{{Short description|Non-conventional expression of gender in humans}}{{Redirect-for|Gender diverse|3=Gender diversity}}{{Transgender sidebar}} {{LGBTQ sidebar}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}} '''Gender nonconformity''' or '''gender variance''' is [[gender expression]] by an individual whose behavior, [[mannerisms]], and/or appearance does not match masculine or feminine [[gender norms]]. A person can be gender-nonconforming regardless of their [[gender identity]], for example, [[transgender]], [[non-binary]], or [[cisgender]]. Transgender adults who appear gender-nonconforming after transition are more likely to experience discrimination.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Social Costs of Gender Nonconformity for Transgender Adults: Implications for Discrimination and Health |journal=Sociological Forum |date=2015 |last1=Miller |first1=Lisa |last2=Denise |first2=Eric Joy |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=809–831 |issn=1573-7861 |doi=10.1111/socf.12193 |doi-access=free |pmid=27708501 |quote=gender nonconformity may heighten trans people's exposure to discrimination and health‐harming behaviors. Gender nonconforming trans adults reported more events of major and everyday transphobic discrimination than their gender conforming counterparts. That is, the more frequently trans people are read as transgender or gender nonconforming by others, the more they are subject to major and day‐to‐day discriminatory treatment. |pmc=5044929}}</ref>
[[File:Alok Vaid-Menon with Flowers.jpg|thumb|[[Alok Vaid-Menon]], a gender non-conforming writer, performance artist, and activist]]
==Terminology==
''Gender nonconformity'' refers to a person's [[gender expression]] that differs from socially expected expressions of masculinity and femininity within a [[gender binary]]. These expectations vary from culture to culture and from time to time within cultures. Gender expression is different from [[gender identity]], a person's inner sense of oneself as a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or another gender outside the traditional gender binary such as [[gender-fluid]], [[agender]], or [[non-binary gender|non-binary]].<ref name="Turban p3">{{cite book |last1=Turban |first1=Jack L |last2=De Vries |first2=Annelou L. C. |last3=Zucker |first3=Kenneth J. |last4=Shadianloo |first4=Shervin |author1-link=Jack Turban |author3-link=Kenneth J. Zucker |editor1-last=Rey |editor1-first=J. M. |title=IACAPAP e-Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health |date=2018 |publisher=International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions |location=Geneva |page=3 |chapter-url=https://www.iacapap.org/_Resources/Persistent/e98a7ad9ab1d202adc53363a3f92871ad29fc104/H.3-GENDER-IDENTITY-Edition-2018-REVISED.pdf |chapter=Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Youth}}</ref> According to [[GLAAD]] (formerly the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation), gender expression is the external manifestation of one's gender identity, usually through [[masculine]], [[feminine]], or gender-variant presentation or behavior.<ref name="GLAAD 2010" />
Terms to describe gender variance include ''gender-variant'', ''gender-nonconforming'', ''gender-diverse,'' and ''gender-atypical''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haldeman |first=Douglas C. |date=2000 |title=Gender Atypical Youth: Clinical and Social Issues |journal=School Psychology Review |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=192–200 |doi=10.1080/02796015.2000.12086007 |s2cid=142509837 |issn=0279-6015}}</ref> The terms ''gender variance'' and ''gender-variant'' are used by scholars of [[psychology]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carroll |first1=Lynne |last2=Gilroy |first2=Paula J. |last3=Ryan |first3=Jo |date=2002 |title=Counseling Transgendered, Transsexual, and Gender-Variant Clients |journal=Journal of Counseling & Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=131–139 |doi=10.1002/j.1556-6678.2002.tb00175.x |issn=0748-9633}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Transgender Emergence: Therapeutic Guidelines for Working with Gender-Variant People and their Families |last=Lev |first=Arlene Istar |author-link=Arlene Istar Lev |date=2004 |publisher=The Haworth Clinical Practice Press |isbn=978-0-7890-0708-7 |location=New York |oclc=51342468}}</ref><ref name="Stitt">{{Cite book |title=ACT For Gender Identity: The Comprehensive Guide |last=Stitt |first=Alex |date=2020 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |isbn=978-1-78592-799-7 |location=London |oclc=1089850112}}</ref> [[psychiatry]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sexual and gender diagnoses of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM): a reevaluation |date=2005 |publisher=Haworth Press |isbn=978-0-7890-3213-3 |editor-last=Karasic |editor-first=Dan |location=New York |pages=125–134 |oclc=61859826 |editor-last2=Drescher |editor-first2=Jack}}</ref> [[anthropology]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gender diversity: crosscultural variations |last=Nanda |first=Serena |author-link=Serena Nanda |publisher=Waveland Press, Inc. |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-57766-074-3 |location=Prospect Heights, Ill. |oclc=43190536 |url=https://archive.org/details/genderdiversityc00nand_0 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> and [[gender studies]], as well as advocacy groups of gender-variant people themselves.<ref>"Gender Education and Advocacy (GEA) is a national [US] organization focused on the needs, issues and concerns of gender-variant people in human society." Mission statement, available on the front page of the group's website: www.gender.org</ref>
