,000 suspects held in Rwandan prisons after the genocide,<ref name="Alana"/> 3,343 cases were handled between 1996 and the end of 2000.<ref name="Sarkin">{{Harvnb|Sarkin|2001}}.</ref> Of those defendants, 20% received death sentences, 32% received life in prison, and 20% were acquitted.<ref name="Sarkin"/> It was calculated that it would take over 200 years to conduct the trials of the suspects in prison—not including the ones who remained at large.<ref name="Powers">{{Harvnb|Powers|2011}}.</ref>

The RPF government began the long-awaited genocide trials, which had an uncertain start at the end of 1996 and inched forward in 1997. It was not until 1996 that courts finally began trials for genocide cases with the enactment of Organic Law No. 08/96 of 30 on 30 August 1996.<ref name="Summary">"Summary of the Report Presented at the Closing of Gacaca Courts Activities". Republic of Rwanda: National Service of Gacaca Courts. Kigali, 2012</ref> This law initiated the prosecution of genocide crimes committed during the genocide and of crimes against humanity from October 1990.<ref name="Summary"/> This law established the regular domestic courts as the core mechanism for responding to genocide until it was amended in 2001 to include the Gacaca courts. The Organic Law established four categories for those who were involved in the genocide, specifying the limits of punishment for members of each category. The first category was reserved those who were "planners, organizers, instigators, supervisors and leaders" of the genocide and any who used positions of state authority to promote the genocide. This category also applied to murderers who distinguished themselves on the basis of their zeal or cruelty, or who engaged in sexual torture. Members of this first category were eligible for the death sentence.<ref>"Organic Law No. 08/96 of 303 August on the Organization of Prosecutions for Offences Constituting the Crimes of Genocide or Crimes against Humanity Committed since 1 October 1990".</ref>

While Rwanda had the death penalty prior to the 1996 Organic law, in practice no executions had taken place since 1982. Twenty-two individuals, including [[Froduald Karamira]], were executed by firing squad in public executions in April 1998. After this, Rwanda conducted no further executions, albeit it continued to issue death sentences until 2003. On 25 July 2007 the Organic Law Relating to the Abolition of the Death Penalty came into law, abolishing capital punishment and converting all existing death sentences to life in prison under solitary confinement.<ref>Organic Law N° 31/2007 of 25 July 2007 Relating to the Abolition of the Death Penalty</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2007 |title=Rwanda: Abolition of the death penalty |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/afr470102007en.pdf |access-date=3 August 2022 |publisher=Amnesty International |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929075824/https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/afr470102007en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In parallel, the 2007 UN resolution presented and campaigns continued for a global moratorium on capital punishment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2020 |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 16 December 2020 |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3896434?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header |access-date=4 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728181843/https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3896434?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Gacaca courts === {{Main|Gacaca court}}

[[File:Gacaca trial 2.jpg|thumb|Gacaca]] In response to the overwhelming number of potentially culpable individuals and the slow pace of the traditional judicial system, the government of Rwanda passed Organic Law No. 40/2000 in 2001.<ref name="Tully">{{Harvnb|Tully|2003}}.</ref> This law established Gacaca Courts at all administrative levels of Rwanda and in Kigali.<ref name="Summary"/> It was mainly created to lessen the burden on normal courts and provide assistance in the justice system to run trials for those already in prison.<ref name="Sarkin"/> The least severe cases, according to the terms of Organic Law No. 08/96 of 30, would be handled by these Gacaca Courts.<ref name="Summary"/> With this law, the government began implementing a participatory justice system, known as [[Gacaca]], to address the enormous backlog of cases.<ref>{{cite news | last = Walker | first = Robert | date = 30 March 2004 | title = Rwanda still searching for justice | url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3557753.stm | website = BBC News | access-date = 1 June 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070826050047/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3557753.stm | archive-date = 26 August 2007 | url-status=live | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The Gacaca court system traditionally dealt with conflicts within communities, but it was adapted to deal with genocide crimes. Among the principal objectives of the courts were identification of the truth about what happened during the genocide, speeding up the process of trying genocide suspects, national unity and reconciliation, and demonstrating the capacity of the Rwandan people to resolve their own problems.<ref name="Summary"/>

The Gacaca court system faced many controversies and challenges; they were accused of being puppets of the RPF-dominated government.<ref name="Max">{{Harvnb|Rettig|2008}}.</ref> The judges (known as Inyangamugayo, which means "those who detest dishonesty" in [[Kinyarwanda]]) who preside over the genocide trials were elected by the public.<ref name="Max"/> After election, the judges received training, but there was concern that the training was not adequate for serious legal questions or complex proceedings.<ref name="Max"/> Furthermore, many judges resigned after facing accusations of participating in the genocide;<ref name="Max"/> 27% of them were so accused.<ref name="Summary"/> There was also a lack of defense counsel and protections for the accused,<ref name="Max"/> who were denied the right to appeal to ordinary courts.<ref name="Max"/> Most trials were open to the public, but there were issues with witness intimidation.<ref name="Max"/> The Gacaca courts did not try those responsible for massacres of Hutu civilians committed by members of the RPF, which controlled the Gacaca Court system.<ref name="Max"/>

On 18 June 2012, the Gacaca court system was officially closed after facing criticism.<ref>{{cite web | title = Rwanda "gacaca" genocide courts finish work | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18490348 | website = BBC News | date = 18 June 2012 | access-date = 1 June 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150308072112/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18490348 | archive-date = 8 March 2015 | url-status=live | df = dmy-all }}</ref> It is estimated that the Gacaca court system tried 1,958,634 cases during its lifetime and that 1,003,227 persons stood trial.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca Ingelaere, B. 2016. Inside Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Searching Justice after Genocide.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051252/https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca#v=snippet&q=ingelaere%20gacaca&f=false |date=16 January 2024 }} Madison: University of Wisconsin Press ({{ISBN|978-0-299-30970-1}}), pp. 28</ref>

