LGBTQ stereotypes

{{Short description|Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities}} {{globalize|2=US|date=April 2023}} {{LGBTQ sidebar}} [[File:Dykes on bykes.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The Dykes on Bikes motorcycle group in a pride parade, exhibiting a stereotype of butch lesbians.]] '''LGBTQ stereotypes''' are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media,<ref name=stangor>{{Cite book|title=Stereotypes and Prejudice: Essential Readings |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Stangor |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-86377-588-8 |publisher=Psychology Press |location=Philadelphia, Pa.}}</ref> or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.<ref name=mccrady>{{Cite journal |last=McCrady |first=Richard |author2=Jean Mccrady |title=Effect of direct exposure to foreign target groups on descriptive stereotypes held by American students |journal=Social Behavior and Personality |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=August 1976 |doi=10.2224/sbp.1976.4.2.233 |page=233 |doi-access=free }}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Negative stereotypes are often associated with homophobia, lesbophobia, gayphobia, biphobia, or transphobia.<ref name=carlton>{{cite web|url=https://carleton.ca/equity/sexual_orientation/face.htm |title=The Face of Homophobia/Heterosexism |access-date=2007-04-07 |work=Carlton University Equity Services |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191039/http://www.carleton.ca/equity/sexual_orientation/face.htm |archive-date = 2007-09-27}}</ref> Positive stereotypes, or counterstereotypes, also exist.<ref name=nachbar>{{Cite book|title=Popular Culture: An Introductory Text |last=Nachbar |first=Jack |author2=Kevin Lause |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BEkB2J-Wb4sC&q=countertype&pg=PA238 |page=238 |year=1992 |publisher=Bowling Green University Popular Press |isbn=978-0-87972-572-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title= Gay Images: TV's Mixed Signals|work= The New York Times|date= 1991-05-19|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/19/arts/gay-images-tv-s-mixed-signals.html|access-date= 2010-10-25|archive-date= 2010-12-01|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101201094742/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/19/arts/gay-images-tv-s-mixed-signals.html|url-status= live}}</ref>

==In general==

=== Media === {{See also|Media portrayal of LGBT people}} The portrayal of the LGBTQ community in media has historically reinforced negative stereotypes and societal norms, excluded LGBTQ+ individuals, and tokenized them by reducing their representation to their sexual orientation or gender identity. Media portrayals of LGBTQ+ individuals can influence both society attitudes and how LGBTQ+ individuals view themselves. Positive media representations can improve visibility and understanding of LGBTQ+ people and may help support allyship. Positive media representations can improve visibility and understanding of LGBTQ+ people and may help support allyship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raley |first1=Amber B. |last2=Lucas |first2=Jennifer L. |date=2006-01-01 |title=Stereotype or success? Prime-time television's portrayals of gay male, lesbian, and bisexual characters |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=19–38 |doi=10.1300/J082v51n02_02 |issn=0091-8369 |pmid=16901865 |s2cid=9882274}}</ref> In recent years, LGBTQ representation in media has increased, with more diverse and complex characters appearing in film.

=== Effects of stereotypes === LGBTQ stereotypes can affect how LGBTQ people are treated and how they see themselves. Studies have found that being exposed to stereotypes can increase stress, contribute to mental health struggles, and affect identity development (Them, 2020). This is especially true when individuals do not have access to supportive environments, communities, or positive representation.

Stereotypes can also influence everyday interactions and increase the risk of discrimination, exclusion, or unfair treatment in places such as schools, workplaces, and healthcare settings. Media and society can continue to spread and reinforce stereotypes, which affects how people think about LGBTQ individuals and how they are treated in everyday life.

=== History === LGBTQ stereotypes have been around for a long time in media and culture, often reflecting how society viewed sexuality and gender at different points in history. In earlier film and television, gay men were often shown as extremely feminine or used for jokes, while lesbian women were often shown as masculine or overly sexualized. These kinds of portrayals limited how LGBTQ people were seen and understood.

In the past, LGBTQ identities were also often linked with negative ideas such as being "deviant" or criminal in both media and society. Transgender people, when included at all, were often portrayed as mentally unstable. Over time, representation has become more diverse and realistic (Gomillion & Giuliano, 2011); however, some of these older stereotypes can still appear in modern media.

===Murder and violence=== {{see also|Violence against LGBT people}} LGBT rights activists have fought against fictional representations of LGBT people that depict them as violent and murderous. Columnist Brent Hartinger observed that "big-budget Hollywood movies until, perhaps, ''Philadelphia'' in 1993 that featured major gay male characters portrayed them as insane villains and serial killers".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hartinger|first1=Brent|title=Ask the Flying Monkey (August 18, 2008)|url=http://www.newnownext.com/ask-the-flying-monkey-august-19-2008/08/2008/|website=After Elton / New Now Next|publisher=Logo|access-date=28 May 2016|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803050225/http://www.newnownext.com/ask-the-flying-monkey-august-19-2008/08/2008/|url-status=live}}</ref> Community members organized protests and boycotts against films with murderous LGBT characters, including ''Cruising'' (1980), ''Silence of the Lambs'' (1991), and ''Basic Instinct'' (1992).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Weir|first1=John|title=Gay-Bashing, Villainy and the Oscars|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/29/movies/film-gay-bashing-villainy-and-the-oscars.html|website=New York Times|access-date=28 May 2016|date=29 March 1992|archive-date=2 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002212107/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/29/movies/film-gay-bashing-villainy-and-the-oscars.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Theatre scholar Jordan Schildcrout has written about the recurrence of the "homicidal homosexual" in American plays but notes that LGBT playwrights themselves have appropriated this negative stereotype to confront and subvert homophobia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schildcrout|first1=Jordan|title=Murder Most Queer: The Homicidal Homosexual in the American Theater|date=2014|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-05232-5}}</ref> Such plays include ''The Lisbon Traviata'' (1985) by Terrence McNally, ''Porcelain'' (1992) by Chay Yew, ''The Secretaries'' (1993) by the Five Lesbian Brothers, and ''The Dying Gaul'' (1998) by Craig Lucas.