The word ''[[transgender]]'' usually has a narrower connotation, including an identification that differs from the [[sex assignment|gender assigned at birth]]. GLAAD defines ''transgender'' as an "umbrella term for people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth."<ref name="GLAAD 2010">{{cite web |publisher=Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation |location=New York |url=http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender |work=GLAAD Media Reference Guide{{nbsp}}- 8th Edition |title=Transgender Glossary of Terms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530061657/http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender |archive-date=30 May 2012 |date=May 2010 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Not all gender-variant people identify as transgender, and not all transgender people identify as gender-variant—many identify simply as men or women.<ref name="Stitt" />
===In Australia=== <!---Sistergirl and brotherboy redirect here (unless/until articles created).---> In Australia, the term ''gender-diverse'' or, historically, ''sex and/or gender-diverse'', may be used in place of, or as well as, ''transgender''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department of Health, Victoria, Australia |title=Transgender and gender diverse health and wellbeing |date=9 October 2014 |url=http://docs.health.vic.gov.au/docs/doc/Transgender-and-gender-diverse-health-and-wellbeing |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326133820/http://docs.health.vic.gov.au/docs/doc/Transgender-and-gender-diverse-health-and-wellbeing}}</ref><ref name="lgbtiall" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Australian Human Rights Commission |author-link=Australian Human Rights Commission |title=New Protection |date=1 August 2013 |url=http://www.humanrights.gov.au/new-protection |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=3 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103054946/http://www.humanrights.gov.au/new-protection |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Winter">{{cite journal |last=Winter |first=Sarah |title=Are human rights capable of liberation? The case of sex and gender diversity |journal=Australian Journal of Human Rights |year=2009 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=151–174 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AJHR/2009/13.pdf |access-date=23 December 2011 |doi=10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910865 |s2cid=158873691 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924120533/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AJHR/2009/13.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Culturally-specific gender diverse terms include ''sistergirls'' and ''brotherboys'', for [[Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander]] people.<ref name="lgbtiguide" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gender-incongruence |title=Gender incongruence |date=June 2022 |website=Healthdirect Australia |access-date=10 July 2023 |archive-date=10 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710134956/https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gender-incongruence |url-status=live}}</ref> Ambiguities about the inclusion or exclusion of [[intersex]] people in terminology, such as ''sex and/or gender-diverse'', led to a decline in use of the terms ''sex and/or gender-diverse'' and ''diverse sexes and genders'' (DSG).<ref name="lgbtiall">{{cite web |url=http://lgbtihealth.org.au/diversity |title=National LGBTI Health Alliance statement |last1=National LGBTI Health Alliance |date=2013 |publisher=[[National LGBTI Health Alliance]] |access-date=31 December 2014 |author1-link=National LGBTI Health Alliance |archive-date=30 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230143507/http://lgbtihealth.org.au/diversity |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="oiisgd">{{cite web |url=http://oii.org.au/21550/sex-and-gender-diverse-discussion-paper/ |title="Sex and Gender Diverse" discussion paper on terminology |last1=Organisation Intersex International Australia |date=9 January 2013 |publisher=[[Organisation Intersex International Australia]] |access-date=31 December 2014 |author1-link=Organisation Intersex International Australia |archive-date=2 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102072922/https://oii.org.au/21550/sex-and-gender-diverse-discussion-paper/}}</ref><ref name="fpv">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fpv.org.au/assets/Family-Planning-Submission-re-ABS-gender_2.pdf |title=Family Planning Victoria, February 2013, "ABS review of the sex standard / potential new gender standard, A submission by Family Planning Victoria in collaboration with Gay and Lesbian Health Victoria, [[Transgender Victoria]], Y Gender and the Zoe Belle Gender Centre" |access-date=31 December 2014 |archive-date=17 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317145750/http://www.fpv.org.au/assets/Family-Planning-Submission-re-ABS-gender_2.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="tgv">[http://www.transgendervictoria.com/news/media/item/review-of-abs-standard-welcome Transgendervictoria.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226092813/https://transgendervictoria.com/news/media/item/review-of-abs-standard-welcome |date=26 December 2018}}, [[Transgender Victoria]], February 2013, "Review of ABS Standard Welcome"</ref> Current regulations providing for the recognition of trans and other gender identities use terms such as ''gender diverse'' and ''transgender''.