=== International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda === {{Main|International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda}}

Meanwhile, the UN established the [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] (ICTR), based in [[Arusha]], Tanzania. The UN Tribunal tried high-level members of the government and armed forces, while Rwanda prosecuted lower-level leaders and local people.{{sfn|Des Forges|1999|loc=[https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-05.htm#P1081_336018 "Justice and Responsibility » The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda"]}}

Since the ICTR was established as an ad hoc international jurisdiction,<ref name="Akhavan">{{Harvnb|Akhavan|1996}}.</ref> the ICTR was scheduled to close by the end of 2014,<ref>{{cite web | title = UN genocide tribunal in Rwanda swears-in judges selected to finish its work | url = http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=41938 | website = UN News Centre | date = 7 May 2012 | access-date = 1 June 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160107171800/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=41938 | archive-date = 7 January 2016 | url-status=live | df = dmy-all }}</ref> after it would complete trials by 2009 and appeals by 2010 or 2011. Initially, the U.N. Security Council established the ICTR in 1994 with an original mandate of four years without a fixed deadline and set on addressing the crimes committed during the Rwandan genocide.{{sfn|Aptel|2008}} As the years passed, it became apparent that the ICTR would exist long past its original mandate. With the announcement of its closing, there was a concern over how residual issues would be handled, because "The nature of criminal judicial work ... is such that it never really ends."{{sfn|Aptel|2008}} The ICTR officially closed on 31 December 2015,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/23/rwanda-international-tribunal-closing-its-doors|title=Rwanda: International Tribunal Closing Its Doors|date=23 December 2015|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=13 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428131227/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/23/rwanda-international-tribunal-closing-its-doors|archive-date=28 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> and its remaining functions were handed over to the [[Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals]].

=== Censorship === {{see also|Censorship in Rwanda|Rwandan genocide denial}} Article 38 of the Constitution of Rwanda 2003 guarantees "the freedom of expression and freedom of access to information where it does not prejudice public order, good morals, the protection of the youth and children, the right of every citizen to honour and dignity and protection of personal and family privacy".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rwanda – Constitution & Politics |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/doi/10.1163/2213-2996_flg_COM_161034 |language=en |doi=10.1163/2213-2996_flg_COM_161034}}</ref> This has not guaranteed freedom of speech or expression given that the government has declared many forms of speech fall into the exceptions. Under these exceptions, longtime Rwandan president, [[Paul Kagame]], asserted that any acknowledgment of the separate people was detrimental to the unification of post-genocide Rwanda and has created numerous laws to prevent Rwandans from promoting a "genocide ideology" and "divisionism".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/rwanda0708/7.htm|title=Human Rights Watch|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220207/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/rwanda0708/7.htm|archive-date=18 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The law does not explicitly define such terms, nor does it state that one's beliefs must be spoken.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4acc9a4e2.html|title=Refworld {{!}} Rwanda: Law No. 18/2008 of 2008 Relating to the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Ideology|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|work=Refworld|access-date=1 December 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210063352/https://www.refworld.org/docid/4acc9a4e2.html|archive-date=10 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, the law defines divisionism as "the use of any speech, written statement, or action that divides people, that is likely to spark conflicts among people, or that causes an uprising which might degenerate into strife among people based on discrimination".<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |editor1-last=Thompson |editor1-first=Allan |date=2007 |title=The Media and the Rwanda Genocide |edition=IDRC |location=London |publisher=Pluto |isbn=978-1552503386 |oclc=93789421}}</ref> Fear of the possible ramifications from breaking these laws have caused a culture of self-censorship within the population. Both civilians and the press typically avoid anything that could be construed as critical of the government/military or promoting "divisionism".<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://cpj.org/reports/2014/12/legacy-of-rwanda-genocide-includes-media-restricti.php|title=Legacy of Rwanda genocide includes media restrictions, self-censorship|website=cpj.org|language=en|access-date=2 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210064229/https://cpj.org/reports/2014/12/legacy-of-rwanda-genocide-includes-media-restricti.php|archive-date=10 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Under the Rwandan constitution, "revisionism, negationism and trivialisation of genocide" are criminal offences.<ref name=muscara>{{cite news|author=Aprille Muscara|date=31 August 2010|title=RWANDA: Genocide Ideology and Sectarianism Laws Silencing Critics?|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/08/rwanda-genocide-ideology-and-sectarianism-laws-silencing-critics/|agency=[[Inter Press Service]]|access-date=9 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112021614/http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/08/rwanda-genocide-ideology-and-sectarianism-laws-silencing-critics/|archive-date=12 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Hundreds of people have been tried and convicted for "genocide ideology", "revisionism", and other laws ostensibly related to the genocide. According to Amnesty International, of the 489 individuals convicted of "genocide revisionism and other related crimes" in 2009, five were sentenced to life imprisonment, five were sentenced to more than 20 years in jail, 99 were sentenced to 10–20 years in jail, 211 received a custodial sentence of 5–10 years, and the remaining 169 received jail terms of less than five years.<ref>{{cite web |author=Amnesty International |year=2010 |title=Safer to Stay Silent: The chilling effect of Rwanda's laws on "genocide ideology" and "sectarianism" |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr47/005/2010/en/ |page=19 |access-date=18 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312042720/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr47/005/2010/en/ |archive-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live |author-link=Amnesty International }}</ref> [[Amnesty International]] has criticized the Rwandan government for using these laws to "[[Criminalization of dissent|criminalize legitimate dissent]] and criticism of the government".<ref>{{cite web|author=Amnesty International|year=2013|title=Annual Report 2013: Rwanda|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/rwanda/report-2013|access-date=14 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230120943/http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/rwanda/report-2013|archive-date=30 December 2013|url-status=live|author-link=Amnesty International}}</ref> In 2010, [[Peter Erlinder]], an American law professor and attorney, was arrested in Kigali and charged with genocide denial while serving as defense counsel for presidential candidate [[Victoire Ingabire]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gibson|first=Kate|year=2010|title=The Arrest of ICTR Defense Counsel Peter Erlinder in Rwanda|url=http://www.asil.org/sites/default/files/insight100811pdf.pdf|access-date=12 November 2013|journal=ASIL Insight|volume=14|issue=25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112023903/http://www.asil.org/sites/default/files/insight100811pdf.pdf|archive-date=12 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Survivors === The number of Tutsi survivors of the genocide has been debated. Different figures between 150,000 and 309,368 have been offered.<ref name="Meierhenrich" /> There are a number of organizations representing and supporting these survivors of the genocide. These include the [[Survivors Fund]], [[Ibuka (organisation)|IBUKA]] and [[AVEGA]].<ref>{{cite web |work=Survivors Fund |url=https://survivors-fund.org.uk/awareness-raising/come-together/ |title=Come Together |date=10 February 2014 |author=Sam Munderere |access-date=5 April 2019 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713062833/https://survivors-fund.org.uk/awareness-raising/come-together/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2007 report on the living conditions of survivors conducted by the Ministry of Social Affairs in Rwanda reported the following situation of survivors in the country:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miraclecorners.org/programs_partner_jacqueline.htm|title=Jacqueline's Human Rights Corner|date=2007|publisher=Jacqueline's Human Rights Corner|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501203037/http://www.miraclecorners.org/programs_partner_jacqueline.htm|archive-date=1 May 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |- |+ Survivors of the Rwandan genocide |- ! scope="col" | Category ! scope="col" | Number of survivors |- ! scope="row" | Very vulnerable survivors | align="right" | 120,080 |- ! scope="row" | Shelterless | align="right" | 39,685 |- ! scope="row" | Orphans living in households headed by children | align="right" | 28,904 |- ! scope="row" | Widows | align="right" | 49,656 |- ! scope="row" | Disabled during the genocide | align="right" | 27,498 |- ! scope="row" | Children and youth with no access to school | align="right" | 15,438 |- ! scope="row" | Graduates from high school with no access to higher education | align="right" | 8,000 |}