==Bisexual people== {{see also|Bisexual erasure|Biphobia}}

=== Indecision === thumb|Bisexual people are sometimes excluded from LGBT events and community gatherings as they are seen as being in an experimental phase.|alt= Many bisexual people are often characterized as indecisive due to their attraction to both men and women. As the term ''bisexual'' can refer to people who do have a sexual preference but are open to sexual interactions with other groups, bisexuals are sometimes seen as unwilling to commit to one sexual identity. This characterization can include stereotypes originating in the LGBT community itself as people who are bisexual do not always choose homosexual partners—they are often seen as being in a transitory or experimental phase between being heterosexual and homosexual.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-07-22 |title=GLAAD Media Reference Guide - In Focus: Covering the Bisexual Community |url=https://www.glaad.org/reference/bisexual |access-date=2020-05-07 |website=GLAAD |language=en |archive-date=2020-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803032824/https://www.glaad.org/reference/bisexual |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Promiscuity === Another common stereotype is that bisexual people are promiscuous and incapable of having steady or long-term relationships. This includes belief that, according to a bisexuality study, "compared to lesbians or gay targets, bisexual targets in a relationship with lesbian or gay partners were evaluated as more likely to transmit STDs and less likely to sexually satisfy their partners" by the public.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zivony |first1=Alon |last2=Lobel |first2=Thalma |date=2014-02-21 |title=The Invisible Stereotypes of Bisexual Men |url=https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/31300/8/31300.pdf |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=1165–1176 |doi=10.1007/s10508-014-0263-9 |issn=0004-0002 |pmid=24558124 |s2cid=207091114 |archive-date=2020-05-06 |access-date=2020-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506050519/https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/31300/8/31300.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Bisexual people are sometimes seen as being incapable of monogamy or sexually manipulative.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-09-23 |title=Celebrate Bisexuality! GLAAD Dispels Common Myths and Stereotypes |url=https://www.glaad.org/blog/celebrate-bisexuality-glaad-dispels-common-myths-and-stereotypes |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=GLAAD |language=en |archive-date=2022-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509201859/https://www.glaad.org/blog/celebrate-bisexuality-glaad-dispels-common-myths-and-stereotypes |url-status=live }}</ref> Bisexual people are also assumed to want to engage in threesomes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-09-25 |title=Fetishised and forgotten: Why bisexuals want acceptance |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-45580578 |access-date=2021-09-06 |archive-date=2021-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905222043/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-45580578 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Media representation === Due to negative characterizations of bisexuality, media personalities are often reluctant to share their identity with the public, leading to reduced visibility. Rock musician David Bowie famously declared himself bisexual in an interview with ''Melody Maker'' in January 1972, a move coinciding with the first shots in his campaign for stardom as Ziggy Stardust.<ref>Carr, Roy; Murray, Charles Shaar (1981). Bowie: An Illustrated Record. New York: Avon. {{ISBN|0-380-77966-8}}.</ref> Bowie later regretted revealing his sexuality, stating, "I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners or be a representative of any group of people. I knew what I wanted to be, which was a songwriter and a performer ...{{Nbsp|1}}"<ref name="Collis">{{Cite news |last=Collis |first=Clark |date=August 2002 |title=Dear Superstar: David Bowie |work=blender.com |publisher=Alpha Media Group Inc |url=http://www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?id=366 |url-status=dead |access-date=16 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510103103/http://www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?id=366 |archive-date=May 10, 2008}}</ref>

Regarding the portrayal of bisexual people by Hollywood, stigma is present, especially for men. From the end of the McCarthy era to today, "The history of male bisexual characters in film has been one of negative stereotyping."<ref name="Bryant">{{Cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Wayne |year=2005 |title=Is That Me Up There? |journal=Journal of Bisexuality |volume=5 |issue=2–3 |pages=305–312 |doi=10.1300/J159v05n02_35 |s2cid=144059023}}</ref> With so many negative stereotypes surrounding bisexual characters, they are often relegated to supporting or one-note characters.

==Gay men== {{See also|Gayphobia}}

[[File:Capital Gay Pride parade in Albany New York 2009.jpg|thumb|The contrast between a twink and a bear can be seen in this group of men in the Capital Gay Pride parade in Albany, New York in June 2009. The young blond (center), ''Naked Boy News'' host J.Son Dinant, is generally considered twink-ish because of his slender build and overall youthful appearance, while the man on the right, porn star Manuel Torres, would generally be considered a bear because of his stocky build and body hair.<ref>Scott Jacobson, Todd Levin, Jason Roede, Sex: Our Bodies, Our Junk, pages 204-206, Random House, Inc., 2010, {{ISBN|0-307-59216-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-307-59216-3}}.</ref><ref>Joan Z. Spade, Catherine G. Valentine, The kaleidoscope of gender: prisms, patterns, and possibilities, Pine Forge Press, 2007, pages 293-296, {{ISBN|1-4129-5146-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4129-5146-3}}.</ref>]]

Gay men are often equated interchangeably with heterosexual women by the heterocentric mainstream and are frequently stereotyped as being effeminate,<ref name="chrysler">{{cite web |date=2006-04-07 |title=Chrysler TV ad criticized for using gay stereotypes |url=http://www.advocate.com/news_detail_ektid28980.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423032540/http://www.advocate.com/news_detail_ektid28980.asp |archive-date=2006-04-23 |access-date=2007-04-07 |work=The Advocate}}</ref> despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity, and sexual orientation are widely accepted to be distinct from each other.<ref name="nacua">{{cite web |date=2005-06-02 |title=Gender Identity and Expression Issues at Colleges and Universities |url=http://www.nacua.org/nacuanet/visual/nacuanotessample.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323020027/http://www.nacua.org/nacuanet/visual/nacuanotessample.html |archive-date=2014-03-23 |access-date=2007-04-02 |work=National Association of College and University Attorneys}}</ref> The "flaming queen" is a characterization that melds flamboyance and effeminacy, remaining a gay male stock character in Hollywood.<ref>''The Celluloid Closet''; (1995) Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman.</ref> Theatre, specifically Broadway musicals, is a component of another stereotype, the "show queen", which generalizes that gay men are involved with the performing arts, and are theatrical, overly dramatic, and camp.<ref name="moderndrama">{{cite journal |last=Clum |first=John M. |year=1999 |title=Something for the Boys: Musical Theater and Gay Culture |url=http://www.utpjournals.com/product/md/434/boys10.html |url-status=dead |journal=Modern Drama |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20061111141422/http://www.utpjournals.com/product/md/434/boys10.html |archive-date=2006-11-11}}</ref> Gay men are also perceived as being artistic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Demb |first=Janet |date=1992-11-05 |title=Are Gay Men Artistic?: A Review of the Literature |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J082v23n04_05 |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=83–92 |doi=10.1300/J082v23n04_05 |pmid=1431089 |issn=0091-8369 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2024-03-02 |access-date=2024-03-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302100556/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J082v23n04_05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The bear subculture of the LGBT community is composed of generally large, hairy men, referred to as ''bears''.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is a bear? | bear scene | bear flag | bear culture| Belfast |url=http://www.bububelfast.com/Whatisabear.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112200623/http://www.bububelfast.com/Whatisabear.html |archive-date=2009-11-12 |access-date=2011-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=WOOF! - What is a Bear? |url=http://www.thecompletebear.com/life.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307013808/http://www.thecompletebear.com/life.php |archive-date=2011-03-07 |access-date=2011-01-15 |publisher=Thecompletebear.com}}</ref>

=== Appearance and mannerisms ===

Gay men are often stereotyped as speaking with a lisp or a feminine tone.<ref name="xtra">{{cite news |last=Mackenzie |first=Ian |date=2004-03-18 |title=Dunk the faggot: A gay radio voice, back from hell |work=Xtra!}}</ref><ref name="stuever">{{cite news |last=Stuever |first=Hank |date=2003-04-19 |title=Dishy Delight: Steven Cojocaru, a Glamour Boy in TV's Post-Gay Embrace |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=http://www.hankstuever.com/cojocaru.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222160720/http://www.hankstuever.com/cojocaru.html |archive-date=December 22, 2008}}</ref> Fashion and effeminacy have long been seen as stereotypes of homosexuality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Madon |first1=Stephanie |author-link=Stephanie Madon |year=1997 |title=What do people believe about gay males? A study of stereotype content and strength |journal=Sex Roles |volume=37 |issue=9–10 |pages=663–685 |doi=10.1007/BF02936334 |s2cid=51916291}}</ref> They are often based on the visibility of the reciprocal relationship between gay men and fashion.<ref name="glbtqfashion">{{cite web |title=Fashion |url=http://www.glbtq.com/arts/fashion.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070425230241/http://www.glbtq.com/arts/fashion.html |archive-date=2007-04-25 |access-date=2007-04-07 |work=glbtq}}</ref> Designers, including Dolce & Gabbana, have made use of homoerotic imagery in their advertising. Some commentators argue this encourages the stereotype that most gay men enjoy shopping.<ref name="tatchell">{{cite news |last=Tatchell |first=Peter |date=1996-08-16 |title=Yobs for the boys |work=Tribune}}</ref> A limp wrist is also a mannerism associated with gay men.<ref>Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay Histories and Cultures - Page 491, Bonnie Zimmerman - 2000</ref>

