{{Short description|Former Syrian intelligence service}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}} {{Infobox government agency | agency_name = General Intelligence Directorate | nativename = | nativename_a = {{lang|ar|إدارة المخابرات العامة}} | nativename_r = Idārat al-Mukhābarāt al-ʿAmmāh | logo = | logo_width = | logo_caption = Seal of the General Intelligence Service | seal = | seal_width = 200px | seal_caption = | formed = {{Start date and age|1963}}<br/>(ISFC 1963–1971) <br>(GID 1971–2024) | preceding1 = | dissolved = 8 December 2024 (''[[de facto]]'')<br/>29 January 2025 (''[[de jure]]'')<ref>{{Cite web |title=تعيين الشرع رئيسا لسوريا في المرحلة الانتقالية |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2025/1/29/عاجل-مصادر-للجزيرة-اجتماع-موسع |trans-title=Al-Sharaa appointed president of Syria in the transitional phase |access-date=29 January 2025 |website=[[Al Jazeera Arabic]] |language=ar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250129185538/https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2025/1/29/عاجل-مصادر-للجزيرة-اجتماع-موسع |archive-date=29 January 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref> | superseding = [[General Intelligence Service (Syria)|General Intelligence Service]] | jurisdiction = [[Ba'athist Syria]] | headquarters = [[Kafr Sousa]], [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] | coordinates = {{coord|33|31|13|N|36|18|42|E|type:landmark_region:SY|display=inline,title}} | employees = | budget = | minister1_name = | minister1_pfo = | minister2_name = | minister2_pfo = | chief1_name = [[Hossam Louka]] (2019–2024) | chief1_position = Director<ref name="home.treasury.gov"/> | chief2_name = [[Akram Ali Muhammad]] (2019–2021) | chief2_position = Deputy Director | parent_agency = [[Ministry of Interior (Syria)|Ministry of Interior]] | child1_agency = | child2_agency = | website = | footnotes = }}
The '''General Intelligence Directorate''' ({{langx|ar|إِدَارَةُ الْمُخَابَرَاتِ الْعَامَّةِ|translit=ʾIdārat al-Mukhābarāt al-ʿAmmāh}}), also known as the '''''General Security Directorate''''' or '''''Syrian GID''''', was the most important civil [[Intelligence agency|intelligence service]] of former [[Ba'athist Syria]] and played an important role of suppressing the people of Syria for the government's interests.<ref name="desinfos"/> The General Intelligence Directorate conducted an oppressive surveillance of the Syrian population, directed foreign intelligence and monitored activities in [[Lebanon]] on behalf of [[Hezbollah]] until its dissolution in December 2024.
==History== In November 1970, [[Hafez al-Assad]] ousted [[Salah Jadid]] in what he labelled a [[Corrective Movement (Syria)|Corrective Movement]]. The new system was Syria's longest-lasting since independence and toned down the previous regime's radicalism.{{cn|date=December 2025}} It was established in 1971. By 1972, the General Intelligence Directorate was significantly modelled on the [[GDR]]'s [[Stasi]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Trentin |first=Massimiliano |date=November 2021 |title=State-led Development: The Privileged Linkage between East Germany and Ba'athist Syria, 1965–1972 |journal=Contemporary European History |language=en |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=581–596 |doi=10.1017/S0960777321000369 |issn=0960-7773|doi-access=free |hdl=11585/852257 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Under the government of [[Hafez al-Assad]] and [[Ba'ath Party]], especially from 1973, agents of Syria’s GSD were frequent visitors in [[East Berlin]] for training. According to [[Stasi]] files, the Syrians also received equipment and materials from [[East Germany]], the last such deliveries documented up until 1990.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mena-researchcenter.org/germanys-ties-to-the-syrian-regime/|title=Germany's ties to the Syrian regime|date=14 January 2023 }}</ref>
Under [[Bashar al-Assad]] there was a remarkable continuity among the senior personnel in the intelligence community. The service was in competition with [[Political Security Directorate]] in the late 20th century.<ref name="esisc"/> Major General [[Ghazi Kanaan]] possibly headed international security for the General Security Directorate in the late 20th century. In the late 20th century, between 1998 and 2001, Major General Ali Houri was director of the General Security Directorate.