<ref name="agrecog">{{cite web |url=http://www.ag.gov.au/Publications/Pages/AustralianGovernmentGuidelinesontheRecognitionofSexandGender.aspx |title=Australian Government Guidelines on the Recognition of Sex and Gender |last1=Attorney-General's Department (Australia) |date=June 2013 |publisher=[[Attorney-General's Department (Australia)]] |access-date=31 December 2014 |author1-link=Attorney-General's Department (Australia) |archive-date=1 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701084543/http://www.ag.gov.au/Publications/Pages/AustralianGovernmentGuidelinesontheRecognitionofSexandGender.aspx |url-status=live}}]</ref> In July 2013, the Australian [[National LGBTI Health Alliance]] produced a guide entitled "Inclusive Language Guide: Respecting people of intersex, trans and gender diverse experience" which clearly distinguishes between different bodily and identity groups.<ref name="lgbtiguide">{{cite web |url=http://lgbtihealth.org.au/sites/default/files/Alliance%20Health%20Information%20Sheet%20Inclusive%20Language%20Guide%20on%20Intersex%2C%20Trans%20and%20Gender%20Diversity_0.pdf |title=Inclusive Language Guide: Respecting people of intersex, trans and gender diverse experience |last1=National LGBTI Health Alliance |date=July 2013 |publisher=[[National LGBTI Health Alliance]] |access-date=31 December 2014 |author1-link=National LGBTI Health Alliance |archive-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301123843/http://www.lgbtihealth.org.au/sites/default/files/Alliance%20Health%20Information%20Sheet%20Inclusive%20Language%20Guide%20on%20Intersex%2C%20Trans%20and%20Gender%20Diversity_0.pdf}}</ref>
==In childhood== {{Main|Childhood gender nonconformity}}
Multiple studies have suggested a correlation between children who express gender nonconformity and their eventual coming out as [[homosexuality|gay]], [[bisexual]], or [[transgender]].<ref name="Friedman 2008" /><ref name="Baumeister">{{cite book |last=Baumeister |first=Roy F. |title=Social Psychology and Human Sexuality: Essential Readings |year=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-84169-018-6 |pages=201–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=roychiRaM8gC&q=%22Childhood+Gender+Nonconformity%22&pg=PA202}}</ref> In multiple studies, a majority of those who identify as gay or [[lesbian]] self-report gender nonconformity as children.<ref name="Friedman 2008" /><ref name="Baumeister" /> However, the accuracy of some of these studies has been questioned.<ref name="Brookley">{{cite book |last=Brookley |first=Robert |title=Reinventing the Male Homosexual: The Rhetoric and Power of the Gay Gene |year=2002 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-34057-3 |pages=60–65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZrXrqaDfwoC&pg=PT54}}</ref>
One study suggested that childhood gender nonconformity is [[heritable]].<ref name="Friedman 2008">{{cite book |last=Friedman |first=RC |title=Sexual Orientation and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Sexual Science and Clinical Practice |year=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-12057-9 |pages=53–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwtokhymV_4C&q=%22Childhood+Gender+Nonconformity%22&pg=PA53}}</ref> Studies have also been conducted about adults' attitudes towards nonconforming children. There are reportedly no significant generalized effects (except for a few outliers) on attitudes towards children who vary in gender traits, interests, and behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10508-012-0023-7 |pmid=23150102 |title=Adults' Attitudes About Gender Nonconformity in Childhood |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=399–412 |year=2013 |last1=Thomas |first1=Rachel N. |last2=Blakemore |first2=Judith E. Owen |s2cid=22230241}}</ref>
Children who are gender-variant may struggle to conform later in life. As children get older and are not treated for the mismatch between their minds and bodily appearance, this leads to discomfort, and negative self-image and eventually may lead to [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[suicide]], or [[self-doubt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/sep03/children.aspx |title=Understanding children's atypical gender behavior |last=Crawford |first=Nicole |date=2003 |website=American Psychological Association |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-date=2 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232347/http://www.apa.org/monitor/sep03/children.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref> If a child is nonconforming at a very young age, it is important to provide family support for positive impact to family and the child.<ref>Peate, I. (1 January 2008). Understanding key issues in gender-variant children and young people. British Journal of Nursing (mark Allen Publishing), 17, 17, 25</ref> Children who do not conform prior to age 11 tend to have an increased risk for depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation as young adults.<ref name="Roberts, A. 2013">Roberts, A., Rosario, M., Slopen, N., et al. (2013). Childhood gender nonconformity, bullying victimization, and depressive symptoms across adolescence and early adulthood: an 11-year longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 52(2): 143-152</ref> A 2012 study found that both children who will be heterosexual and children who will have a minority sexual orientation who expressed gender nonconformity before the age of 11 were more likely to experience [[physical abuse|abuse physically]], [[sexual abuse|sexually]], and [[psychological abuse|psychologically]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Andrea L. |last1=Roberts |first2=Margaret |last2=Rosario |first3=Heather L. |last3=Corliss |first4=Karestan C. |last4=Koenen |first5=S. Bryn |last5=Austin |title=Childhood Gender Nonconformity: A Risk Indicator for Child Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress in Youth |journal=Pediatrics |date=March 2012 |volume=129 |issue=3 |pages=410–7 |doi=10.1542/peds.2011-1804 |pmid=22351893 |pmc=3289524}}</ref>