Recent research by Cox and colleagues demonstrated that "gaydar" is often used as an alternate label for using stereotypes, especially those related to appearance and mannerisms, to infer orientation.<ref name="Cox et al. (2016)">{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=William T. L. |last2=Devine |first2=Patricia G. |last3=Bischmann |first3=Alyssa A. |last4=Hyde |first4=Janet S. |year=2015 |title=Inferences About Sexual Orientation: The Roles of Stereotypes, Faces, and The Gaydar Myth |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1043253 |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=52 |issue=8 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/00224499.2015.1015714 |pmc=4731319 |pmid=26219212 |archive-date=2020-08-03 |access-date=2017-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803070055/https://zenodo.org/record/1043253 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sex and relationships ===

[[File:Carro Arcigay MI - Gay Pride nazionale di Roma 16-6-2007 - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 5.jpg|thumb|Gay men on a pride parade float in Rome]]

Gay men are often stereotyped as hypersexualized and unable to maintain committed or fulfilling relationships, though research suggests that their relationships are just as fulfilling as those of other couples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peplau |first1=Letitia Anne |last2=Fingerhut |first2=Adam W. |date=2007-01-01 |title=The Close Relationships of Lesbians and Gay Men |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085701 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=405–424 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085701 |pmid=16903800 |issn=0066-4308 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2022-06-15 |access-date=2024-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615184049/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085701 |url-status=live }}</ref> Research suggests that lesbians may be slightly more likely than gay men to be in steady relationships.<ref name="garnets">{{cite book |last=Garnets |first=Linda D. |url=https://archive.org/details/psychologicalper0000unse |title=Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Male Experiences |author2=Douglas C. Kimmel |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-231-07885-6 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="sfchronicle1">{{cite news |last=Marech |first=Rona |date=2004-02-27 |title=Gay couples can be as stable as straights, evidence suggests |work=San Francisco Chronicle |url=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Gay-couples-can-be-as-stable-as-straights-2789991.php |access-date=2007-04-07 |archive-date=2007-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115080355/http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F02%2F27%2FMNG1H59R5Q1.DTL |url-status=live }}</ref> In terms of unprotected sex, a 2007 study cited two large population surveys as showing that "the majority of gay men had similar numbers of unprotected sexual partners annually as straight men and women".<ref>{{cite web |date=13 September 2007 |title=Sexual Behavior Does Not Explain Varying HIV Rates Among Gay And Straight Men |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/82330.php |work=Medical News Today |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-date=3 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803212446/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/82330.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodreau SM, Golden MR |date=October 2007 |title=Biological and demographic causes of high HIV and sexually transmitted disease prevalence in men who have sex with men |journal=Sex Transm Infect |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=458–62 |doi=10.1136/sti.2007.025627 |pmc=2598698 |pmid=17855487}}</ref><ref name="jayyoung1979">{{cite book |last=Jay |first=Karla |title=The gay report: Lesbians and gay men speak out about sexual experiences and lifestyles |author2=Young, Allen |publisher=Summit |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-671-40013-2 |location=New York}}</ref> Another study found that gay men sometimes faced social boundaries because of this stereotype.{{what|date=March 2023}} Participants in the study reported finding it difficult to befriend other gay men on a platonic basis. The study found that when they would engage with other gay men there would be an assumption of sexual motivations, and when it became clear that this was not the case the other men would not be interested in continuing socialising. These stereotypes permeate throughout all facets of society, even influencing those subjected to it.<ref name="Roffee2016">{{cite journal |last1=Roffee |first1=James A. |year=2016 |title=Rethinking microaggressions and anti-social behaviour against LGBTIQ+ youth |journal=Safer Communities |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=190–201 |doi=10.1108/SC-02-2016-0004 |s2cid=151493252}}</ref>

Another persistent stereotype associated with the gay male community is excessive partying. Before the Stonewall riots in 1969, most LGBT people were extremely private and closeted, and house parties, bars, and taverns became some of the few places where they could meet, socialize, and feel safe. The riots represented the start of the modern LGBT social movement and acceptance of sexual and gender minorities, which has steadily increased since. Festive and party-like social occasions remain at the core of organizing and fundraising in the LGBT community. In cities where there are large populations of LGBT people, benefits and bar fundraisers are still common, and alcohol companies invest heavily in LGBT-oriented marketing.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sismondo |first1=Christine |date=20 June 2016 |title=Taste the rainbow: How the queer-focused booze market is growing fast |publisher=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/food-and-wine/food-trends/taste-the-rainbow-how-the-queer-focused-booze-market-is-growing-fast/article30529164/ |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803094151/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/food-and-wine/food-trends/taste-the-rainbow-how-the-queer-focused-booze-market-is-growing-fast/article30529164/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Elliott |first1=Stuart |date=26 October 2011 |title=Absolut Celebrates Its 30 Years of Marketing to Gay Consumers |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/27/business/media/absolut-heralds-its-marketing-to-gay-consumers.html |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029173457/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/27/business/media/absolut-heralds-its-marketing-to-gay-consumers.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ushered in by underground gay clubs and disc jockeys, the disco era kept the "partying" aspect vibrant and ushered in the more hardcore circuit party movement, hedonistic and associated with party and play.<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/05/04/MN281636.DTL DANCE OF DEATH, First of three parts, CRYSTAL METH FUELS HIV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919073223/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2003%2F05%2F04%2FMN281636.DTL |date=2011-09-19 }} Christopher Heredia, May 4, 2003, SF Gate</ref>

The relationship between gay men and female heterosexual "fag hags" has become highly stereotypical. The accepted behaviors in this type of relationship can predominantly include physical affections (such as kissing and touching), as in the sitcom ''Will & Grace''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reinventing Privilege: The (New) Gay Man in Contemporary Popular Media |url=http://www.csun.edu/~vcspc00g/301/newgayman-csmc.pdf |website=csun.edu |access-date=2011-10-25 |archive-date=2017-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808040503/http://www.csun.edu/%7Evcspc00g/301/newgayman-csmc.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Film scholar Robin Wood called David Lynch's ''Dune'' (1984) "the most obscenely homophobic film I have ever seen"<ref name="Robin Wood">Robin Wood. ''Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan''. Columbia University Press, 1986. {{ISBN|978-0-231-05777-6}}. Page 174.</ref> – referring to a scene in which Baron Harkonnen sexually assaults and kills a young man by bleeding him to death – charging it with "managing to associate with homosexuality in a single scene physical grossness, moral depravity, violence, and disease."<ref name="Robin Wood" /> Gay writer Dennis Altman suggested that the film showed how "AIDS references began penetrating popular culture" in the 1980s, asking, "Was it just an accident that in the film ''Dune'' the homosexual villain had suppurating sores on his face?"<ref name="Altman">Altman, Dennis. ''AIDS and the New Puritanism'' London: Pluto Press, 1986, p. 21</ref>

===Sex and drugs===

The term ''party and play'' (PNP) is used to refer to a subculture of gay men who use recreational drugs and have sex together, either one-on-one or in groups. The drug chosen is typically methamphetamine, known as ''crystal'' or ''tina'' in the gay community. Other "party drugs" such as MDMA and GHB are less associated with this term. While PNP probably had its genesis in the distinct subculture of methamphetamine users, and is most associated with its use, it has become somewhat generalized to include partying with other drugs thought to enhance sexual experiences, especially MDMA, GHB, and cocaine.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}