=== Evaluation of the humanitarian response in Rwanda and the reform of the humanitarian system === The magnitude of the crisis exposed significant flaws in the humanitarian response to complex emergencies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goma Epidemiology Group |first= |date=1995-02-11 |title=Public health impact of Rwandan refugee crisis: what happened in Goma, Zaire, in July, 1994? |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(95)90338-0/abstract |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=345 |issue=8946 |pages=339–344 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90338-0 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=7646638|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Recognizing its implications, the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs proposed an unprecedented Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda. One of the four studies that composed it analyzed the performance of the humanitarian system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda: Study III Main Findings and Recommendations |url=https://odihpn.org/en/publication/joint-evaluation-of-emergency-assistance-to-rwanda-study-iii-main-findings-and-recommendations/ |access-date=2026-04-26 |website=Humanitarian Practice Network |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The study revelead key problems like the political vacuum of the international community to prevent and stop the genocide, and the use of funding for humanitarian aid as a substitute for political and military actions.<ref name=":1" /> It also suggested key operational recommendations to improve the quality of humanitarian responses in complex humanitarian emergencies, related to investment in crisis preparedness and early warning mechanisms, coordination mechanisms, technical standards, NGO performance, and overall accountability of the humanitarian system. These recommendations helped promote the adoption of the recenty created [[Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief|Code of Conduct for Disaster Relief]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-01 |title=“A season in hell”: The Rwandan genocide and the ICRC's Fundamental Principles |url=http://international-review.icrc.org/articles/a-season-in-hell-the-rwandan-genocide-and-the-icrcs-fundamental-principles-925 |access-date=2026-04-26 |website=International Review of the Red Cross |language=en}}</ref>, and the launch of the [[Sphere (organization)|Sphere Project]] to improve effectiveness and accountability of humanitarian action.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-03-19 |title=20 years after the Rwandan Genocide: the unfinished accountability revolution. An interview with John Borton |url=https://spherestandards.org/20-years-after-rwandan-genocide/ |access-date=2026-04-26 |website=Sphere |language=en-US}}</ref>

Other initiatives were also born at this stage, as institutional responses to overcome the failures of the humanitarian system. These included the creation of the [[ALNAP|Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the ALNAP network |url=https://alnap.org/about/alnap-history/ |access-date=2026-04-26 |website=ALNAP |language=en}}</ref>, the founding of the promoters of the [[Core Humanitarian Standard on Quality and Accountability|Core Humanitarian Standard]], and the transformation of the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs into the current [[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|OCHA]], giving birth to modern humanitarianism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rwandan genocide and the birth of modern humanitarianism |url=https://saludeverywhere.com/en/humanitarian-aid-and-international-development/humanitarian-reform-after-the-1994-rwanda-crisis/ |access-date=2026-04-26 |website=Salud everywhere - Online learning in humanitarian health and international cooperation |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Media and popular culture == {{See also|List of films about the Rwandan genocide|Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide}}

=== Art === Chilean-born artist [[Alfredo Jaar]] travelled to Rwanda in August 1994 to witness the aftermath of the genocide. Jaar, sensing an urgent need to raise public awareness, began his 6-year-long Rwanda Project upon returning home. In an early work, ''Rwanda, Rwanda'' (1994), Jaar mounted four hundred prints with "RWANDA" repeated in bold lettering on backlit displays in public locations throughout [[Malmö]], Sweden. Other notable works include ''The Silence of Nduwayezu'' (1997), in which a photo—the eyes of a young boy who had witnessed the murder of both his parents—was printed onto one million slides, reflecting the estimated number of deaths throughout the genocide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alfredo Jaar. Rwanda, Rwanda. 1994 {{!}} MoMA |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/73521 |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=The Museum of Modern Art |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title="The Rwanda Project" |url=https://art21.org/read/alfredo-jaar-the-rwanda-project/ |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=Art21 |language=en}}</ref>