After [[Bashar al-Assad]]'s takeover in 2000, Major General [[Ali Hammoud]] was named as head of the General Intelligence Directorate. In 2001, [[Hisham Ikhtiyar]] became the head of the General Intelligence Directorate, replacing Hammoud, who became the [[Ministry of Interior (Syria)|Minister of the Interior]]. Ikhtiyar was close to [[Bashar al-Assad]]'s deceased brother-in-law [[Assef Shawkat]].<ref name="esisc"/> President [[Bashar al-Assad]] in June 2005 appointed General [[Ali Mamlouk]] as commander of the General Intelligence Directorate.<ref name="Rabil"/>
Six years later in April 2011, the US government imposed sanctions on Ali Mamlouk, saying he had been responsible for human rights abuses, including the use of violence against civilians. The agency had repressed internal dissent, monitored individuals, and had been involved in the Syrian government's actions in [[Daraa]], where protesters were killed by the security services. The next month, the [[European Union]] also imposed sanctions on Mamlouk, saying he had been involved in efforts to suppress anti-government protesters. A Sunni, he is said to be on good terms with all of Syria's intelligence agencies – the heads of the [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate]] and the [[Political Security Directorate]] were once his assistants. He is a part of Bashar al-Assad's inner circle.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |work=BBC News |title=Bashar al-Assad's inner circle |date=18 May 2011}}</ref> After the [[18 July 2012 Damascus bombing|18 July 2012 bombing]] of the [[Central Crisis Management Cell (Syria)]] and the death of its four key members of team, [[Mohammed Dib Zaitoun]] was named as head of the General Intelligence Directorate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/why-did-assad-restructure-syrias-military-security-apparatus |title=Syria war: Why did Assad restructure the military-security apparatus?|publisher=Middle East Eye|author=Paul Khalifeh|date=17 July 2019|access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref>
The General Intelligence Directorate was dissolved along with the Ba'athist Syrian institutions in December 2024 following the [[collapse of the Assad regime]]. [[Anas Khattab]], appointed head of Syrian intelligence, said the country's security institutions will be restructured after all former institutions are dissolved.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Presse |first=AFP-Agence France |title=Syria's New Intel Chief Vows Reforms To End Abuses |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/syria-s-new-intel-chief-vows-reforms-to-end-abuses-0925783f |access-date=29 December 2024 |website=www.barrons.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2024 |title=Syria's head of intelligence says security institution to be restructured |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-head-intelligence-says-security-institution-be-restructured-2024-12-28/ |website=Reuters}}</ref>
== Organization == The General Intelligence Directorate was under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Interior (Syria)|Ministry of Interior]].<ref>{{cite web|author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/syria/index.html |title=Syria Intelligence and Security Agencies |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> The GID was also controlled by the [[President of Syria|President]] [[Bashar al-Assad]] through the [[National Security Bureau (Syria)|National Security Bureau]] of the [[Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Central Command]].<ref>[[Robert G. Rabil]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=2jvac2R5Z_cC&pg=PA214 Syria, the United States, and the war on terror in the Middle East] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518165908/https://books.google.com/books?id=2jvac2R5Z_cC&pg=PA214 |date=18 May 2016}}, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, {{ISBN|0-275-99015-X}} p.214</ref> It is divided into six branches: * [[Syrian General Intelligence Branch 251|Internal Security Division (Branch 251)]] * External Security Division (Branch 285) * Palestinian Affairs Division<ref name="desinfos"/> * Raids and Assault Division (Branch 295) * Information Branch * Investigations Branch
===Branch 251=== ''''Syrian General Intelligence Directorate (GID) Branch 251''' ({{langx|ar|إدارة المخابرات العامة الفرع الداخلي (251)}}), also known as internal branch or ''Al-Khatib'' branch,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Center for Documentation of Violations in Syria - Report on Khateeb Branch- State Security |url=https://www.vdc-sy.info/index.php/en/reports/khatibbranch |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=www.vdc-sy.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-29 |title=Torture and death: Life in al-Khateeb detention center |url=https://syriadirect.org/torture-and-death-life-in-al-khateeb-detention-center/ |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=Syria Direct |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Physical evidence' of killings presented at Syrian officials' trial in Germany |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-war-trial-germany-branch-251-torture |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}</ref> was the unit of the [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian General Intelligence Directorate]] under the [[Assad regime]] concerned with internal security. It has been responsible for security in the [[Damascus]] region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-30 |title=Two Syrian Intelligence Officers Charged with Committing Crimes Against Humanity |url=https://syrianobserver.com/security/53949/two-syrian-intelligence-officers-charged-with-committing-crimes-against-humanity.html |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=The Syrian Observer}}</ref> Branch 251 operates [[Al-Khatib prison]], a detention and torture center located in the [[Muhajreen]] neighborhood in central Damascus.