A report from the National HIV Prevention Conference (a collaborative effort by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other governmental and non-government organizations) describes PNP as "sexual behavior under the influence of crystal meth or other 'party' drugs."<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |title=How MSM manage HIV risk behavior within the online "party and play" subculture |url=http://www.aegis.org/conferences/nhivpc/2005/T1-A0802.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521005325/http://www.aegis.org/conferences/nhivpc/2005/T1-A0802.html |archive-date=2011-05-21 |access-date=2011-03-23}}</ref> It has been referred to as both an "epidemic" and a "plague" in the gay community.<ref name="metroweekly.com">{{cite web |title=PSA tackles 'PNP': TV ad warns against crystal meth usage in the gay male community |url=http://www.metroweekly.com/gauge/?ak=2025 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921093652/http://www.metroweekly.com/gauge/?ak=2025 |archive-date=2007-09-21 |work=Metro Weekly}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=John-Manuel Andriote |date=November 8, 2005 |title=Meth Comes Out of the Closet |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/04/AR2005110402178.html |archive-date=October 29, 2020 |access-date=September 2, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029205719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/04/AR2005110402178.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A meta-analysis of studies between 1996 and 2012 found that "some studies report that gay men are more likely to use alcohol and illicit drugs than heterosexual men, while other studies report that gay and heterosexual men do not differ in alcohol and illicit drug use, alcohol-related problems, or treatment utilization, and still other studies report that gay men in college are less likely to binge drink than their heterosexual counterparts."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Kelly E. |last2=Feinstein |first2=Brian A. |date=2012-06-01 |title=Substance Use in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: An Update on Empirical Research and Implications for Treatment |journal=Psychology of Addictive Behaviors |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=265–278 |doi=10.1037/a0025424 |issn=0893-164X |pmc=3288601 |pmid=22061339}}</ref> Research on the minority stress model shows stigma toward gay men may contribute to elevated substance use.<ref name=":0" /> Representatives for Drugscope state that methamphetamine use is relatively unknown in the UK outside this PNP subculture, and it largely occurs in the heavy-end party scene.<ref>{{cite web |author=Duncan Walker |date=6 August 2013 |title=''Breaking Bad'': Why doesn't the UK have a crystal meth problem? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23453028 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=BBC News Magazine |archive-date=1 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201001343/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23453028 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Pedophilia and predation===

It is a common stereotype that gay men are sexual predators or pedophiles.<ref name="Whiteman">{{cite web |last=Whiteman |first=Hilary |date=2010-04-14 |title=Gay outrage over cardinal's child abuse comment |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-04-14/world/vatican.homosexuality.pedophilia_1_pedophilia-gay-rights-cardinal-tarcisio-bertone?_s=PM:WORLD |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018182049/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-04-14/world/vatican.homosexuality.pedophilia_1_pedophilia-gay-rights-cardinal-tarcisio-bertone?_s=PM%3AWORLD |archive-date=2010-10-18 |access-date=2010-09-27 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> The former perception can lead to a knee-jerk reaction that created the "gay panic defense", usually in straight men, who fear being hit on by gay men, and can be either a cause or an expression of homophobia.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chuang HT, Addington D |date=Oct 1988 |title=Homosexual panic: a review of its concept |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=33 |issue=7 |pages=613–7 |doi=10.1177/070674378803300707 |pmid=3197016 |s2cid=30737407}}</ref>

The perception that a greater proportion of gay than straight men are pedophiles or child sexual abusers is one contributing factor of discrimination against gay teachers, despite the stark contrast to statistical figures, which have generally revealed most male child sexual abusers, including those who target boys,<ref>{{citation |author=Marshall |title=Sexual offenders against male children: Sexual preferences |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=383–391 |year=1988 |doi=10.1016/0005-7967(88)90071-x |pmid=3190647 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> are heterosexual and usually married with children of their own,<ref>{{cite web |date=2006-10-19 |title=Readers' forum: Most pedophiles are straight |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/650199779/Most-pedophiles-are-straight.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902232727/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/650199779/Most-pedophiles-are-straight.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 2, 2017 |access-date=December 20, 2012 |publisher=Deseret News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pietrzyk |first=Mark E |title=Homosexuality and Child Sexual Abuse: Science, Religion, and the Slippery Slope |url=http://www.internationalorder.org/scandal_response.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314124757/http://www.internationalorder.org/scandal_response.html |archive-date=March 14, 2012 |access-date=December 20, 2012 |publisher=Independent Gay Forum}}</ref> and research on child sexual abuse shows that most instances of child sexual abuse (one cited percentage being over 90%) are perpetrated by heterosexual males raping underage females.<ref name="Rahman">{{cite web |last=Rahman |first=Mahrin |title=Definition of the Problem |url=http://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Pediatric_Sexual_Assault.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809025541/http://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Pediatric_Sexual_Assault.htm |archive-date=August 9, 2012 |access-date=December 20, 2012 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carole Jenny |author2=Thomas A. Roesler |author3=Kimberly L. Poyer |date=July 1994 |title=Are Children at Risk for Sexual Abuse by Homosexuals? |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/94/1/41.abstract?ijkey=c911201fd8349a4722ec75d7d578e4dea9465e02&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha |journal=Pediatrics |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=41–44 |doi=10.1542/peds.94.1.41 |pmid=8008535 |s2cid=33124736 |access-date=December 20, 2012 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=December 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205141808/https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/94/1/41?ijkey=c911201fd8349a4722ec75d7d578e4dea9465e02&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Lesbians== {{see also|Lesbophobia|Lesbian erasure}} [[File:Portia de Rossi.jpg|thumb|left|Actress Portia de Rossi came out as a lesbian in the early 2000s.]]

Many 20th-century films put a negative connotation on the lesbian community. The 1961 drama ''The Children's Hour'' gives viewers the idea that lesbians live a "dark" and almost depressing lifestyle.<ref>Myers, Randy. [https://elvaq.com/collegiate-newsfilm/2006/01/09/bhollywood-has-a-long-history-of-stereotyping-gays-lesbiansb/ "Hollywood Has a Long History of Stereotyping Gays, Lesbians."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803040943/https://elvaq.com/collegiate-newsfilm/2006/01/09/bhollywood-has-a-long-history-of-stereotyping-gays-lesbiansb/ |date=2020-08-03 }} Elvaq.com. Knight Ridder Newspaper, 9 Jan. 2006. Web. 17 Oct. 2014.</ref>