Roberts et al. (2013) found that of participants in their study aged between 23 and 30, 26% of those who were gender nonconforming experienced some sort of depressive symptoms, versus 18% of those who were gender-conforming.<ref name="Roberts, A. 2013" /> Treatment for gender identity disorders (GID; now known as ''[[gender dysphoria]]'') such as gender variance has been a topic of controversy since the 1980s.<ref name="zach">Hill, D., Rozanski, C., Carfagnini, J., & Willoughby, B. (1 January 2007). Gender identity disorders (GID) in childhood and adolescence. International Journal of Sexual Health, 19, 1, 57-75</ref> In the works of Hill, Carfagnini and Willoughby (2007), Bryant (2004), "suggests that treatment protocols for these children and adolescents, especially those based on converting the child back to a stereotypically gendered youth, make matters worse, causing them to internalize their distress." Treatment for GID in children and adolescents may have negative consequences.<ref name="zach" /> Studies suggest that treatment should focus more on helping children and adolescents feel comfortable living with GID. There is a feeling of distress that overwhelms a child or adolescent with GID that gets expressed through gender.<ref name="zach" /> Hill et al. (2007) states, "if these youth are distressed by having a condition deemed by society as unwanted, is this evidence of a disorder?" Bartlett and colleagues (2000) note that the problem in determining distress is aggravated in GID cases because usually, it is not clear whether distress in the child is due to gender variance or secondary effects (e.g., due to ostracization or stigmatization).<ref name="zach" /> Hill et al. (2007) suggests, "a less controversial approach, respectful of increasing gender freedom in our culture and sympathetic to a child's struggle with gender, would be more humane."<ref name="zach" />
Numerous studies confirm that LGBTQ+ students face increased instances of victimization in schools compared to their heterosexual peers, leading to lower well-being and academic performance. While research on gender variant adolescent school experience is limited, available findings indicate similar trends.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vantieghem |first1=Wendelien |last2=Van Houtte |first2=Mieke |date=2 January 2020 |title=The Impact of Gender Variance on Adolescents' Wellbeing: Does the School Context Matter? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00918369.2018.1522813 |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=1–34 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2018.1522813 |pmid=30362925 |s2cid=53099230 |issn=0091-8369 |access-date=22 October 2023 |archive-date=20 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120011443/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00918369.2018.1522813 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Furthermore, understanding gender variance especially in young children can be complex, making it challenging for social workers to empathize. Moreover, school social workers often work in environments that emphasize [[heteronormativity]] where femininity and masculinity are defined based on heterosexual relationships, making it difficult to address the needs of gender-variant children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Jong |first=Dirk |date=June 2015 |title='He Wears Pink Leggings Almost Every Day, and a Pink Sweatshirt….' How School Social Workers Understand and Respond to Gender Variance |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10560-014-0355-3 |journal=Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal |language=en |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=247–255 |doi=10.1007/s10560-014-0355-3 |s2cid=254380434 |issn=0738-0151 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==Social status for men vs. women== Gender nonconformity among people assigned male at birth is usually more strictly, and sometimes violently, [[gender policing|policed]] in the West than is gender nonconformity among people assigned female at birth.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Skidmore |first1=W. Christopher |last2=Linsenmeier |first2=Joan A. W. |last3=Bailey |first3=J. Michael |date=1 December 2006 |title=Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Distress in Lesbians and Gay Men |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5 |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=685–697 |doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5 |pmid=17109224 |s2cid=21131479 |issn=0004-0002 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> However, a spectrum of types of gender nonconformity exists among boys and men. Some types of gender nonconformity, such as being a [[stay-at-home father]], may pass without comment whereas others, such as wearing lipstick and skirts, may attract stares, criticism, or questioning. Some cultures are more tolerant than others of such differences.<ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Taneasha |title=What Is Gender Nonconforming? |url=https://psychcentral.com/health/gender-nonconforming |website=PsychCentral |date=16 May 2022 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526081802/https://psychcentral.com/health/gender-nonconforming |url-status=live}}</ref>