===Books=== Canadian Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire became the best-known eyewitness to the genocide after co-writing the book ''[[Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda]]'' (2003) describing his experiences with depression and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref>[http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/168/9/1164 "Camouflage and exposure"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814165039/http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/168/9/1164 |date=14 August 2007 }}, ''[[Canadian Medical Association Journal]]'', 29 April 2003; 168 (9)</ref>

In March 2024, [[Dorcy Rugamba]]'s memoir dedicated to his absent family<ref name=automne>{{cite web | title=Dorcy Rugamba | website=Festival d'Automne | url=https://www.festival-automne.com/en/artists/dorcy-rugamba | access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref> and as a gift to his children,<ref name=sat2025>{{cite interview| first=Dorcy| last=Rugamba | interviewer-last=Nguyen | interviewer-first=Chantal | title=Rwandan author Dorcy Rugamba on finding the words to share about the living | website=[[The Saturday Paper]] | date=15 February 2025 | url=https://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/culture/theatre/2025/02/15/author-and-performer-dorcy-rugamba#mtr | access-date=26 February 2025|quote=This article was first published in the print edition of The Saturday Paper on February 15, 2025 as "A hymn to life". }}</ref> ''[[Hewa Rwanda|Hewa Rwanda, une lettre aux absents]]'', was published by Éditions [[JC Lattès]].<ref name=automne/> It was published in English as ''Hewa Rwanda, Letter to the Absent''.<ref name=tnwb2024>{{cite web | title=Hewa Rwanda Lettre aux absents • Dorcy Rugamba Majnun | website=[[Théâtre national Wallonie-Bruxelles|Théâtre National]] | date=17 October 2024 | url=https://www.theatrenational.be/en/activities/3823-hewa-rwanda-lettre-aux-absents-o-dorcy-rugamba-majnun | access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref><ref name=theaterformen2024>{{cite web | title=Hewa Rwanda | website=[[Festival Theaterformen]] | date=23 June 2024 | url=https://www.theaterformen.de/en/programme-2024/hewa-rwanda | access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref>

===Film=== ''[[100 Days (2001 film)|100 Days]]'', directed by British director Nick Hughes and produced by Rwandan filmmaker [[Eric Kabera]], was the first film shot in Rwanda after the genocide, as well as being the first [[feature film]] about the genocide. No professional actors were used, instead featuring both Tutsi and Hutu survivors of the genocide as the characters in a fictional narrative. It was shot on location at the actual scenes where acts of genocide occurred. Kabera has also made documentary films about the genocide.<ref name=leeds>{{cite web | title=Eric Kabera (Kwetu Film Institute) | website= Changing the Story |publisher= [[University of Leeds]] | url=https://www.changingthestory.leeds.ac.uk/profiles/cesar-kwetu/ | access-date=15 June 2025}}</ref><ref name=Bloomfield2007>{{cite web | last=Bloomfield | first=Steve | title=Welcome to Hillywood: how Rwanda's film industry emerged from | website=[[The Independent]] | date=29 August 2007 | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/welcome-to-hillywood-how-rwanda-s-film-industry-emerged-from-genocide-s-shadow-463541.html | access-date=15 June 2025}}</ref>

The critically-acclaimed and multiple [[77th Academy Awards|Academy Award]]-nominated film ''[[Hotel Rwanda]]'' (2004) is based on the experiences of [[Paul Rusesabagina]], a [[Kigali]] hotelier at the [[Hôtel des Mille Collines]] who sheltered over a thousand refugees during the genocide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mgm.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219024752/http://www.unitedartists.com/hotelrwanda/main.html |url-status=dead |title=MGM Studios|archive-date=19 December 2008|website=MGM Studios}}</ref> In 2005, Alison Des Forges wrote that 11 years after the genocide, films for popular audiences on the subject had increased the "widespread realization of the horror that had taken the lives of more than half a million Tutsi".<ref name="idrc.ca">{{cite web|url=http://www.idrc.ca/rwandagenocide/ev-108178-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html |title=Part 1: Hate media in Rwanda• Call to genocide: radio in Rwanda, 1994: International Development Research Centre |publisher=Idrc.ca |access-date=30 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210180655/http://www.idrc.ca/rwandagenocide/ev-108178-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html |archive-date=10 February 2010 }}</ref> In 2007, Charlie Beckett, Director of POLIS, said: "How many people saw the movie ''[[Hotel Rwanda]]''? [It is] ironically the way that most people now relate to Rwanda."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.polismedia.org/rwandatranscript.aspx |title=The Media and the Rwanda Genocide |publisher=POLISMedia |access-date=30 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923181542/http://www.polismedia.org/rwandatranscript.aspx |archive-date=23 September 2009 }}</ref>

In 2005, [[HBO]] released the made-for-television film ''[[Sometimes in April]]'', starring [[Idris Elba]] as a moderate Hutu who struggles to find closure a decade after the genocide.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stanley |first=Alessandra |date=March 18, 2005 |title=A Grim Excursion to Rwanda's Hell |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/18/arts/television/a-grim-excursion-to-rwandas-hell.html |website=The New York Times}}</ref> The film intersperses between the events of 1994 and the ICTR proceedings in 2004 and was shot in Rwanda.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-03-23 |title='Sometimes in April' looks at Rwandan genocide |url=https://www.today.com/popculture/sometimes-april-looks-rwandan-genocide-wbna4586777 |access-date=2025-12-12 |website=TODAY.com |language=en}}</ref>