[[Anwar Raslan]], the former Syrian colonel who was convicted of crimes against humanity and sentenced to life in prison in Germany, commanded a unit in Branch 251.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-12 |title=German court to issue verdict against former Syrian intelligence officer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/12/german-court-expected-to-accuse-assad-regime-in-syria-of-torture |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
== United States Department of Treasury Sanctions == The [[Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic|Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Syria]] identified Branch 251 and [[Al-Khatib prison]] as a facility controlled by the [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian General Intelligence Directorate]] where death in detention and torture have occurred.<ref name="ag"/> Branch 251 was designated pursuant to [[s:Executive Order 13572|Executive Order 13572]] (E.O. 13572), which blocks property of certain properties with respect to Human Rights Abuses in Syria, as being owned or controlled by the Syrian General Intelligence Directorate. The head of Branch 251, Ahmed Al-Dib, was designated pursuant to E.O. 13572 for being a senior official of the Syrian GID and subject to US Treasury sanctions.<ref name="ag"/>
== List of heads == * [[Mohammed Nasif Kheirbek]] (1963–1999)<ref name="Zisser"/><ref name="Bar_P.425"/> * [[Bahjat Suleiman]] (1999–June 2005)<ref name="Landis2"/> * Fouad Nasif Kheirbek (June 2005 – 2011)<ref name="Rabil"/><ref name="Landis2"/> * [[Tawfiq Younes]] (2011–2016),<ref name="Tawfiq"/> the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in violence against the civilian population during the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian uprisings]]".<ref name="EUsanctions3"/> * [[Ahmed Al-Dib]] (2016–8 December 2024),<ref name="ag"/> sanctioned by the [[United States Department of the Treasury|United States Treasury]] for leading Syrian General Intelligence Directorate Branch 251, has been implicated in reports of arbitrary detention and torture of detainees since at least 2011.<ref name="ag"/>
== List of detainee and survivors ==
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_General_Intelligence_Branch_251&action=edit&wvprov=sticky-header Firas Alshater] * [https://re-publica.com/en/user/22031#:~:text=Amer%20Matar%20is%20the%20managing,living%20in%20Berlin%20since%202012. Amer Matar] * [[Feras Fayyad]] * [https://www.impunitywatch.org/syria-hussein-ghrer-interview-trial/ Hussein Gharir]
=== Responsibility === The [[Syrian General Intelligence Branch 251|Internal Security Division]] is responsible for the surveillance of the population, [[counterintelligence]], [[counter-terrorism]], security of Damascus as well as protection of the [[Government of Syria]]. The External Security Division is tasked with foreign intelligence work, [[espionage]] and [[national security]] protection.<ref name="MEIB"/> And the Palestinian Affairs Division is responsible for monitoring the activities of [[Alliance of Palestinian Forces|Palestinian groups in Syria and Lebanon]].<ref name="MEIB"/>
== Directors == * [[Abd al-Karim al-Jundi]] (1966–1969) * Adnan Babagh (1971–?)<ref name="Rathmell"/> * Ali Madani (1970s)<ref name="Rathmell"/> * Nazih Zirayr (?–1983)<ref name="Seale"/> * Fu'ad Absi (1983–1987)<ref name="Seale"/> * Majid Sa'id (1987–1994)<ref name="Seale"/><ref name="Zisser"/> :* Internal branch: [[Mohammed Nasif Kheirbek]] (1963–1999)<ref name="Zisser"/><ref name="Bar_P.425"/> * Bashir an-Najjar (1994–1998)<ref name="Zisser"/> * Ali Houri (1998–2001)<ref name="MEIB"/><ref name="Gambil"/> :* Deputy Director: [[Mohammed Nasif Kheirbek]] (1999–June 2005)<ref name="MEIB"/> :* Internal branch ([[Syrian General Intelligence Branch 251|251]]): [[Bahjat Suleiman]] (1999–June 2005)<ref name="Landis"/> :* External branch: Ayyad Mahmud (1999–?)