This is a comparatively recent development in historical terms, because the dress and careers of women used to be more heavily policed,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?query=&prodId=UHIC&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&disableHighlighting=true&displayGroups=&sortBy=&zid=&search_within_results=&action=2&catId=&activityType=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3468301237&source=Bookmark&u=sand55832&jsid=ff1c546a17b62d2d1ce4007351b97724 |title=Working women in the 1930s |access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref> and still are in countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia (where they are regulated by law.)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/60339/nine-things-women-cant-do-in-saudi-arabia |title=Seven things women in Saudi Arabia cannot do |work=[[The Week]] UK |date=27 September 2016 |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=29 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729143556/http://www.theweek.co.uk/60339/nine-things-women-cant-do-in-saudi-arabia |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/iran/local-laws-and-customs |title=Iran travel advice |publisher=UK government |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=29 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529091810/https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/iran/local-laws-and-customs |url-status=live}}</ref> The success of [[second-wave feminism]] is the chief reason for the freedom of women in the West to wear traditionally-male clothing such as [[trousers]], or to take up traditionally-male occupations such as being a [[medical doctor]], etc.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} In the Soviet Union, women were allowed to take up traditionally male occupations such as [[construction work]], but were paid less. Employers sometimes preferred women as workers and sometimes preferred men as workers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blogs.bu.edu/guidedhistory/moderneurope/molly-wolanski/ |author=Molly Wolanski |title=The Role of Women in Soviet Russia |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321054901/https://blogs.bu.edu/guidedhistory/moderneurope/molly-wolanski/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In some former Soviet countries, gender equality went into reverse after the collapse of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.asee.org/public/conferences/20/papers/6985/view |title=The Decline of Women in Russian Engineering Education |year=2013 |conference=ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition |first1=Svetlana |last1=Barabanova |first2=Phillip |last2=Sanger |first3=Julia |last3=Ziyatdinova |first4=Anastasia |last4=Sokolova |first5=Vasiliy |last5=Ivanov |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002947/http://www.asee.org/public/conferences/20/papers/6985/view |url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2023}}
Gender nonconforming transgender people in the United States have been demonstrated to have worse overall health outcomes than transgender individuals who identify as men or women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lagos |first1=D. |date=2018 |title=Hearing Gender: Voice-Based Gender Classification Processes and Transgender Health Inequality |journal=Demography |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=2097–2117 |doi=10.1007/s13524-018-0714-3 |pmid=30255426 |s2cid=52822267 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Association with sexual orientation== Gender norms vary by country and by culture, as well as across historical time periods within cultures. For example, in [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] tribes in Afghanistan, adult men frequently hold hands, without being perceived as gay, whereas in the West this behavior would, in most circumstances, be seen as proof of a homosexual relationship. However, in many cultures, behaviors such as crying, an inclination toward caring for and nurturing others in an emotionally open way, an interest in domestic chores other than cooking, and self-grooming can all be seen as aspects of male gender nonconformity.<ref name="Friedman 2008" /><ref name="Baumeister" /><ref name="Brookley" /> Men who exhibit such tendencies are often stereotyped as gay. Studies found a high incidence of [[gay males]] self-reporting gender-atypical behaviors in childhood, such as having little interest in athletics and a preference for playing with dolls.<ref name="Bailey">[[J. Michael Bailey]], Joseph S. Miller, Lee Willerman; Maternally Rated Childhood Gender Nonconformity in Homosexuals and Heterosexuals, Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 22, 1993.</ref> The same study found that mothers of gay males recalled such atypical behavior in their sons with much greater frequency than mothers of heterosexual males.<ref name="Bailey" />
For women, adult gender nonconformity is often associated with lesbianism due to the limited identities women are faced with in adulthood.<ref name="Friedman 2008" /><ref name="Baumeister" /><ref name="Brookley" /> Lesbian and bisexual women, being less concerned with attracting men, may find it easier to reject traditional ideas of womanhood because social punishment for such transgression is not effective, or at least no more effective than the consequences of being openly gay or bisexual in a heteronormative society (which they already experience). This may help account for high levels of gender nonconformity self-reported by lesbians.<ref name="Friedman 2008" /><ref name="Baumeister" /><ref name="Brookley" />
