{{Short description|Volcanic cone in Antarctica}} {{good article}} {{Infobox mountain | name = Gaussberg | image = Warnsignal klima-polarregionen-kapitel-1 3.png | image_caption = Gaussberg in 1912 | elevation_m = 373 | elevation_ref = {{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=131}} | prominence = | listing = List of volcanoes in Antarctica | location = Antarctica | range = | map = Antarctica | coordinates = {{coord|66|48|S|089|11|E|type:mountain}} | coordinates_ref = <ref name=gnis/> | topo = | type = Volcanic cone | age = | last_eruption = | first_ascent = | easiest_route = }}
'''Gaussberg''' (or '''Schwarzen Berg''',<ref name="GlaubrechtMaitas2005" /> '''Mount Gauss''') is a {{convert|370|m|ft|adj=mid|-high|abbr=off}} extinct volcanic cone in East Antarctica fronting on Davis Sea immediately west of Posadowsky Glacier. It is ice-free and conical in nature, having formed subglacially about 55,000 years ago. The current edifice is thought to be the remains of a once-larger mountain that has been reduced by glacial and subaerial erosion. The volcano has produced lamproite magmas, and is the youngest volcano to have produced such magmas on Earth.
== Research history ==
Discovered in February 1902 by the German Antarctic Expedition under Erich von Drygalski, who named it after his expedition ship<ref name=gnis/> which in 1902 remained stuck in ice for a year.{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} The ship in turn was named in honour of the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.<ref name=gnis/> Drygalski observed the volcano with the help of a tethered balloon.<ref name="Doake1987" />
Owing to its peculiar composition, Gaussberg has been intensively researched.{{sfn|LeMasurier|Thomson|Baker|Kyle|1990|p=xviii}} The mountain was investigated in 1912 by the 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition, by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1956–1957,{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} by Australian expeditions in 1977, 1981,{{sfn|LeMasurier|Thomson|Baker|Kyle|1990|p=448}} 1987{{sfn|Migdisova|Sushchevskaya|Portnyagin|Shishkina|2023|p=913}} and by an expedition linked to an entity "K.D.C" in 1997.{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=982}} Regional krill stocks in turn were named after the mountain.<ref name="Wright1987" /> Owing to its peculiar composition and isolated location, the volcano has an importance out of proportion to its actual size.<ref name="Smellie2021" /> The mineral gaussbergite is named after the volcano.<ref name="Aodha1989" />
== Geography and geomorphology ==
The volcano lies in Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, Antarctica,{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} close to the West Ice Shelf and between the Australian Davis Station and Russian Mirny Station.{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=242}} It lies on the Davis Sea immediately west of Posadowsky Glacier.<ref name=gnis/> Gaussberg is within the Antarctic territory claimed by Australia,{{sfn|Salvioli-Mariani|Toscani|Bersani|2004|p=83}} and the only ice-free outcrop between Mirny Station and the Vestfold Hills.<ref name="Mikhalsky2015" />
thumb|German map of Gaussberg It consists of a {{convert|370|m|ft|adj=mid|-high|abbr=off}}, {{convert|1.5|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide|abbr=off}}{{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=131}} cone located between the East Antarctic Ice Sheet on three sides and the sea on the fourth.{{sfn|Vyalov|Sobolev|1959|p=31}} It is the only exposure of rock in the region,{{sfn|Vyalov|Sobolev|1959|p=31}}{{sfn|Smellie|Collerson|2021|p=615}} with rocky outcrops at the summit and on the northern flank.{{sfn|LeMasurier|Thomson|Baker|Kyle|1990|p=446}} The edifice covers an area of about {{convert|10|km2}}{{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=87}} and has a volume of {{convert|1|km3}}.{{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=87}} Most of the edifice is made out of pillow lavas with radii of {{convert|0.5|-|2|m}} and {{convert|3|-|5|cm}} thick crusts. The volcano is covered with lava fragments resembling lapilli which may have formed through erosion. Gaussberg has no volcanic crater,{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} rather having a ridge at the summit. The volcano has several terraces of undetermined origin{{sfn|Vyalov|Sobolev|1959|p=31}} and may have formed as a shield volcano with multiple vents.<ref name="Smellie2021" /> The rocks were probably emplaced subglacially, although the occurrence of pahoehoe lava is possible.<ref name="WilliamsCollerson1992" /> There are moraines on the southern, northwestern and northeastern foot of the volcano,{{sfn|LeMasurier|Thomson|Baker|Kyle|1990|p=446}} and erratic blocks and glacial striations are evidence that the volcano was formerly glaciated.{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=245}}
== Geology ==
Gaussberg is an extremely isolated volcano{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}} although an ice rise a few kilometres southwest of Gaussberg{{sfn|Smellie|Collerson|2021|p=617}} and aeromagnetic surveys suggest that within {{convert|30|km}} there are other small volcanoes in the area.<ref name="Smellie2021" /> It is the only Antarctic volcano situated on the Antarctic Shield, where the thickest crust of Antarctica is found.{{sfn|LeMasurier|Thomson|Baker|Kyle|1990|p=10}} Why it formed about 50,000 years ago on a stable continental margin is unclear; either a mantle plume, an instability of the East Antarctic continent{{sfn|Sushchevskaya|Migdisova|Antonov|Krymsky|2014|p=1031}}{{sfn|Sleep|2006|p=250}}<ref name="Panter2021" /> or lateral flow of mantle plume material are possible.{{sfn|Sleep|2006|p=252}} The basement underneath Gaussberg is formed by gneisses of Archean to Proterozoic age.{{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=87}} The lithosphere under Gaussberg is over {{convert|150|km}} thick{{sfn|Sleep|2006|p=250}} and has an unusually high heat flow.<ref name="Reading2022" />
