Fizi Territory

{{Infobox settlement  | official_name = Fizi | other_name = ''Alembe lembe'' (Bembe) | native_name = Wilaya ya Fizi (Swahili) | nickname = | settlement_type = Territory | motto =  | image_skyline = Hills beyond Fizi - 579831743.jpg | imagesize = 290 | image_caption = Fizi Territory | image_flag = | flag_size = | image_seal = | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | image_blank_emblem = | blank_emblem_type = | blank_emblem_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | mapsize1 = | map_caption1 = | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = | dot_y = | mapframe = yes | mapframe-custom = {{maplink |frame-coordinates=SWITCH:{{Coord|-4.301111|28.944167}}###{{Coord|-3.5|28.267}} | zoom = SWITCH:7,6 | frame = yes | plain = yes | frame-align = left | type=line | stroke-width=2 | id=Q1006022 | title=Map of Territory | type2=shape-inverse | fill2= #AAAAAA | stroke-color2= #777777 | stroke-width2=0 | id2=Q488326 | title2=Location within South Kivu | switch=territory, province }} | mapframe-caption = Fizi territory within South Kivu | pushpin_map = Democratic Republic of the Congo | pushpin_label_position = bottom | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Democratic Republic of the Congo | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = 25px Democratic Republic of the Congo | subdivision_type1 = Province | subdivision_name1 = Sud-Kivu | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 =  | government_footnotes = | government_type = | leader_title = Territory Administrator | leader_name = Samy Kalonji Badibanga<ref>{{cite news |title=Reprise du trafic dans l'axe Bukavu-Uvira-Baraka et Fizi grâce aux FARDC |url=https://www.radiookapi.net/2025/02/13/actualite/securite/reprise-du-trafic-dans-laxe-bukavu-uvira-baraka-et-fizi-grace-aux |access-date=28 April 2025 |work=Radio Okapi |date=12 February 2025 |language=fr}}</ref> | leader_title1 =  | leader_name1 = | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | established_title =  | established_date = | established_title2 =  | established_date2 = | established_title3 =  | established_date3 =  | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 15789  | area_water_km2 20864 = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent 40 = | area_urban_km2 = | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | area_blank1_title = | area_blank1_km2 = | area_blank1_sq_mi =  | population_as_of = 2018 est. | population_footnotes = | population_note = | population_total = 1793422 | population_density_km2 = | population_density_sq_mi = | population_metro = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | population_urban = | population_density_urban_km2 = | population_density_urban_sq_mi = | population_blank1_title = Ethnicities | population_blank1 = | population_blank2_title = Religions | population_blank2 = | population_density_blank1_km2 = | population_density_blank1_sq_mi = | blank_name = National language | blank_info = Swahili | blank1_name = Climate | blank1_info = Aw | timezone = CAT | utc_offset = +2 | timezone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | coordinates = {{coord|4|18|4|S|28|56|39|E|region:CD|display=inline}} | elevation_footnotes =  | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = }}

'''Fizi Territory''' is a territory located in the southern part of the South Kivu province, in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering an estimated area of 15,789 square kilometers,<ref name=":482">{{Cite web |last=Tshonda |first=Jean Omasombo |last2=Bisoka |first2=Aymar Nyenyezi |last3=Kilembwe |first3=Théodore Assumani |last4=Bahati |first4=Rigobert Birembano |last5=Tshund'Unyumbe |first5=Paul Olela |last6=Krawczyk |first6=Joris |last7=Laghmouch |first7=Mohamed |date=2024 |title=République démocratique du Congo: Sud-Kivu. Tome 1, Cadre naturel, peuplement et occupation de l’espace |trans-title=Democratic Republic of the Congo: South Kivu. Volume 1, Natural framework, settlement, and land use |url=https://www.africamuseum.be/sites/default/files/media/research/discover%20our%20research/publications/open-access/monographies/img/SUD-KIVU_Tome%201_WEB%20DEF.pdf |access-date=25 September 2025 |website=Africamuseum.be |publisher=Royal Museum for Central Africa |page=32–33 |language=fr |publication-place=Tervuren, Flemish Brabant, Belgium |isbn=978-9-4645-9617-5}}</ref> it shares borders with Uvira Territory to the north, Mwenga and Shabunda territories to the west, Kalemie Territory of Tanganyika Province to the south, and Lake Tanganyika to the east, beyond the Ubwari Peninsula.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=M'mangwa |first=Maluxes Malumbe |date=2007 |title=Les ASBL et la problématique de développement socioéconomique du territoire de Fizi en RDC |trans-title=Non-profit organizations and the socio-economic development issues of the Fizi region in the DRC |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6696/m_Les-ASBL-et-la-problematique-de-developpement-socioeconomique-du-territoire-de-Fizi-en-RDC7.html |access-date=21 May 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rukakiza |first1=Bosco Muchukiwa |last2=Kasagwe |first2=Marcellin |date=2019 |title=Conflits dans les moyens et les hauts plateaux de Fizi, Mwenga et Uvira: facteurs d'escalade, modus operandi des acteurs et crise politique régionale en perspective |trans-title=Conflicts in the middle and highlands of Fizi, Mwenga and Uvira: factors of escalation, modus operandi of the actors and regional political crisis in perspective |url=https://www.isdrbukavu.ac.cd/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/ISDR-Bukavu_Conflit-dans-les-moyens-et-les-hauts-plateaux-de-Fizi-Uvira-Mwenga_Bosco-Muchukiwa-et-Marcellin.pdf |access-date=26 May 2025 |website=Isdrbukavu.ac.cd |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |page=5 |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