The television series ''The L Word'' portrays a long-term lesbian couple attempting to start a family, and counters the negative "U-Haul" lesbian stereotype, which is that lesbians move in on the second date.<ref>Margaret McFadden, "We cannot afford to keep being so high-minded": Fighting the Religious Right on ''The L Word''" ''The New Queer Aesthetic on Television: Essays on Recent Programming'', edited by James R. Keller and Leslie Stratyner. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers (2006): 125</ref> However, at the same time, the series came under heavy criticism for reinforcing numerous other negative stereotypes, such as lesbians preying on and seducing straight women in relationships with men; mistreating bisexual women or outright shunning them if they had a history of sleeping with men (to the point where Alice Pieszecki, a bisexual character, refers to bisexuality as "gross"); for downplaying the main characters' misdeeds and unexplained tendency for adultery and instead focusing on their physical beauty and sex scenes; for randomly killing off main characters for no specific reason (referred to as "bury your gays"); for downplaying a rape scene as "angry sex";<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefandomentals.com/l-word-reboot-last-thing-we-need/|title = Why an L Word Reboot is the Last Thing We Need Right Now - the Fandomentals| date=3 August 2017 }}</ref> reportedly attempting to "reify heteronormativity";<ref>Samuel A. Chambers, "Heteronormativity and ''The L Word'': From Politics of Representation to a Politics of Norms" ''Reading the L Word'', edited by Kim Akass and Janet McCabe. London: I. B. Tauris (2006): 91</ref> for depicting lesbianism or bisexuality as a gene passed from mothers to daughters which sometimes caused both to fight over the same woman (as demonstrated in the cases of Lenore and Alice Pieszecki, Cherie and Clea Jaffe, Peggy and Helena Peabody, Phyllis and Molly Kroll, an instance when Shane had sex with a mother and her two daughters separately on one of the daughters' wedding day, which led to all three of them falling in love with Shane and subsequently falling out with each other, and ultimately Tina and Angelica Kennard in the sequel series, ''The L Word: Generation Q''); and showing lesbian relationships as destined to fail due to lesbians' apparent struggles with monogamy and commitment. Series creator Ilene Chaiken was labeled as "shameless in her professional upbringing" for her depiction of lesbians in general.<ref name="nyt2009">{{cite news| title=So Many Temptations to Succumb to, So Many Wandering Eyes to Track| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/arts/television/16word.html?fta=y| author=Ginia Bellafante| access-date=2009-03-16| work=The New York Times| date=2009-01-16| author-link=Ginia Bellafante| archive-date=2009-04-24| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424231700/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/arts/television/16word.html?fta=y| url-status=live}}</ref>

Many lesbians are associated with short hair, wearing baggy clothes and playing sports.<ref>Geiger, Wendy. "College Students' multiple Stereotypes of Lesbians: A Cognitive</ref> Further, news coverage of LGBT issues reinforces stereotyped portrayals of lesbians. Often news broadcasts highlight stories on more "masculine" lesbians and fail to give equal coverage to other more faceted lesbian identities. Thus, the populations who receive information about marginalized communities from a news source begin to equate lesbian sexuality with a masculine presentation. The way lesbians are portrayed leads people to make assumptions about individuals in everyday life.<ref>Stossel, John, and Gena Binkley. "Gay Stereotypes: Are They True?" ABC News. ABC News Network, 15 Sept. 2006. Web. 16 Oct. 2014.</ref>

Typically, lesbians are stereotyped as belonging to one of the two following categories: "butch and femme". Butch lesbians dress in a more masculine manner than other women. "Dykes" (a pejorative term that the Lesbian community has reclaimed, to an extent) are considered members of a community that is perceived as being composed of strong and outspoken advocates in wider society.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Krantz | first1 = S. E. | title = Reconsidering the Etymology of Bulldike | journal = American Speech | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 217–221 | year = 1995 | doi = 10.2307/455819| jstor = 455819 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.425.8628 }}</ref> Actress Portia de Rossi has been credited for significantly countering the general societal misconception of how lesbians look and function when, in 2005, she divulged her sexual orientation in intimate interviews with ''Details'' and ''The Advocate'' which generated further discussion on the concept of the "lipstick lesbian" ("femme" women who tend to be "hyper-feminine").{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} These stereotypes play out within the LGBTIQ+ community itself, with many women reporting feeling rejected by the queer community for not appearing or acting in the accepted way.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1108/SC-02-2016-0004|title=Rethinking microaggressions and anti-social behaviour against LGBTIQ+ youth|journal=Safer Communities|volume=15|issue=4|pages=190|year=2016|last1=Roffee|first1=James A.|last2=Waling|first2=Andrea|s2cid=151493252}}</ref>

Lesbian feminists assert that a sexual component is unnecessary for a woman to declare herself a lesbian if her primary and closest relationships are with women, on the basis that, when considering past relationships within an appropriate historical context, there were times when love and sex were separate and unrelated notions.<ref>Rothblum, Esther, Brehony, Kathleen, eds. (1993). ''Boston Marriages: Romantic But Asexual Relationships Among Contemporary Lesbians'', University of Massachusetts Press. {{ISBN|0-87023-875-2}}, p. 4–7.</ref> In 1989, an academic cohort called the Lesbian History Group wrote: {{blockquote|"Because of society's reluctance to admit that lesbians exist, a high degree of certainty is expected before historians or biographers are allowed to use the label. Evidence that would suffice in any other situation is inadequate here... A woman who never married, who lived with another woman, whose friends were mostly women, or who moved in known lesbian or mixed gay circles, may well have been a lesbian. ... But this sort of evidence is not 'proof'. What our critics want is incontrovertible evidence of sexual activity between women. This is almost impossible to find."<ref>Norton, Rictor (1997). ''The Myth of the Modern Homosexual: Queer History and the Search for Cultural Unity'', Cassell. {{ISBN|0-304-33892-3}}, p. 184.</ref>}}

==Transgender people== {{see also|Transphobia}} ''Transgender'' is an umbrella term that encompasses a wide range of people with more specific identities. In general, a person who is transgender identifies with a gender other than their gender assigned at birth. The term may apply to any number of distinct communities, such as cross-dressers, drag queens, and drag kings, in addition to transsexuals.<ref name=currah>{{Cite book|title=Transgender Rights |editor-first1=Paisley |editor-last1=Currah |editor-first2=Richard M. |editor-last2=Juang |editor-first3=Shannon Price |editor-last3=Minter |isbn=978-0-8166-4312-7 |year=2007 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis, Minn.}}</ref> The beliefs that transgender people are all prostitutes and caricatures of men and women are two of many erroneous misconceptions.<ref name=aidsinfonyc>{{cite web |url=http://www.aidsinfonyc.org/Q-zone/youth.html |title=Transgendered Youth at Risk for Exploitation, HIV, Hate Crimes |work=Inter-Q-Zone |year=1995 |access-date=2007-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422084459/http://www.aidsinfonyc.org/Q-zone/youth.html |archive-date=2007-04-22 |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

One common stereotype of trans women is that they are assumed to be drag queens.<ref>{{cite web|title=Myth #10: Drag queens and kings are transgender|url=https://www.vox.com/cards/transgender-myths-fiction-facts/transvestites-drag-queens-transgender-myth|website=Vox|publisher=Vox Media|date=2016-05-13|access-date=2018-01-18|archive-date=2018-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809184158/https://www.vox.com/cards/transgender-myths-fiction-facts/transvestites-drag-queens-transgender-myth|url-status=live}}</ref> While historically some trans women have been innovators within the drag scene alongside gay men, trans women are not drag queens.<ref>{{cite web|title=GLAAD Media Reference Guide - Transgender|url=https://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender|website=GLAAD|date=2011-09-09|access-date=2018-01-18|archive-date=2020-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629211219/https://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another stereotype is that trans women are sexual predators seeking to assault cis women, analogous to the stereotype about gay men as sexual predators on boys; even though most sexual assault victims, women and boys, are assaulted by cisgender heterosexual male perpetrators.<ref>{{cite web|first= Elijah|last= Nealy|title= The Sexual Predator Myth: Once Visited on Gay Men, It Now Hurts Trans Women|website=Big Think|url=https://bigthink.com/the-present/elijah-nealy-the-transgender-bathroom-debate-is-literally-dangerous/}}</ref>