Roméo Dallaire's 2003 book was made into the film ''[[Shake Hands with the Devil (2007 film)|Shake Hands with the Devil]]'', released in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130813823&t=1604658022052 |work=[[National Public Radio]] |title='Shake Hands,' Struggle On: A Genocide Revisited |date=28 October 2010 |access-date=6 November 2020 |first=Mark |last=Jenkins |archive-date=15 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415231025/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130813823&t=1604658022052 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Deborah Scranton Paul Kagame Shankbone.jpg|thumb|At the ''Earth Made of Glass'' premiere, Rwandan President [[Paul Kagame]] stands with, from left, [[Jenna Dewan]], director [[Deborah Scranton]], documentary subject Jean Pierre Sagahutu, producer [[Reid Carolin]] and executive producer [[Channing Tatum]].]] The independent documentary film ''[[Earth Made of Glass (film)|Earth Made of Glass]]'' (2010), which addresses the personal and political costs of the genocide, focusing on Rwandan President [[Paul Kagame]] and genocide survivor Jean-Pierre Sagahutu, premiered at the 2010 [[Tribeca Film Festival]].<ref>[http://www.tribecafilm.com/filmguide/earth_made_of_glass-film26314.html Earth Made of Glass] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903110056/http://www.tribecafilm.com/filmguide/earth_made_of_glass-film26314.html |date=3 September 2010 }} Tribeca Film Festival guide. Retrieved 30 November 2010.</ref>

Former journalist and [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]] [[Samantha Power]] is interviewed about the Rwandan genocide in ''[[Watchers of the Sky]]'' (2014), a documentary by [[Edet Belzberg]] about genocide throughout history and its eventual inclusion in [[international law]].<ref>{{cite web|title = "Watchers of the Sky" and the Full Cruelty of Consciousness|url = https://www.popmatters.com/review/187147-watchers-of-the-sky-defining-genocide/|website = PopMatters| date=20 October 2014 |access-date = 22 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151012235701/http://www.popmatters.com/review/187147-watchers-of-the-sky-defining-genocide/|archive-date = 12 October 2015|url-status=live|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Watchers of the Sky {{!}} Film Review {{!}} Slant Magazine|url = https://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/watchers-of-the-sky|website = Slant Magazine|date = 13 October 2014|access-date = 22 November 2015|language = en-US|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150101232010/http://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/watchers-of-the-sky|archive-date = 1 January 2015|url-status=live|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Watchers of the Sky {{!}} Human Rights Watch Film Festival|url = https://ff.hrw.org/film/watchers-sky|website = ff.hrw.org|access-date = 22 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151122194312/https://ff.hrw.org/film/watchers-sky|archive-date = 22 November 2015|url-status=live|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

===Theatre=== In June 2024 Dorcy Rugamba presented a performance based on his book, ''[[Hewa Rwanda]]'', in [[Braunschweig]], Germany, as part of the [[Festival Theaterformen]],<ref name=theaterformen2024/> and in October at the [[Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord]] in [[Paris]].<ref name=nord>{{cite web | title=Hewa Rwanda | website=[[Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord]] | url=https://www.bouffesdunord.com/en/season-section/hewa-rwanda-en | access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref> It was also presented at the [[Adelaide Festival]] in [[Adelaide]], Australia,<ref>{{cite web | title=Festival review: Hewa Rwanda – Letter to the absent |first=Farrin| last=Foster| website=[[InDaily]]| date=4 March 2025 | url=https://www.indailysa.com.au/inreview/festivals/2025/03/04/festival-review-hewa-rwanda-letter-to-the-absent | access-date=8 March 2025}}</ref> and several times as part of [[WOMADelaide]], in March 2025.<ref>{{cite web | title=Hewa Rwanda | website=[[WOMADelaide]] | url=https://www.womadelaide.com.au/lineup/season-2025/hewa-rwanda | access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref>

===Music=== The song ''[[Papaoutai]]'' was released by Belgian-Rwandan singer [[Stromae]] in 2013, and was inspired by loss of the singer's father in the Rwandan genocide.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/15/arts/15iht-stromae15.html Stromae: Disillusion, With a Dance Beat], by Scott Sayer, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 15 October 2013</ref>

== Commemoration == In March 2019, President [[Félix Tshisekedi]] of the Democratic Republic of the Congo visited Rwanda to sign the Kigali Genocide Memorial Book, saying, "The collateral effects of these horrors have not spared my country, which has also lost millions of lives."<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.digitalcongo.net/article/5cab13d0d47a140004d09695/| title = Génocide rwandais : vingt-cinq ans de chaos collatéral en République démocratique du Congo| date = 8 April 2019| website = Digital Congo| access-date = 8 April 2019| language = fr| archive-date = 8 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190408211449/https://www.digitalcongo.net/article/5cab13d0d47a140004d09695/| url-status = live}}</ref> On 7 April the Rwandan Government initiated 100 days of mourning in observation of the 25th anniversary of the genocide by lighting a flame at the Kigali Genocide Memorial. Dignitaries from Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Niger, Belgium, Canada, Ethiopia, the African Union and the European Union attended.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.npr.org/2019/04/07/710821937/rwandas-genocide-victims-remembered-25-years-later| title = Rwanda's Genocide Victims Remembered 25 Years Later| last = Paris| first = Francesca| date = 7 April 2019| publisher = [[National Public Radio]]| access-date = 8 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190408003105/https://www.npr.org/2019/04/07/710821937/rwandas-genocide-victims-remembered-25-years-later| archive-date = 8 April 2019| url-status=live| df = dmy-all}}</ref> At the national level, the annual commemoration programs are known as Kwibuka and commence with an official week of mourning observed from 7 to 13 April, known as Icyunamo. During this period, work is suspended, and various events take place locally, nationally, and among the Rwandan diaspora across the globe.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grayson |first1=Hannah |title=Rwanda since 1994: stories of change |last2=Hitchcott |first2=Nicki |date=2019 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-78694-344-6 |series=Francophone postcolonial studies |location=Liverpool |pages=6}}</ref>