<ref>{{cite book|last=Leverett|first=Flynt|title=Inheriting Syria Bashar's trial by fire|year=2005|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-8157-5204-0|page=93|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oL_S9OykXwYC&q=Hassan+Khalil+syria&pg=PA63|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> * [[Ali Hammoud]] (October–December 2001)<ref name="Gambil"/> * [[Hisham Ikhtiyar]] (December 2001–June 2005)<ref name="Bar_P.424"/> * [[Ali Mamlouk]] (June 2005 – 2010), the [[European Union]] sanctioned him for "violence against demonstrators during the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian uprising]]".<ref name="Bar_P.424"/><ref name="UPI"/><ref name="EUsanctions3"/> :* Deputy Director: Hassan Khallouf (?–June 2004)<ref name="Landis"/> :* Deputy Director: [[Mohammed Dib Zaitoun]] (June 2004–2009) :* Internal branch ([[Syrian General Intelligence Branch 251|251]]): Fouad Nasif Kheirbek (June 2005–2011)<ref name="Landis"/> :* Investigations branch: [[Anwar Raslan]] (2008–?)<ref name="LesJours2020"/> :* Deputy Director: [[Jamil Hassan]] (2004–1 July 2009)<ref name="UPI"/><ref name="metransparent.com"/> :* Information branch: Zouheir Hamad (?–July 2010)<ref name="metransparent.com"/> * Zouheir Hamad (July 2010–July 2012), the European Union sanctioned him for "the use of violence across Syria and for intimidation and torture of protesters during the [[Syrian Civil War]]".<ref name="UPI"/><ref name="EUsanctions3"/> :* Deputy Director: General Nazih (July 2010–July 2012), the European Union sanctioned him for "being responsible for the use of violence across Syria and intimidation and torture of protestors during the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian uprising]]".<ref name="EUsanctions3"/> :* Information branch: Ghassan Khalil (July 2010–?), the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in repression and violence against the civilian population in Syria during the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian uprising]]".<ref name="UPI"/><ref name="EUsanctions3"/><ref name="metransparent.com"/> * [[Mohammed Dib Zaitoun]] (25 July 2012 – 7 July 2019)<ref>[http://www.ajc.com/news/nation-world/assad-has-many-generals-1486458.html Archived copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423223500/http://www.ajc.com/news/nation-world/assad-has-many-generals-1486458.html |date=23 April 2020}}</ref> :* Deputy Director: Zouheir Hamad (25 July 2012 – 7 July 2019) :* Internal branch ([[Syrian General Intelligence Branch 251|251]]): [[Tawfiq Younes]] (2011-2016),<ref name="Tawfiq"/> the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in violence against demonstrators during the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian uprisings]]".<ref name="EUsanctions3"/> * [[Hossam Louka]] (7 July 2019 – 8 December 2024)<ref name="home.treasury.gov"/> :* Deputy Director: [[Akram Ali Muhammad]] (7 July 2019 – 2021) :* Internal branch ([[Syrian General Intelligence Branch 251|251]]): Ahmed Al-Dib (2016 – 8 December 2024)<ref name="ag"/>
=== Regional Directors === * [[Damascus]] branch: Col. [[Hafez Makhlouf]] (2011-2014), the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in violence against demonstrators during the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian uprisings]]".<ref name="EUsanctions3"/> :* Damascus (branch 285): Brig. Gen. Ibrahim Ma'ala (2011-2012) accused of "ordering or committing [[crimes against humanity]]" by [[Human Rights Watch]].<ref name="TortureHRW"/> :* Damascus (branch 285): Brig. Gen. Hussam Fendi (past-2011) accused of "ordering or committing crimes against humanity".<ref name="TortureHRW"/> * [[Homs]] (branch 318): Brig. Gen. Firas Al-Hamed (2012) accused of "ordering or committing crimes against humanity".<ref name="TortureHRW"/> * [[Latakia]] branch: Brig. Gen. Khudr Khudr (2012) accused of "ordering or committing crimes against humanity".<ref name="TortureHRW"/> * [[Daraa]] branch: Brig. Gen. Ahmed Dibe (2011).