Its activity has been related to the Kerguelen Plateau, but the Kerguelen volcanoes have yielded different magma compositions and there is no major geological structure linking the two other than the so-called "Kerguelen-Gaussberg Ridge",{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}} thus a connection between the two is unproven.{{sfn|Smellie|Collerson|2021|p=615}} A graben system in the region, which may have formed in Gondwana and may be correlated to tectonic structures on the Indian Peninsula, has been christened the "Gaussberg Rift";<ref name="Golynsky2010" /> the volcano rises on a horst on the rift but its relation to the rift is unclear.{{sfn|Smellie|Collerson|2021|p=615-616}} Finally, the 90° E Fault that separates regional tectonic structures may have influenced volcanism at Gaussberg.<ref name="Aitken2014" />
=== Composition ===
The volcano has a uniform chemical composition{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=241}} consisting of lamproite (originally identified as leucitite),{{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=7}} which defines a potassium-rich mafic rock suite.{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} The rocks are almost free of visible crystals{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}} but contain numerous vesicles. Phenocrysts include clinopyroxene, leucite and olivine,{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=982}} the latter containing spinel inclusions.{{sfn|Migdisova|Sushchevskaya|Portnyagin|Shishkina|2023|p=911}} The Gaussberg suite is the youngest lamproite known on Earth.{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=981}} The rocks are rich in volatiles{{sfn|Sushchevskaya|Migdisova|Antonov|Krymsky|2014|p=1035}} including carbon dioxide and water.{{sfn|Salvioli-Mariani|Toscani|Bersani|2004|p=98}} There are xenoliths, mostly granites coming from the Precambrian basement,{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} and zircons recovered from the rocks are up to several billion years old.<ref name="Mikhalsky2015" /> Palagonite,{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=417}} salt{{sfn|Vyalov|Sobolev|1959|p=33}} and native sulfur deposits have been found.{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}}
The source of the Gaussberg lamproites is unclear, as the processes usually proposed for the formation of such magmas do not easily apply to the Gaussberg rocks.{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=999}} The magma may have formed through the incomplete melting of phlogopite-rich mantle and further chemical processes such as crystal fractionation that raised the potassium/aluminium ratio above 1.{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=426}} Deep mantle structures that formed through subduction billions of years ago and remained isolated since then have been proposed as the source of Gaussberg lamproites.{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=999}} The Kerguelen plume may{{sfn|Sushchevskaya|Migdisova|Antonov|Krymsky|2014|p=1046}} or may not have played a role.<ref name="Smellie2021" />
== Eruption history ==
Drastically different age estimates have been obtained on Gaussberg. Early research suggested a Pliocene or Miocene age based on a presumed history of the Antarctic Ice Sheet and comparisons between the appearance of Gaussberg with Kerguelen volcanoes.{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=241}} Potassium-argon dating has yielded ages of 20 and 9 million years,{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}} with younger dating efforts producing an age of 56,000±5,000 years.{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=243}} Fission track dating produced ages of 25,000±12,000 years and geomorphologic considerations support a late Pleistocene age.{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}} These disagreements between potassium-argon dating and other dating methods may indicate either contamination with older rocks or the presence of non-outgassed argon.{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=241}} The 56,000±5,000 years age is considered to be more probable than the 20 and 9 million years ones.{{sfn|Mitchell|Bergman|1991|p=86}}
Gaussberg was probably constructed in a single eruptive episode{{sfn|Tingey|McDougall|Gleadow|1983|p=244}} but there is evidence that the present-day edifice formed on an older, eroded volcano.{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=981}} Gaussberg formed under much thicker ice than there is today in the area, and the ice deposited moraines on its summit.{{sfn|Sheraton|Cundari|1980|p=418}} There are different views on how erosion affected Gaussberg; some think that it was largely spared<ref name="Grew1982" /> and others that erosion wore down the initially much larger edifice to its current size;{{sfn|LeMasurier|Thomson|Baker|Kyle|1990|p=447}}{{sfn|Murphy|2002|p=982}} the latter theory is the preferred view of the Global Volcanism Program<ref>{{cite gvp|name=Gaussberg|vn=390810|access-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> and is supported by aeromagnetic data which suggest an initial size of {{convert|10|km}}.<ref name="Smellie2021" /> Dust layers in the Siple Dome ice core may come from wind-driven erosion of Gaussberg rocks.<ref name="Koffman2021" />
== Biology ==
Several moss species were identified at Gaussberg,{{sfn|Gregory|1908|p=33}} as well as a protozoan fauna{{sfn|Gregory|1908|p=35}} such as rotifers inhabiting them.<ref name="Murray1907" /> Nematodes<ref name="Yeates1979" /> and tardigrades have been found at Gaussberg.<ref name="MillerMiller1996" /> It was the first place on the Antarctic mainland where lichens were reported.{{sfn|Gregory|1908|p=33}} Emperor penguin rookeries occur at the mountain<ref name="Fuchs1951" /> and snow petrels were observed to breed there,<ref name="CroxallSteele1995" /> but overall there is not much fauna at Gaussberg.{{sfn|Vyalov|Sobolev|1959|p=35}}
==See also== * List of volcanoes in Antarctica
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Category:Mountains of Antarctica Category:Volcanoes of Antarctica Category:Extinct volcanoes Category:Volcanic cones Category:Landforms of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land Category:Pleistocene volcanoes Category:Subglacial volcanoes