===Transsexualism=== A transsexual person is born with the physical characteristics of one sex who psychologically and emotionally identifies with a variant or different gender than their physical sex characteristics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/transexual |title=transexual - definition of transexual by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |access-date=2011-01-15 |archive-date=2011-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105014150/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/transexual |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Money | first1 = J. | title = The Concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years | doi = 10.1080/00926239408403428 | journal = Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 163–177 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7996589 }}</ref> Stereotypes of trans women include them always being taller and having larger hands than cisgender women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gazzola |first1=Stephanie |last2=Morrison |first2=Melanie |title=Cultural and Personally Endorsed Stereotypes of Transgender Men and Transgender Women: Notable Correspondence or Disjunction? |journal=International Journal of Transgenderism |date=8 August 2014 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=7|doi=10.1080/15532739.2014.937041 |s2cid=144592753}}</ref> Trans men, conversely, are often stereotyped as being cuter, more feminine, and more passive than their cisgender counterparts, being classified as "softboys" (also spelled "softbois" or "softybois").<ref>{{cite web |last1=Strapagiel |first1=Lauren |title=Here's Why Boys All Over Social Media Are Proudly Calling Themselves "Softboys" |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/laurenstrapagiel/heres-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-history-and |website=Buzzfeed News |date=16 April 2019 |publisher=Buzzfeed |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-date=20 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120043011/https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/laurenstrapagiel/heres-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-history-and |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sommer |first1=Liz |title=Softboy/Softboi |url=https://stayhipp.com/glossary/softboy-softboi/ |website=Stayhipp |access-date=7 October 2019 |date=2019-04-23 |archive-date=2020-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926154550/https://stayhipp.com/glossary/softboy-softboi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Both transgender men and women are often conflated with being gay, with trans men being mistaken for lesbians and trans women being mistaken for gay men.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gazzola |first1=Stephanie |last2=Morrison |first2=Melanie |title=Cultural and Personally Endorsed Stereotypes of Transgender Men and Transgender Women: Notable Correspondence or Disjunction? |journal=International Journal of Transgenderism |date=8 August 2014 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=76–99 |doi=10.1080/15532739.2014.937041 |s2cid=144592753 }}</ref>

===Transvestites and cross-dressers=== Transvestites are often assumed to be homosexuals. The word ''transvestism'' comes from the combination of Latin words ''trans'' meaning "across, over" and ''vestitus'' meaning dressed.<ref>Hirschfeld, Magnus: Die Transvestiten. Eine Untersuchung über den erotischen Verkleidungstrieb mit umfangreichem casuistischen und historischen Material. Berlin 1910: Alfred Pulvermacher<br />Hirschfeld, M. (1910/1991). ''Transvestites: The erotic drive to cross dress.''(M. A. Lombardi-Nash, Trans.) Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.</ref> Most transvestites are heterosexual.<ref name=feinbloom>{{Cite book|isbn=978-0-440-08513-3 |title=Transvestites & Transsexuals: Mixed Views |first=Deborah Heller |last=Feinbloom |year=1976 |publisher=Delacorte Press/S. Lawrence}}</ref> Although many people use the words interchangeably, ''transvestite'' has increasingly become a derogatory term. Most prefer to use the term ''cross-dresser'' or ''cross-dressing''.<ref name=msualliance>{{cite web|url=http://www.msu.edu/~alliance/faq/faqtransgendered.html#1.3 |title=Transgender FAQ |access-date=2007-04-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520111935/http://www.msu.edu/~alliance/faq/faqtransgendered.html |archive-date=2008-05-20 }}</ref>

==Origins and prevalence==

===Research=== Social scientists have attempted to understand why there are such negative connotations associated with the lesbian community.<ref>Brown, Michael J. "Homophobia and Acceptance of Stereotypes About Gays and Lesbians." 7.3 (2009): 159,160-167. Print.</ref> William James assumed that it was a repulsive instinct that came naturally to each woman and that, when an individual enjoyed same-sex interaction, it was because it became a habit. In short, he assumed that "tolerance is learned and revulsion is inborn" (PBS). In 1908, James and Edward Westermack attempted to understand the violent actions taken toward homosexuals by Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian religions. They believed hostility existed because of the historical association between homosexuality and idolatry, heresy, and criminal behavior. Sigmund Freud asserted in 1905 that homophobia was shaped by society, an individual's environment, and the individual's exposure to homo-eroticism. Sandor Ference (1914) believed that heterosexual women's feelings of repulsion toward those identifying as lesbians was a reaction formation and defense mechanism against affection from the same sex. In other words, he believed heterosexual females feared being labeled as lesbians.

Taking an individual that adheres to stereotypes of LGBT people and putting them in face-to-face interaction with those of the LGBT community tends to lessen tendencies to rely upon stereotypes and increases the presence of individuals with a similar ethnic, religious, or geographical background, and who are accepting of homosexuals.<ref>Herek, Gregory. "Hating Gays: An Overview of Scientific Studies." PBS. PBS. Web. 18 Oct. 2014.</ref>

===Intersections between LGBT, race, and class stereotypes=== {{see also|Racism in the LGBT community|Homophobia in ethnic minority communities|Pink capitalism}} According to the theory of intersectionality, discrimination leveled against an individual can compound based on several factors, including race, class, gender, and sexuality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crenshaw|first=Kimberle|date=July 1991|title=Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color|journal=Stanford Law Review|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1241–1299|doi=10.2307/1229039|jstor=1229039|issn=0038-9765}}</ref> As members of the LGBT community can be members of other minority groups and stand at all ends of the socioeconomic spectrum, intersectional stereotypes are often perpetuated, including those related to class and race.

As people of color and those of lower socioeconomic status are more likely to go to prison, LGBT members of these groups are often misrepresented as being criminally inclined.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Knight|first1=Charlotte|title=LGBT People as Offenders within the Criminal Justice System|date=2016|work=Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans People (LGBT) and the Criminal Justice System|pages=85–111|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-137-49697-3|last2=Wilson|first2=Kath|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-49698-0_5}}</ref> LGBT individuals often face discrimination in prisons as they are typically gender-segregated and are stereotyped as being sexually available to other prisoners. This makes them vulnerable to assault and discrimination both behind bars and in the outside world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Transgender People Behind Bars|url=https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/TransgenderPeopleBehindBars.pdf|website=transequality.org|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=2020-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110231056/https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/TransgenderPeopleBehindBars.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Shows like ''Orange is the New Black'' and other forms of media perpetuate stereotypes of LGBT expression within prisons.