==Maps of Rwanda== <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Percentage of Tutsi population in Rwandan communes in 1983.svg|Ethnic distribution of Tutsis in 1983: {{Legend-inline|white|0% Tutsi}} • {{Legend-inline|#28a688|45.5% Tutsi}} File:Political allegiance of burgomasters in Rwanda at the beginning of April 1994.svg|Map showing the geographical strongholds of the Rwandan political parties at the beginning of April 1994:{{Legend-inline|#fffffe|Unknown / vacant / partyless}} • {{Legend-inline|#e2d054|MRND}} • {{Legend-inline|#7689bf|MDR}} • {{Legend-inline|#92d7fd|PSD}} • {{Legend-inline|#60ee5b|PL}} • {{Legend-inline|white|text='''★'''|textcolor=#6aff1a|Tutsi burgomaster}} • {{Legend-inline|white|text='''★'''|textcolor=#f80018| Unclear / complicated}} </gallery>

==See also== * [[Outline of genocide studies]] * [[Kinsangani battle (1997)]] * [[Rwandese National Union]]

== References == {{Hatnote|Additional French and German-language sources have been found. They may have been relied on in the references below; please see the [[Talk:Rwandan genocide|talk page]] ([[Talk:Rwandan genocide/to do|mobile link]]) for details.}} {{Reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography === {{See also|Bibliography of Genocide studies}} {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 |last2=Gates |first2=Henry Louis |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |edition=Illustrated |location=Oxford |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210158/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Akhavan |first=Payam |year=1996 |title=The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment |journal=[[American Journal of International Law]] |volume=90 |pages=501–10 |jstor=2204076 |author-link=Payam Akhavan |number=3 |doi=10.2307/2204076 |s2cid=147317048 }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsMaps/idUSL568658520080805 |title=Rwanda accuses France directly over 1994 genocide |last=Asiimwe |first=Arthur |date=5 August 2008 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=13 July 2014 |archive-date=20 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220061639/http://www.reuters.com/article/newsMaps/idUSL568658520080805 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/06/world/africa/06briefs-FRENCHACCUSE_BRF.html |title=Rwanda: French accused in genocide |date=6 August 2008 |newspaper=The New York Times |agency=Associated Press |access-date=13 July 2014 |archive-date=11 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611010257/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/06/world/africa/06briefs-FRENCHACCUSE_BRF.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Aptel |first=Cicile |year=2008 |title=Closing the U.N. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Completion Strategy and Residual Issues |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/newenjic14&i=177 |journal=New England Journal of International and Comparative Law |volume=14 |pages=169–88 |number=2 |access-date=19 January 2019 |archive-date=19 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119174356/https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/newenjic14&i=177 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Barnett |first=Michael N. |title=Eyewitness to a genocide: the United Nations and Rwanda |date=2002 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3883-7 |location=Ithaca |jstor=10.7591/j.ctt7zhf0}} * {{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/61860.stm |title=French parliament inquiry into Rwandan genocide |date=4 March 1998 |author=BBC News (I) |access-date=12 July 2014 |archive-date=18 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218062322/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/61860.stm |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6177370.stm |title=France issues Rwanda warrants |date=23 November 2006 |author=BBC News (II) |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-date=18 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218062322/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6177370.stm |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7542418.stm |title=France accused in Rwanda genocide |date=5 August 2008 |author=BBC News (III) |access-date=12 July 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712071142/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7542418.stm |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Brittain |first=Victoria |date=5 April 1999 |title=Rwanda makes its way to regeneration |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/apr/05/5 |access-date=16 November 2012 |location=London |archive-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506175120/http://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/apr/05/5 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ |last=Carney |first=J.J. |title=Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982288 |access-date=22 August 2020 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=lKFpAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ezo5PQAACAAJ |title=The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History |last=Chrétien |first=Jean-Pierre |publisher=MIT Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-890951-34-4 |location=Cambridge, MA |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210159/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ezo5PQAACAAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja2hQgAACAAJ |title=Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda |last=Dallaire |first=Roméo |publisher=[[Arrow Books]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-09-947893-5 |location=London |author-link=Roméo Dallaire |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701074114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja2hQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |title=Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence: The ICC and the Practice of the ICTY and the ICTR |last=de Brouwer |first=Anne-Marie L. M. |publisher=Intersentia |year=2005 |isbn=978-90-5095-533-1 |location=Antwerp and Oxford }} * {{cite report |last=Des Forges |first=Alison |author-link=Alison Des Forges |year=1999 |title=Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/rwanda0399.htm |location=New York |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |isbn=1-56432-171-1 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=18 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218220713/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/rwanda/rwanda0399.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Rwanda |last=Dorsey |first=Learthen |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8108-2820-9 |location=Metuchen, N.J. }} * {{cite book |title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed |last=Diamond |first=Jared |publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-670-03337-9 |location=New York|author-link=Jared Diamond |title-link=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed }} (Chapter 10: "Malthus in Africa: Rwanda's Genocide", pp. 311–28). * {{cite journal|last=Drumbl|first=Mark A.|author-link=Mark A. Drumbl|year=2012|title='She makes me ashamed to be a woman': The Genocide Conviction of Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, 2011|ssrn=2155937|journal=Michigan Journal of International Law|volume=2013}} * {{cite journal |last=Elbe |first=Stefan |year=2002 |title=HIV/AIDS and the Changing Landscape of War in Africa |url=http://www.stefanelbe.com/resources/ISElbeAIDS2.pdf |journal=[[International Security]] |volume=27 |pages=159–77 |doi=10.1162/016228802760987851 |jstor=3092146 |number=2 |s2cid=57560544 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019133615/http://www.stefanelbe.com/resources/ISElbeAIDS2.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2013 }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8Tp8dWRtscC |title=Securing Human Rights?: Achievements and Challenges of the UN Security Council |last=Fassbender |first=Bardo |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-964149-9 |location=Oxford |access-date=5 April 2016 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117234815/https://books.google.com/books?id=N8Tp8dWRtscC |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB53/index.html |title=The US and the Genocide in Rwanda 1994: Evidence of Inaction |publisher=[[National Security Archive]] |year=2001 |editor-last=Ferroggiaro |editor-first=William |location=Washington, DC |access-date=1 April 2009 |archive-date=21 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321054844/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB53/index.html |url-status=live }} *{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Gregory S.