Gender theorist [[Judith Butler]], in their essay ''Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory'', states: "Discrete genders are part of what humanizes individuals within contemporary culture; indeed, those who fail to do their gender right are regularly punished. Because there is neither an 'essence' that gender expresses or externalizes nor an objective ideal to which gender aspires."<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last=Butler |first=Judith |date=1 January 1988 |title=Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory |journal=Theatre Journal |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=519–531 |doi=10.2307/3207893 |jstor=3207893}}</ref> Butler argues that gender is not an inherent aspect of identity, further stating, "...One might try to reconcile the gendered body as the legacy of sedimented acts rather than a predetermined or foreclosed structure, essence or fact, whether natural, cultural, or linguistic".<ref name="auto" />
Research into [[nonbinary]] gender identities has found this:<ref>{{cite journal |title=Comparing the health of non-binary and binary transgender adults in a statewide non-probability sample |journal=PLOS ONE |date=27 August 2019 |last1=Reisner |first1=Sari |last2=Hughto |first2=Jaclyn |volume=14 |issue=8 |article-number=e0221583 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0221583 |pmid=31454395 |pmc=6711503 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1421583R |doi-access=free}}</ref> <blockquote>The overwhelming majority of non-binary respondents ... identified as having a sexual minority sexual orientation, which is also consistent with findings from other research. This substantial overlap between non-binary gender and sexual minority status is intriguing and supports the conceptualization that "non-traditional" gender identities (i.e., outside the [[gender binary]]) and sexual orientation are distinct yet interrelated constructs. </blockquote>Bisexual and gay male individuals who do not conform to traditional gender norms might experience increased discrimination compared to those who do. One study found Latino gay and bisexual men that identify as gender nonconforming faced higher levels of homophobia and psychological distress compared to their gender-conforming counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Trevor A. |last2=Noor |first2=Syed W. |last3=Tulloch |first3=Tyler G. |last4=Sivagnanasunderam |first4=Buvani |last5=Vernon |first5=Julia R. G. |last6=Pantalone |first6=David W. |last7=Myers |first7=Ted |last8=Calzavara |first8=Liviana |date=July 2019 |title=The Gender Nonconformity Teasing Scale for gay and bisexual men. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/men0000179 |journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinities |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=445–457 |doi=10.1037/men0000179 |s2cid=149491355 |issn=1939-151X |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Furthermore, nonconforming to traditional gender norms may elevate the risk of suicide attempts among gay adolescents, whereas studies on lesbians do not consistently show similar patterns. This may be attributed to heightened mistreatment of boys displaying feminine traits by parents and peers, in comparison to girls displaying masculine traits.<ref name=":0" />
==Clothing== {{main|Cross-dressing}} Among adults, the wearing of [[women's clothing]] by men is often socially stigmatized and [[Transvestic fetishism|fetishized]], or viewed as sexually abnormal. However, [[cross-dressing]] may be a form of gender expression and is not necessarily related to erotic activity, nor is it indicative of sexual orientation.<ref>Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation.[http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender "GLAAD Media Reference Guide, 8th Edition. Transgender Glossary of Terms"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530061657/http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender |date=30 May 2012 }}, ''[[GLAAD]]'', US, May 2010. Retrieved on 1 March 2011.</ref> One may cross-dress for a number of reasons, such as fashion, entertainment, or self-expression. Cross-dressing is not exclusive to males; people assigned female at birth also can cross-dress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cross Dressing Information |url=https://gendercentre.org.au/downloads/Cross%20Dressing%20Information.pdf |website=The Gender Centre}}</ref>
[[File:Cross-dressing.jpg|thumb|Example of gender noncomformity expressed through cross-dressing]]
==Gender-affirmative practices== Gender-affirmative practices recognize and support an individual's unique gender self-identification and expression. Gender-affirmative practices are becoming more widely adopted in the mental and physical health fields in response to research showing that clinical practices that encourage individuals to accept a certain gender identity can cause psychological harm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Karl |title=Making gender identity disorder of childhood: Historical lessons for contemporary debates |journal=Sexuality Research and Social Policy |date=September 2006 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=23–39 |doi=10.1525/srsp.2006.3.3.23 |s2cid=144613679}}</ref> In 2015, the [[American Psychological Association]] published gender-affirmative practice guidelines for clinicians working with transgender and gender-nonconforming people. Preliminary research on gender-affirmative practices in the medical and psychological settings has primarily shown positive treatment outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Guidelines for psychological practice with transgender and gender-nonconforming people. |journal=American Psychologist |date=2015 |volume=70 |issue=9 |pages=832–864 |doi=10.1037/a0039906 |pmid=26653312 |author1=American Psychological Association |s2cid=1751773}}</ref> As these practices become more widely used, longer-term studies and studies with larger sample sizes are needed to continue to evaluate these practices.