==== African Americans ==== thumb|African Americans represent a particularly marginalized segment of the LGBT community which faces both race- and sexuality-based prejudice. African American gay men are often characterized as being dominant in relationships both sexually and emotionally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=Russell|title=LGBT Equality and Sexual Racism|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10048051/1/Robinson%20%26%20Frost%20%282018%29%20-%20LGBT%20Equality%20and%20Sexual%20Racism.pdf|journal=Fordham Law Review|volume=86|pages=2739–2754|archive-date=2020-08-03|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803061314/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10048051/1/Robinson%20%26%20Frost%20%282018%29%20-%20LGBT%20Equality%20and%20Sexual%20Racism.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This belief is rooted in the Mandingo stereotype, a popular stereotype among opponents of the Emancipation Proclamation that painted African American men as animalistic and brutish to deepen the existing divide between White and Black Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weaver |first=Tony Jr. |date=2016 |title=Analysis of Representation of African Americans in Non-linear Streaming Media Content |journal=Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=57–67}}</ref> In addition to traditional forms of racism, African American gay men are subject to sexual racism that expects them to assume the "top" role during anal sex due to stereotypes that depict them as sexually aggressive partners with large penises.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Russell |title=LGBT Equality and Sexual Racism |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10048051/1/Robinson%20%26%20Frost%20%282018%29%20-%20LGBT%20Equality%20and%20Sexual%20Racism.pdf |journal=Fordham Law Review |volume=86 |pages=2739–2754 |archive-date=2020-08-03 |access-date=2020-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803061314/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10048051/1/Robinson%20%26%20Frost%20%282018%29%20-%20LGBT%20Equality%20and%20Sexual%20Racism.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite journal |last1=Carballo-Diéguez |first1=Alex |last2=Dolezal |first2=Curtis |last3=Nieves |first3=Luis |last4=Díaz |first4=Francisco |last5=Decena |first5=Carlos |last6=Balan |first6=Ivan |date=2004 |title=Looking for a tall, dark, macho man...sexual-role behaviour variations in Latino gay and bisexual men |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=159–171|doi=10.1080/13691050310001619662 |s2cid=144131628 }}</ref> These stereotypes can be observed in many forms of media, notably pornography, which depicts Black gay men as sexual predators who are capable of satisfying fantasies of extreme domination.<ref name=":43">{{Cite journal |last=Han |first=Chong-suk |date=2007 |title=They Don't Want To Cruise Your Type: Gay Men of Color and the Racial Politics of Exclusion |journal=Social Identities |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=51–67|doi=10.1080/13504630601163379 |s2cid=143501478 }}</ref> African American members of the LGBT community also face discrimination and stereotypes from other African Americans who are historically likely to be religious and stereotype homosexuals as having loose morals. Religious stereotypes surrounding the LGBT community are especially prevalent in certain black evangelical churches, where LGBT members are thought to be "damned to hell."<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Andrews |first=Edwanna |date=2017-01-01 |title=Damned to Hell: The Black Church Experience for College Educated Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/5590 |journal=Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019 |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920114921/https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/5590/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

With respect to the experience of African American lesbians, they deliberately construct their identities to protect themselves against intersectional forms of discrimination. Though Black feminine and masculine lesbians–femmes and studs–use gender performance to blend into a heteropatriarchal society, they continue to experience negative gender and racial stereotypes.

Black femmes are characterized as hypersexual, submissive women who lack substance and, in conformity with traditional feminine gender norms, are obsessed with outward appearance (i.e., clothes, hair, makeup).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Byrd |first1=Ayana |title=Naked: Black Women Bare All About Their Skin, Hair, Hips, Lips, and Other Parts |last2=Solomon |first2=Akiba |publisher=Penguin |year=2005 |pages=80–84}}</ref> As their visual identity allows them to pass as heterosexual women, Black femmes are shielded from potential homophobic violence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Siobhan |date=2016 |title=Staying in the Hood: Black Lesbian and Transgender Women and Identity Management in North Philadelphia |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=63 |issue=12 |pages=1573–1593|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1158008 |pmid=26930560 |s2cid=7943699 }}</ref> However, due to their subordinate position in the dominant racial and gender hierarchy, Black women remain vulnerable to misogynoir–regardless of perceived or actual sexual orientation.

Studs are similarly identified through dress and appearance. In an attempt to imitate straight, Black men, studs incorporate stereotypical elements of "thuggish" style into their own, often covered in loose-fitting clothing and chains with their hair styled in braids, twists, tied up, or cut short.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Lane-Steel |first=Laura |date=2011 |title=Studs and Protest-Hypermasculinity: The Tomboyism within Black Lesbian Female Masculinity |journal=Journal of Lesbian Studies |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=480–492|doi=10.1080/10894160.2011.532033 |pmid=21973068 |s2cid=5198734 }}</ref> To protect themselves against homophobia within Black and non-Black communities further, studs will exaggerate certain elements of traditional masculinity to become "one of the guys."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":02" /> As a result, studs are stereotyped as having extremely sexist and homophobic attitudes towards feminine lesbians and gay men.<ref name=":1" />

However, deviation from heteronormativity has contributed to the rise of negative representations of all Black lesbians in media and popular culture.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Woolner |first=Cookie |date=2015 |title="Woman Slain in Queer Love Brawl": African American Women, Same-Sex Desire, and Violence in the Urban North, 1920-1929 |journal=Journal of African American History |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=406–427|doi=10.5323/jafriamerhist.100.3.0406 |s2cid=147021368 }}</ref> In the 1920s, African American newspapers popularized the stereotype of Black lesbians as violent, sex-crazed individuals at the same time that the concept of "lesbianism" emerged in modern American society.<ref name=":2" /> Largely owing to the Great Migration, newspapers sensationalized homicide cases involving women who loved women to criticize the immoral behavior of Southern migrants, who were perceived as a threat to the respectability of Northern residents.<ref name=":2" /> While violence between Black women occurred at a lower rate than violence between heterosexual and other same-sex relationships during this time period, journalists' insinuation that Black lesbianism was inherently linked to extreme aggression and criminal behavior shaped public opinion for several decades.<ref name=":2" />

====Hispanics and Latinos==== Hispanic and Latino gay men and women often experience difficulty coming out in their communities due to cultural values based on heterosexism or the presumption that heterosexual relationships and sexual behavior are the societal norm. As a result, coming out as homosexual may jeopardize the strong familial ties associated with Hispanic and Latino culture.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Espín |first=Olivia |title=Latina Realities |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |pages=83–96}}</ref> A dominant stereotype of Hispanic and Latino family structures is that they are centered on the "macho" man who determines appropriate forms of masculinity and femininity. A "good man," for example, is not only expected to provide for his family and protect women and children, but also to maintain a positive family image through abusive and oppressive tactics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=José B. |last2=Solberg |first2=Scott H. |last3=Carlstrom |first3=Aaron H. |date=2002 |title=The Myth of Sameness Among Latino Men and Their Machismo |journal=American Journal of Orthopsychiatry |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=163–181|doi=10.1037/0002-9432.72.2.163 |pmid=15792057 }}</ref> As such, a "good woman" is expected to assume a submissive and subservient position to both men and the family.<ref name=":3" /> Due to their sexuality, gay men and women are perceived to be at odds with traditional Hispanic and Latino structures that assign gender roles and are discriminated against as a result. In addition to machismo, Hispanic and Latino communities are stereotyped as homophobic due to their religiosity. However, the emerging popularity of Latin American Liberation Theology has empowered young gay men and women to redefine religion and spirituality on their own terms, come out, and confront heterosexism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Espín |first=Olivia M. |date=2013 |title=..."An Illness We Catch From American Women"? The Multiple Identities of Latina Lesbians |journal=Women & Therapy |pages=45–56}}</ref>

Like other gay men of color, Hispanic and Latino gay men are frequently reduced to racial stereotypes within the gay community.<ref name=":43"/> Due to the overgeneralization of Hispanic and Latino men as hyper-masculine individuals, gay men of the same background are stereotyped as passionate and spontaneous lovers with an insatiable sexual appetite.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bianchi |first1=Fernanda T. |last2=Shedlin |first2=Michele G. |last3=Brooks |first3=Kelly D. |last4=Montes Penha |first4=Marcelo |last5=Reisen |first5=Carol A. |last6=Zea |first6=Maria Cecilia |last7=Poppen |first7=Paul J. |date=2010 |title=Partner Selection among Latino Immigrant Men Who Have Sex with Men |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1321–1330|doi=10.1007/s10508-009-9510-x |pmid=19688592 |pmc=2992808 }}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite journal |last1=Grov |first1=Christian |last2=Saleh |first2=Lena D. |last3=Lassiter |first3=Jonathan M. |last4=Parsons |first4=Jeffrey T. |date=2015 |title=Challenging Race-Based Stereotypes about Gay and Bisexual Men's Sexual Behavior and Perceived penis Size and Size Satisfaction |journal=Sexuality Research and Social Policy |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=224–235|doi=10.1007/s13178-015-0190-0 |s2cid=142126278 |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1143&context=sph_pubs |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The continued presence of racial stereotypes within the gay community is harmful because it fetishizes and dehumanizes gay men of color to the point where issues impacting their intersecting identities—such as universal healthcare, homelessness, welfare, and immigration—are excluded from the political agenda of the gay movement.<ref name=":43"/> Additionally, Hispanic and Latino gay men are subject to gender stereotypes within their ethnic community that largely influence their sexual behavior.<ref name=":52"/> As gay men in Hispanic and Latino cultures are stereotyped as overly effeminate individuals due to their sexual orientation, their preferences in sexual roles are formed and reformed to prevent any negative perceptions of them being a "lesser man." They prefer to assume the active role during anal sex over the passive role because penetration is associated with traditionally masculine traits such as power and dominance while being penetrated is associated with traditionally feminine traits such as weakness and submission.<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":3" />