<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria1211webwcover_0.pdf |title=By All Means Necessary |date=2011 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=978-1-56432-842-7}}</ref> * [[Raqqa]] branch: Brig. Gen. {{Interlanguage link|Khaled al-Halabi|fr|Khaled al-Halabi}} (2008-2013) accused of being involved with the arrest and torture of dissidents, as well as telling security forces to fire on any unauthorized gathering of more than four people.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/09/20/how-a-syrian-war-criminal-and-double-agent-disappeared-in-europe |title=How a Syrian War Criminal and Double Agent Disappeared in Europe |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=11 September 2021}}</ref>
== List of detainee and survivors ==
* [[:de:Firas_Alshater|Firas Alshater]] * [https://www.literaturport.de/wab/person/amer-matar/en/ Amer Matar] * [[Feras Fayyad]] * [https://www.impunitywatch.org/syria-hussein-ghrer-interview-trial/ Hussein Gharir]
== Other Syrian intelligence agencies == * [[National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|National Security Bureau]] * [[Political Security Directorate]] * [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Military Intelligence Directorate]] * [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate]]
== References == {{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="ag">{{Cite web |title=Treasury Sanctions Syrian Regime Prisons, Officials, and Syrian Armed Group |url=https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0292 |website=U.S. Department of the Treasury |language=en |access-date=2022-07-23}}</ref>
<ref name="Bar_P.424">{{cite journal |last=Bar |first=Shmuel |title=Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview |journal=Comparative Strategy |year=2006 |volume=25 |issue=5 |page=424 |url=http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |doi=10.1080/01495930601105412 |s2cid=154739379 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=15 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Bar_P.425">{{cite journal |last=Bar |first=Shmuel |year=2006 |title=Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview |url=http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Comparative Strategy |volume=25 |issue=5 |page=425 |doi=10.1080/01495930601105412 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2011 |s2cid=154739379 |access-date=15 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="desinfos">{{cite web|url=http://www.desinfos.com/article.php?id_article%3D3899 |title=[DESINFOS.COM] - le rapport Mehlis: La Syrie et de hauts responsables libanais officiellement impliqués dans l'assassinat de Rafic Hariri |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060113204637/http://www.desinfos.com/article.php?id_article=3899 |archive-date=13 January 2006 |access-date=13 October 2008}}</ref>
<ref name="esisc">{{Cite web |title=Syrie |url=http://www.esisc.org/recherche.php?page=5&Pays=SYRIE |access-date=6 September 2008}} {{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
<ref name="EUsanctions3">{{cite journal|title=Joint Proposal for a COUNCIL REGULATION concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Syria and repealing Regulation (EU) No 442/2011|journal=EuroLex|year=2011|volume=52011PC0887|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0887:FIN:EN:HTML |access-date=10 March 2012}}</ref>
<ref name="Gambil">{{cite journal|last=Gambil|first=Gary|title=The Military-Intelligence Shakeup in Syria|journal=Middle East Intelligence Bulletin|date=Feb 2002|volume=4|issue=2|url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0202_s1.htm|archive-date=7 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507121032/https://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0202_s1.htm|url-status=dead |access-date=8 June 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="home.treasury.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm1141 |title=Treasury Continues Targeting Facilitators of Assad Regime |date=25 January 2024}}</ref>