Research has shown that youth who receive gender-affirming support from their parents have better mental health outcomes than their peers who do not.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Caitlin |last2=Russell |first2=Stephen T. |last3=Huebner |first3=David |last4=Diaz |first4=Rafael |last5=Sanchez |first5=Jorge |title=Family Acceptance in Adolescence and the Health of LGBT Young Adults |journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing |date=November 2010 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=205–213 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-6171.2010.00246.x |pmid=21073595 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Gender-affirmative practices emphasize gender health. Gender health is an individual's ability to identify as and express the gender(s) that feels most comfortable without the fear of rejection.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Marco A. |last2=Ehrensaft |first2=Diane |last3=Tishelman |first3=Amy C. |last4=Clark |first4=Leslie F. |last5=Garofalo |first5=Robert |last6=Rosenthal |first6=Stephen M. |last7=Spack |first7=Norman P. |last8=Olson |first8=Johanna |title=The Gender Affirmative Model: What We Know and What We Aim to Learn |journal=Human Development |date=2013 |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=285–290 |doi=10.1159/000355235 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Gender-affirmative practices are informed by the following premises:<ref name="ReferenceA" />
* gender variance is not a psychological disorder or mental illness * gender expressions vary across cultures * gender expressions are diverse and may not be binary * gender development is affected by biological, developmental, and cultural factors * if pathology occurs, it is more often from cultural reactions rather than from within the individual
Mental health practitioners have begun integrating the gender-affirmative model into [[cognitive behavioral therapy]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=Ashley |last2=Craig |first2=Shelley L. |date=2015 |title=Transgender Affirmative Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Clinical Considerations and Applications |journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=21–29 |doi=10.1037/a0038642}}</ref> [[person-centered therapy]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Person-Centered Counselling for Trans and Gender Diverse People |last=Hope |first=Sam |date=2020 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |isbn=978-1-78592-542-9 |location=London}}</ref> and [[acceptance and commitment therapy]].<ref name="Stitt"/> While taking different approaches, each therapeutic modality may prove beneficial to gender-variant people looking to self-actualize, cope with minority stress, or navigate personal, social, and occupational issues across their lifespan.
==Atypical gender roles== {{see also|Gender role|Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities}} Gender expectations, like other [[social norms]], can vary widely by culture. A person may be seen as expressing an atypical [[gender role]] when their [[gender expression]] and activities differ from those usually expected in that culture. What is typical for one culture may be atypical for another. People from cultures who conceptualize gender as polar opposites on a binary, or having only two options, may see cultures with [[third gender]] people, or fluid gender expressions, and the people who live in these gender roles, as atypical. Gender expressions that some cultures might consider atypical include:
* ''[[Househusband]]s'': men from [[patriarchal]] cultures who stay at home to raise children and take care of the home while their partner goes to work. [[National Public Radio]] reported that by 2015 this had risen to around 12.6% of heterosexual marriages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2015/02/08/384695833/what-happens-when-wives-earn-more-than-husbands |title=What Happens When Wives Earn More Than Husbands |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |date=8 February 2015 |access-date=25 April 2016 |archive-date=7 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507031749/http://www.npr.org/2015/02/08/384695833/what-happens-when-wives-earn-more-than-husbands |url-status=live}}</ref> This would only be atypical in a culture where it is the norm for women to stay home. * ''[[Androgynous]] people'': having a gender presentation that is either mixed or neutral in a culture that prizes polarised (binary) presentations.<ref name="Stitt" /> * ''[[Crossdresser]]'': a person who dresses in the clothing of, and otherwise assumes, "the appearance, manner, or roles traditionally associated with members of the opposite sex".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Dual-role+transvestism |title=Dual-role transvestism |website=TheFreeDictionary.com |access-date=18 May 2019 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801003752/https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Dual-role+transvestism |url-status=live}}</ref> * ''[[Femminiello]]'': a population of people who embody a third gender role in traditional Neapolitan culture (southern Italy). * ''[[Hijra (India)|Hijra]]'': a traditional third-gender person who is occasionally intersex, but most often considered male at birth. Many of the Hijra are [[eunuch]]s who have chosen to be ritually castrated in a dedication ceremony. They have a ceremonial role in several traditional South Asian cultures, often performing naming ceremonies and blessings. They dress in what is considered women's garments for that culture, but are seen as neither men nor women, but ''hijra''. * ''[[Khanith]]'': an effeminate gay male in [[Oman]]i culture who is allowed to associate with women. The clothing of these individuals must be intermediate between that of a male and a female.<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen O. |last=Murray |date=2002 |title=Homosexualities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfH6Nc8HHFwC |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-55194-6 |page=278 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801224922/https://books.google.com/books?id=GfH6Nc8HHFwC |url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Two-spirit]]: a modern, [[pan-Indian]], [[umbrella term]] used by some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous North Americans]] to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional [[third gender|third-gender]] (or other gender-variant) social and ceremonial role in their cultures.