|author-link=Gregory Gordon (lawyer) |title=Atrocity Speech Law: Foundation, Fragmentation, Fruition |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-061270-2 |language=en}} * {{cite book |last=Guichaoua |first=André |title=From War to Genocide: Criminal Politics in Rwanda, 1990–1994 |date=2015 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0299298203 }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OiMfpTiApQC |title=We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families |last=Gourevitch |first=Philip |publisher=Picador |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-330-37120-9 |edition=Reprint |location=London; New York |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210200/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OiMfpTiApQC |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Hayden |first=Robert M. |year=2000 |title=Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts: Sexual Violence in Liminalized States |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |volume=102 |pages=27–41 |doi=10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.27|jstor=683536 |number=1 }} * {{cite book |last1=Ingelaere |first1=Bert |title=Inside Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Seeking Justice After Genocide |date=2016 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |isbn=978-0-299-30970-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca |access-date=28 August 2019 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051252/https://books.google.com/books?id=tBmfDQAAQBAJ&q=ingelaere+gacaca#v=snippet&q=ingelaere%20gacaca&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal | year= 2015 | title= Despite the Terrors of Typologies: The Importance of Understanding Categories of Difference and Identity | url= http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM | journal= Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies | volume= 17 | issue= 2 | pages= 174–95 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link1= Paul James (academic) | doi= 10.1080/1369801x.2014.993332 | s2cid= 142378403 | access-date= 2 April 2015 | archive-date= 17 October 2015 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151017111914/http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/riij20/17/2#.VR03CzuUdPM | url-status= live | url-access= subscription }} * {{cite book|title=Gender Matters in Global Politics|last=Jones|first=Adam|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-203-86494-4|pages=127–47|chapter=Genocide and Mass Violence|editor=Laura J. Shepherd}} * {{cite book |title=A Thousand Hills: Rwanda's Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed It |last=Kinzer |first=Stephen |publisher=Wiley Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-12015-6 |location=London |author-link=Stephen Kinzer }} * {{cite book |title=Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda |title-link=Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda |last=Longman |first=Timothy |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |author-link=Timothy Longman }} * {{cite journal |last1=Luis |first1=J. R. |display-authors=etal |year=2004 |title=The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=3| pages=532–44 | doi=10.1086/382286 |pmid=14973781 |pmc=1182266 }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QUEamxb89JcC |title=When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda |last=Mamdani |first=Mahmood |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-691-10280-1 |location=Princeton, NJ |author-link=Mahmood Mamdani |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210201/https://books.google.com/books?id=QUEamxb89JcC |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/11/rwanda.insideafrica |title=France's shame? |last=McGreal |first=Chris |date=11 January 2007 |work=The Guardian |location=London |access-date=9 February 2013 |archive-date=4 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004021232/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/11/rwanda.insideafrica |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhsRrxZtJwMC |title=A people betrayed: the role of the West in Rwanda's genocide |last=Melvern |first=Linda |publisher=Zed Books |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85649-831-9 |edition=8, illustrated, reprint |location=London; New York |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210202/https://books.google.com/books?id=rhsRrxZtJwMC |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |title=Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide |last=Melvern |first=Linda |publisher=[[Verso Books|Verso]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-85984-588-2 |location=London and New York |author-link=Linda Melvern |url=https://archive.org/details/conspiracytomurd00melv }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/french-accused-of-complicity-in-genocide-that-killed-a-million-in-rwanda-423029.html |title=French accused of complicity in genocide that killed a million in Rwanda |last=Melvern |first=Linda |date=5 November 2006 |work=[[The Independent]] |location=London |access-date=13 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715000618/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/french-accused-of-complicity-in-genocide-that-killed-a-million-in-rwanda-423029.html |archive-date=15 July 2014 }} * {{cite news |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/index.php?i=13619&a=8617&icon=Results&id=2 |title=France and genocide: the murky truth |last=Melvern |first=Linda |date=11 August 2008 |work=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]] |location=Kigali |access-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714201715/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/index.php?i=13619&a=8617&icon=Results&id=2 |archive-date=14 July 2014 }} * {{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Rwanda.htm |title=Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath |last=Nowrojee |first=Binaifer |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-56432-208-1 |location=New York |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=18 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218190358/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Rwanda.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/evil/interviews/gourevitch.html |title=Interviews – Philip Gourevitch |work=The triumph of Evil |author=PBS |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-date=16 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116015057/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/evil/interviews/gourevitch.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Pottier |first=Johan |year=2002 |title=Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRz_QzoVdJcC |isbn=978-0-5215-2873-3 |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116051404/https://books.google.com/books?id=iRz_QzoVdJcC |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Power |first=Samantha |year=2001 |title=Bystanders to Genocide |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/09/bystanders-to-genocide/4571/ |journal=[[The Atlantic Monthly]] |issue=September 2001 |author-link=Samantha Power |access-date=11 March 2017 |archive-date=26 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626120005/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/09/bystanders-to-genocide/4571/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Powers |first=Shannon E. |year=2011 |title=Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Implications for International Criminal Law and Transitional Justice |url=https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/15/issue/17/rwanda%E2%80%99s-gacaca-courts-implications-international-criminal-law-and |journal=[[American Society of International Law|Insights]] |volume=15 |pages=1–6 |number=17 |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-date=12 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412050310/https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/15/issue/17/rwanda%E2%80%99s-gacaca-courts-implications-international-criminal-law-and |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|title=The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide|last=Prunier|first=Gérard|author-link=Gérard