The Bembe people predominantly inhabit the territory, though it is also characterized by considerable ethnocultural diversity, with smaller ethnic groups such as the Babuyu, Babwari, and Bazoba residing in various villages throughout the area.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=M'mangwa |first=Maluxes Malumbe |date=2007 |title=Les ASBL et la problématique de développement socioéconomique du territoire de Fizi en RDC |trans-title=Non-profit organizations and the socio-economic development issues of the Fizi region in the DRC |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6696/m_Les-ASBL-et-la-problematique-de-developpement-socioeconomique-du-territoire-de-Fizi-en-RDC8.html |access-date=21 May 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Fizi Territory is administratively subdivided into four sectors: Lulenge, Mutambala, Ngandja, and Tanganyika.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Kitungano |first=Jean-Luc Malango |date=2002 |title=L'administration publique locale face à la sécurité des personnes et de leurs biens dans la province du Sud Kivu |trans-title=Local public administration and the security of people and their property in the province of South Kivu |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/04/06/151/m_administration-publique-locale-securite-personnes-biens-sud-kivu12.html |access-date=26 March 2025 |publisher=University of Kisangani |language=fr |publication-place=Kisangani, Tshopo, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Its economy is primarily driven by agriculture, fishing, livestock farming, and artisanal mineral extraction.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Demafe |first=Assumani Christ |date=2018 |title=Goupes armés et mobilisation politique à Fizi |trans-title=Armed groups and political mobilization in Fizi |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/07/23/14236/Goupes-armes-et-mobilisation-politique--Fizi.html |access-date=21 May 2025 |publisher=Université Officielle de Bukavu |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> The Kyimbi (also known as Bendera) hydroelectric plant serves as a key source of power generation, although the territory's energy infrastructure remains limited.<ref name=":482" /> Other facilities, such as the Magembe and Nundu stations, ceased operation during the Second Congo War, whereas a small hydroelectric unit in Malikya, close to Baraka, remains active.<ref name=":482" />

== Geography ==

=== Terrain and climate === Fizi Territory landscape is dominated by mountainous terrain and a coastal plain along the eastern edge bordering Lake Tanganyika.<ref name=":2" /> This plain averages about two kilometers in width but widens significantly in the southern region, known as Kenya, where it reaches roughly twelve kilometers.<ref name=":482" /> In certain stretches, such as near Pemba and Luanga, the plain disappears entirely, leaving the lake's waters to crash directly against steep escarpments.<ref name=":482" /> The coastal belt extends from the Kambakulu River up to the Lweka River, which serves as the natural border between the Tanganyika and Mutambala sectors.<ref name=":482" />

Inland, toward the center, south, and north of the territory, rises a vast plateau framed by parallel mountain chains oriented in a south–north direction. The highest peaks of these mountains exceed 2,500 meters in altitude and form part of the larger Mitumba range.<ref name=":482" /> The plateau descends abruptly to the east, overlooking Lake Tanganyika. The Lukongo summit, located near the administrative headquarters of the territory, stands at about 1,400 meters above sea level.<ref name=":482" /> The Baraka–Fizi road, which connects the lakeside city of Baraka to the interior, crosses a steep rocky escarpment reminiscent of the Nyangezi escarpment found in the neighboring Walungu Territory. Toward the west, the plateau inclines gently from east to west, a gradient that is mirrored by the flow of local rivers.<ref name=":482" />