<ref name="de Vries 2009">{{cite book |last1=de Vries |first1=Kylan Mattias |editor1-last=O'Brien |editor1-first=Jodi |title=Encyclopedia of gender and society |date=2009 |publisher=SAGE |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-1-4129-0916-7 |page=64 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC |access-date=6 March 2015 |chapter=Berdache (Two-Spirit) |archive-date=1 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501010210/http://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pember">{{cite web |url=https://rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/ |title='Two Spirit' Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes |publisher=[[Rewire (website)|Rewire]] |first=Mary Annette |last=Pember |date=13 October 2016 |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019000635/https://rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The term ''two-spirit'' was created in 1990 at the Indigenous [[lesbian]] and [[gay]] international gathering in [[Winnipeg]], and "specifically chosen to distinguish and distance Native American/First Nations people from non-Native peoples."<ref name="de Vries 2009" /> * Male spirit mediums in Myanmar: Biological males that are spirit mediums (''nat kadaw'') wear women's attire and wear makeup during religious ceremonies. The majority of male spirit mediums live their lives permanently as women.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Coleman |first1=Eli |last2=Allen |first2=Mariette Pathy |last3=Ford |first3=Jessie V. |date=1 May 2018 |title=Gender Variance and Sexual Orientation Among Male Spirit Mediums in Myanmar |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=987–998 |doi=10.1007/s10508-018-1172-0 |pmid=29497915 |s2cid=4730569 |issn=1573-2800}}</ref>
== Recovery strategies == Recovery strategies are actions that gender non-conforming individuals take on due to encounters with backlash from society. These strategies can also be a result of fear, embarrassment, etc from the individual's friends and family.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iudici |first1=Antonio |last2=Orczyk |first2=Gloria |date=1 October 2021 |title=Understanding and Managing Gender Identity Variance in Minors: A Qualitative Research on the Parental Role in Italy |journal=Sexuality & Culture |language=en |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=1567–1587 |doi=10.1007/s12119-021-09835-8 |issn=1936-4822 |hdl=11577/3457697 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Some examples of recovery strategies are hiding non-conforming behavior, conforming to gender norms, etc.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Rudman |first1=Laurie A. |last2=Fairchild |first2=Kimberly |title=Reactions to Counterstereotypic Behavior: The Role of Backlash in Cultural Stereotype Maintenance |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-16828-001 |access-date=15 April 2024 |date=2004 |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=157–176 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.157 |pmid=15301625 |language=en}}</ref>
In a 2004 experiment, participants were atypical men and women who were said to have more similarities and knowledge about the opposite atypical sex after taking a survey. In the experiments conducted the results showed that the participants who feared backlash because of the results were more likely to hide their non-conforming behavior or conform to the gendered norms.<ref name=":1" />
Hiding non-conforming behavior means repressing the behavior going against gender norms. In J.M Brennan the change in gender identity of a non-conforming man or women can cause this hiding and concealment of the behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=J.M. |first=Brennan |date=2021 |title=Hiding the Authentic Self: Concealment of Gender and Sexual Identity and Its Consequences for Authenticity and Psychological Well-Being |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2560057191 |journal=University of Montana ProQuest Dissertations Publishing |isbn=979-8-5346-6507-9 |id={{ProQuest|2560057191}}}}</ref> This can be due to fear of the stigma being directed towards them causing concealment of their true identity.
Children in the LGBT+ community are seen to increase gender conformity in school settings due to pressure from peers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vantieghem |first1=Wendelien |last2=Van Houtte |first2=Mieke |date=2 January 2020 |title=The Impact of Gender Variance on Adolescents' Wellbeing: Does the School Context Matter? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00918369.2018.1522813 |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=1–34 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2018.1522813 |pmid=30362925 |issn=0091-8369 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> This is due to the [[Homophobia|discrimination]] faced by LGBT+ individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Butler |first=Catherine |date=2021 |title=Gender variance: Children, adolescents, parents. |journal=Journal of Family Therapy |doi=10.1111/1467-6427.12348 |issn=0163-4445 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==See also== {{Portal|LGBTQ}} {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Third gender]] * [[List of non-binary political office-holders]] * [[Discrimination against non-binary people]] * [[Effeminacy]] * [[Gender bender]] * [[Gender diversity]] * [[Gender polarization]] * [[Gender policing]] * [[Transphobia]] * [[Neuroqueer theory]]{{Div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== *{{citation |mode=cs1 |type=doctoral thesis |last1=Le Roux |first1=Niccie |title=Gender Variance in Childhood/Adolescence: Gender Identity Journeys Not Involving Physical Intervention |date=May 2013 |publisher=University of East London; School of Childhood and Social Care |doi=10.15123/PUB.3493 |s2cid=140931543 |url=https://uel-repository.worktribe.com/output/485390/gender-variance-in-childhoodadolescence-gender-identity-journeys-not-involving-physical-intervention |format=PDF}} *{{cite book |last1=Schneider |first1=Margaret |last2=Bockting |first2=Walter O. |last3=Ehrbar |first3=Randall D |last4=Lawrence |first4=Anne A. |last5=Rachlin |first5=Katherine |last6=Zucker |first6=Kenneth J. |title=Report of the APA Task Force on Gender Identity and Gender Variance |date=2009 |publisher=American Psychological Association |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/policy/gender-identity-report.pdf}}
==External links== *{{Commons category-inline|Gender nonconformity}}
{{Sexual identities}} {{Drag performance}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Gender nonconformity| ]] [[Category:Androgyny]] [[Category:Non-binary gender|Nonconformity]] [[Category:Gender roles|Nonconformity]] [[Category:Transgender topics]]