<ref name="Landis">{{cite web |url=http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/syriablog1/2005/06/bahjat-suleiman-moved-along-with-other.htm |title=SyriaComment.com |access-date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="Landis2">{{cite web |title=SyriaComment.com |url=http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/syriablog1/2005/06/bahjat-suleiman-moved-along-with-other.htm |access-date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="LesJours2020">{{Cite web |date=8 April 2020 |title=À la recherche d'Anwar Raslan, tortionnaire syrien |url=https://lesjours.fr/obsessions/la-traque-anwar-raslan/ep1-arrestation-anwar-raslan/ |access-date=18 July 2020 |website=Les Jours |language=fr}}</ref>
<ref name="MEIB">{{cite journal|last=MEIB|title=Syria's Intelligence Services: A Primer|journal=Middle East Intelligence Bulletin|date=July 2000|volume=2|issue=6|url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0007_s3.htm|archive-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028173605/https://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0007_s3.htm|url-status=dead |access-date=8 June 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="metransparent.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.metransparent.com/spip.php?article11370|title=Stratfor report on Syrian Security, Intelligence Leaders (Corrected)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312023146/http://www.metransparent.com/spip.php?article11370|archive-date=12 March 2012 |access-date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="Rabil">{{cite book |last=Rabil |first=Robert G. |author-link=Robert G. Rabil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M18Jj0bMMl0C&pg=PA215 |title=Syria, the United States, and the war on terror in the Middle East |publisher=Praeger security international |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-275-99015-2 |location=Westport (Conn.) |page=215}}</ref>
<ref name="Rathmell">{{cite journal|last=Rathmell|first=Andrew|title=Syria's Intelligence Services: Origins and Development|journal=Journal of Conflict Studies|date=Fall 1997|volume=XVI|issue=2|url=https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/11815/12636 |access-date=8 June 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Seale">{{cite book|last=Seale|first=Patrick|title=Asad of Syria: the struggle for the Middle East|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=0-520-06976-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal/page/430 430]|url=https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal|url-access=registration|quote=Fu'ad Absi syria.}}</ref>
<ref name="Tawfiq">{{Cite web |title=Tawfiq Younes |url=https://blacklist.pro-justice.org/criminal/tawfiq-younes/ |website=Pro Justice |language=en-GB |access-date=2022-05-14}}</ref>
<ref name="TortureHRW">{{cite web |title=Torture Archipelago |date=3 July 2012 |url=https://www.hrw.org/node/108415/section/2 |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref>
<ref name="UPI">{{cite news|title=Syria's Assad 'reshuffles security chiefs'|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2010/10/21/Syrias-Assad-reshuffles-security-chiefs/UPI-89111287688825/|newspaper=UPI|date=21 October 2010 |access-date=8 June 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Zisser">{{cite journal|last=Zisser|first=Eyal|title=The Succession Struggle in Damascus|journal=The Middle East Quarterly|date=September 1995|volume=2|issue=3|pages=57–64|url=http://www.meforum.org/264/the-succession-struggle-in-damascus |access-date=8 June 2011}}</ref>
}}
{{Ba'athist Syria security forces}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:2025 disestablishments in Syria]] [[Category:Secret police]] [[Category:Syrian intelligence agencies]] [[Category:Torture in Syria]]