Hispanic and Latina lesbians are similarly stereotyped according to their intersecting identities. As gay women of color, they are characterized as seductive and sensual individuals with a fiery or "spicy" disposition who exist to satisfy heterosexual male desire.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Munoz-Laboy |first1=Miguel |title=Latina/o sexualities: Probing powers, passions, practices, and policies |last2=Acosta |first2=Katie |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2010 |pages=117–136}}</ref> One example of the stereotypical representation of Hispanic and Latina lesbians in popular culture is the fictional character Santana Lopez from ''Glee''. Throughout the series, Santana is depicted as a "straight-up bitch" who engages in verbal and physical altercations with others and has had numerous sexual and romantic relationships with male and female protagonists.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Queer in the Choir Room: Essays on Gender and Sexuality in Glee |publisher=McFarland |year=2014 |editor-last=Parke |editor-first=Michelle |pages=39–53}}</ref> Within their communities, Hispanic and Latina lesbians are also impacted by gender stereotypes. Owing to the cultural belief that respectable women subordinate their needs to men and refrain from any sexual activity without the intention of procreation, Hispanic and Latina lesbians will "stay in the closet" or refrain from coming out.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Beverly |date=1996 |title=Lesbian women of color: Triple jeopardy |journal=Journal of Lesbian Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=109–147|doi=10.1300/J155v01n01_09 |pmid=24784950 }}</ref> Those who do come out will be received differently depending on their presentation. While feminine lesbians will be rendered invisible in Hispanic and Latino spaces, masculine lesbians will be the only "type" of lesbian to be recognized and, as a result, are more likely to be disowned by their families and shut out from communities.

====Asians==== As a marginalized minority within gender and racial hierarchies, Asian members of the LGBT community experience intersectional invisibility.<ref name="Purdie-VaughnsEibach20082">{{cite journal |last1=Purdie-Vaughns |first1=Valerie |last2=Eibach |first2=Richard P. |year=2008 |title=Intersectional Invisibility: The Distinctive Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Subordinate-Group Identities |journal=Sex Roles |volume=59 |issue=5–6 |pages=377–391 |doi=10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4 |issn=0360-0025 |s2cid=35469591}}</ref> While this form of invisibility may offer a certain degree of protection from active prejudice, it also makes it difficult for the negative experiences of the Asian community—such as racism and discrimination—to be recognized.<ref name="Purdie-VaughnsEibach20082" /> As a result, Asians are frequently excluded from discussions of race, which are generally framed around a White/Black dichotomy, and marginalized within the mostly-white LGBT community and movement at large.<ref name="SueBucceri20072">{{cite journal |last1=Sue |first1=Derald Wing |last2=Bucceri |first2=Jennifer |last3=Lin |first3=Annie I. |last4=Nadal |first4=Kevin L. |last5=Torino |first5=Gina C. |year=2007 |title=Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience |journal=Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=72–81 |doi=10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.72 |issn=1939-0106 |pmid=17227179 |s2cid=7607812}}</ref><ref name="Greene19942">{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=Beverly |year=1994 |title=Ethnic-minority lesbians and gay men: Mental health and treatment issues. |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=243–251 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.62.2.243 |issn=1939-2117 |pmid=8201060}}</ref>

On the basis of sexual orientation and race, gay Asian men are categorized as either hypersexual or asexual individuals.<ref name="Leong20142">{{cite book |author=Russell Leong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60PXAwAAQBAJ |title=Asian American Sexualities: Dimensions of the Gay and Lesbian Experience |date=17 June 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-71778-1}}</ref> In particular, gay and bisexual Asian men are stereotyped as "effeminate, submissive, and docile."<ref name="CallanderNewman20152">{{cite journal |last1=Callander |first1=Denton |last2=Newman |first2=Christy E. |last3=Holt |first3=Martin |year=2015 |title=Is Sexual Racism Really Racism? Distinguishing Attitudes Toward Sexual Racism and Generic Racism Among Gay and Bisexual Men |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=44 |issue=7 |pages=1991–2000 |doi=10.1007/s10508-015-0487-3 |issn=0004-0002 |pmid=26149367 |s2cid=7507490}}</ref> Due to their perceived feminine qualities, Asian men are viewed as mere bodies to be dominated by other gay men, primarily white men.<ref name=":43"/> The stereotype of the submissive and feminine Asian man is reinforced by additional stereotypes, such as the expectation that they will not only assume the passive role in anal sex or be the "bottom," but also that they will do this because of the myth/stereotype that they have small penises.<ref name=":112"/>

Asian women who identify as lesbian or bisexual endure sexual fetishization by those with yellow fever, a derogatory term with racist origins that is used to describe an Asian fetish. They are stereotyped as "spicy" and "freaky," which contributes to Asian lesbians' frustration about not being taken seriously by society.<ref name="SungSzymanski20152">{{cite journal |last1=Sung |first1=Mi Ra |last2=Szymanski |first2=Dawn M. |last3=Henrichs-Beck |first3=Christy |year=2015 |title=Challenges, coping, and benefits of being an Asian American lesbian or bisexual woman. |journal=Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=52–64 |doi=10.1037/sgd0000085 |issn=2329-0390}}</ref> Stereotypes of Asian women as either a Dragon Lady or China doll are dominant in mainstream media representation of Asian women, and butch Asian women are relatively invisible, giving way to more femme, or feminized, depictions.<ref name="Cooper20132">{{cite book |author=Sara E. Cooper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSvdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT65 |title=Lesbian Images in International Popular Culture |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-99212-7}}</ref>

GLAAD is working to have a fair depiction of the Asian community in the media by educating the public on language referring to Asian Americans, including refraining from phrases that are Eurocentric like "The Orient", "Far East", and "Asiatic", among other measures. GLAAD is also working to connect media networks with Asian and Pacific Islander LGBT leaders and organizations in order to create less biased media coverage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.glaad.org/publications/apikit |title=Asian Pacific Islander Resource Kit | GLAAD |work=GLAAD | GLAAD rewrites the script for LGBTQ acceptance. |access-date=10 November 2016 |date=2011-09-05 |archive-date=2020-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804023310/https://www.glaad.org/publications/apikit |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Japanese ===== {{See also|Sexual minorities in Japan|Homosexuality in Japan}}

In Japan, adult lesbians are frequently portrayed as smokers in Japanese media. While Japanese culture heavily discourages interest in homosexual fiction matching the reader's sex, certain publications, such as manga magazine ''Yuri Hime'', have repeatedly reported their dominant consumers as the same gender as portrayed for most of their operational life.

==References== {{reflist}}

Category:Gender-related stereotypes Category:Stereotypes of LGBTQ people