Prunier|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|year=1995|isbn=978-1850652434|edition=1st|location=London}} * {{cite book |title=The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-85065-372-1 |edition=2nd |location=London |author-link=Gérard Prunier }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3aNPwAACAAJ |title=The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |author-link=Gérard Prunier |publisher=Fountain Publishers Limited |year=1999 |isbn=978-9970-02-089-8 |edition=2nd |location=Kampala |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111210201/https://books.google.com/books?id=O3aNPwAACAAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |author-link=Gérard Prunier |year=2009 |title=Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-970583-2 }} * {{cite news |url=http://www.english.rfi.fr/africa/20140410-twenty-years-after-genocide-france-and-rwanda-give-different-versions-history |title=Twenty years after genocide France and Rwanda give different versions of history |date=10 April 2014 |ref={{sfnref|RFI|2014}} |author=Radio France International (RFI) |author-link=Radio France International |access-date=13 July 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081248/http://www.english.rfi.fr/africa/20140410-twenty-years-after-genocide-france-and-rwanda-give-different-versions-history |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Rettig |first=Max |year=2008 |title=Gacaca: Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation in Post-conflict in Rwanda? |journal=[[African Studies Review]] |volume=51 |pages=25–50 |doi=10.1353/arw.0.0091|jstor=27667378 |number=3 |s2cid=144438458 }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-france-rwanda-relations-idAFJOE5AS09920091129 |title=France and Rwanda agree to restore relations |date=29 November 2009 |work=Reuters |access-date=9 February 2013 |archive-date=7 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107171801/http://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-france-rwanda-relations-idAFJOE5AS09920091129 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Reyntjens|first=Filip|title=Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-67879-8|location=Cambridge}} * {{cite book |title=''In Steven Leonard Jacobs, ed.'', Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam ''(pp. 291–305)'' |last=Rittner |first=Carol |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-3588-4 |location=Lanham, MD |chapter=Rape, Religion, and Genocide: An Unholy Silence |title-link=Steven L. Jacobs }} * {{cite journal |last=Sarkin |first=Jeremy |year=2001 |title=The Tension between Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda: Politics, Human Rights, Due Process, and the Role of the Gacaca Courts in Dealing with the Genocide |journal=[[Journal of African Law]] |volume=45 |pages=143–72 |doi=10.1017/s0221855301001675|jstor=3558953 |number=2 |s2cid=145601527 }} * {{cite web |url=http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf?sequence=1 |title=The Rwandan Conflict: Origin, Development, Exit Strategies |last=Shyaka |first=Anastase |publisher=National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda |access-date=16 February 2012 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503190158/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Silva-Leander |first=Sebastian |year=2008 |title=On the Danger and Necessity of Democratisation: trade-offs between short-term stability and long-term peace in post-genocide Rwanda |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |volume=29 |pages=1601–20 |doi=10.1080/01436590802528754 |number=8 |s2cid=153736296 }} * {{Cite book |last=Straus |first=Scott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyIdXtnTe7EC |title=The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda |date=2013 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-6714-1 |language=en}} * {{cite journal |last=Tiemessen |first=Alana Erin |year=2004 |title=After Arusha: Gacaca Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda |url=http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v8/v8i1a4.pdf |journal=[[African Studies Quarterly]] |volume=8 |pages=57–76 |number=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216203838/http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v8/v8i1a4.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2012 }} * {{cite book |title=Dictionary of Genocide, Volume 2: M–Z |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |last3=Jacobs |first3=Steven L. |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-313-34644-6 |location=Westport, CT |last1=Totten |first1=Samuel }} * {{cite journal |last=Tully |first=L. Danielle |year=2003 |title=Human Rights Compliance and the Gacaca Jurisdictions in Rwanda |url=http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol26/iss2/10 |journal=[[Boston College International and Comparative Law Review]] |volume=26 |pages=385–411 |number=2 |access-date=15 August 2013 |archive-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923204814/http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol26/iss2/10/ |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book|last=Twagilimana |first=Aimable|title=Historical dictionary of Rwanda|date=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5313-3|oclc=141852090}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unamir_b.htm |title=Rwanda-UNAMIR Background |author=United Nations |access-date=3 October 2018 |archive-date=23 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023091614/http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unamir_b.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |year=2008 |title=United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines |url=http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf |location=New York |publisher=[[United Nations Secretariat]] |ref={{Harvid|UN|2008}} |author=United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations |author-link=United Nations |access-date=23 April 2011 |archive-date=19 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819214105/http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/20/world/panel-finds-french-errors-in-judgment-on-rwanda.html |title=Panel Finds French Errors in Judgment on Rwanda |last=Whitney |first=Craig R. |date=20 December 1998 |work=The New York Times |location=New York |access-date=9 February 2013 |archive-date=16 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716161358/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/20/world/panel-finds-french-errors-in-judgment-on-rwanda.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |title=Barbaric Civilization |last=Powell |first=Christopher |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3856-6 |location=Montreal & Kingston, London, Ithaca }} * {{cite book |title=Century of Genocide |last1=Totten|first1=Samuel|last2=Parsons|first2=William S|publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2009|isbn=978-0-203-89043-1|location=New York and Londo|author-link=Samuel Totten}} {{Refend}}

== Further reading == {{Main|Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide}}

* {{Cite book |last=Fujii |first=Lee Ann |date=2011 |title=Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-5737-1 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Gourevitch |first=Philip |year=1999 |title=We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda |location=New York |publisher=Picador/Farrar, Straus, and Giroux: Distributed by Holtzbrinck Publishers |isbn=978-0-312-24335-7}} * {{Cite journal |last=Kamusella |first=Tomasz |date=July 2022 |title=Ethnicity and Estate: The Galician Jacquerie and the Rwandan Genocide Compared |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=684–703 |doi=10.1017/nps.2021.12 |doi-access=free |issn=0090-5992 |language=en |hdl=10023/23154 |hdl-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=McDoom |first=Omar Shahabudin |date=2020 |title=The Path to Genocide in Rwanda: Security, Opportunity, and Authority in an Ethnocratic State |series=African Studies Series 152 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-86883-9 |oclc=1154947401 |language=en}}

== External links == {{sister project links||d=Q131297|c=Category:Rwandan genocide|n=Category:Rwandan Genocide|b=no|q=no|v=Rwandan Genocide|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://unictr.irmct.org/ United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]

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