'''Major rivers and their corresponding sectors''' {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" valign="top" |Lulenge ! align="left" valign="top" |Mutambala ! align="left" valign="top" |Ngandja ! align="left" valign="top" |Tanganyika !Ref. |- | align="left" valign="top" |Mayi-Moto | align="left" valign="top" |Mutambala | align="left" valign="top" |Kilombwe | align="left" valign="top" |Lubumba |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Malonge | align="left" valign="top" |Misha | align="left" valign="top" |Nemba | align="left" valign="top" |Lweba |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kalumya | align="left" valign="top" |Katenga | align="left" valign="top" |Kasandjala | align="left" valign="top" |Lusenda |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kabi | align="left" valign="top" |Kivundje | align="left" valign="top" |Mocha | align="left" valign="top" |Sandja |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Lulenge | align="left" valign="top" |Mukera | align="left" valign="top" |Kilitcha | align="left" valign="top" |Kabumbe |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kama | align="left" valign="top" |Lubilu | align="left" valign="top" |Kabandja | align="left" valign="top" |Ngovi |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kabunga | align="left" valign="top" |Luke | align="left" valign="top" |Namatungulu | align="left" valign="top" |Mukunga |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Lubongo | align="left" valign="top" |Lwindi | align="left" valign="top" |Butungu | align="left" valign="top" |Lusuku |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Ikandja | align="left" valign="top" |Kanguti | align="left" valign="top" |Nakatete | align="left" valign="top" |Kakenge |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Luhemba | align="left" valign="top" |Bengechiba | align="left" valign="top" |Mwenya | align="left" valign="top" |Acobwe |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kichinja | align="left" valign="top" |Lokela | align="left" valign="top" |Butungu | align="left" valign="top" |Kabengwa |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kawela | align="left" valign="top" |Ambulu | align="left" valign="top" |Ichuku | align="left" valign="top" |Kalungasandje |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kamabila | align="left" valign="top" |kichula | align="left" valign="top" |Muchobwe | align="left" valign="top" |Kabembwo |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Ilambo | align="left" valign="top" |Tulembo | align="left" valign="top" |Lubichako | align="left" valign="top" |Kabondozi |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kakungwe | align="left" valign="top" |Kibila | align="left" valign="top" |Kimbi | align="left" valign="top" |- |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Elecha | align="left" valign="top" |- | align="left" valign="top" |Lwuko | align="left" valign="top" |- |<ref name=":2" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Matenganya | align="left" valign="top" |- | align="left" valign="top" |- | align="left" valign="top" |- |<ref name=":2" /> |- | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |Kalicha | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |- | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |- | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |- |<ref name=":2" /> |} The territory experiences varied climatic conditions influenced by altitude. The low-lying coastal plains are generally hot, with average temperatures around 35°C, while the middle and high plateaus are significantly cooler, averaging 24°C.<ref name=":2" /> Altitude in the territory ranges from approximately 750 meters near the lakeshore to 1,300 meters and up to 1,700 meters inland toward the highlands.<ref name=":2" />

=== Administration and governance === {{Multiple image | total_width = 220 | image1 = Fizi (1).jpg | caption1 = A panoramic view of Fizi Territory near Sebele in the foreground, with the expansive Lake Tanganyika and the Ubwari Peninsula visible in the background. | caption_align = center }} Administratively, Fizi Territory was established under the Belgian colonial ordinance-law of 8 August 1935.<ref name=":3" /> The original administrative center was located in Kalembelembe before being relocated to a settlement named ''Fishi'', a name derived from the Kibembe language, later modified by colonial authorities to ''Fizi''. The territory takes its name from this administrative center.<ref name=":3" />

Fizi Territory is subdivided into four sectors: Lulenge, Mutambala, Ngandja, and Tanganyika. These are further divided into 18 ''groupements'' (groupings) and 132 ''localités'' (villages).<ref name=":3" /> The territory serves as an administrative unit responsible for the coordination, supervision, and support of state and provincial functions. Governance at the territorial level is overseen by a Territorial Administrator, who is supported by two Assistant Territorial Administrators.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=18 May 2010 |title=Loi organique n° 10/011 du 18 mai 2010 portant fixation des subdivisions territoriales à l'intérieur des provinces |trans-title=Organic Law No. 10/011 of 18 May 2010 establishing territorial subdivisions within the provinces |url=https://www.leganet.cd/Legislation/Droit%20Public/Administration.ter/L.10.011.18.05.2010.htm |access-date=21 May 2025 |website=Leganet.cd |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=M'mangwa |first=Maluxes Malumbe |date=2007 |title=Les ASBL et la problématique de développement socioéconomique du territoire de Fizi en RDC |trans-title=Non-profit organizations and the socio-economic development issues of the Fizi region in the DRC |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6696/m_Les-ASBL-et-la-problematique-de-developpement-socioeconomique-du-territoire-de-Fizi-en-RDC7.html |access-date=22 May 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> These officials are appointed by the president of the republic upon recommendation from the Minister of the Interior and Security, Decentralization, and Customary Affairs, following proposals by the provincial governor.<ref name=":4" /> The Territorial Administrator acts as the representative of the state and the province. Additionally, the Territorial Administrator and their assistants hold the status of judicial police officers with general jurisdiction and are empowered to requisition state services when required for the public interest.<ref name=":4" /> Regular administrative reports are submitted to the provincial governor and forwarded to the national Ministry of the Interior and Security, Decentralization, and Customary Affairs.<ref name=":4" />

'''Subdivisions''' {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" valign="top" |Sectors ! align="left" valign="top" |''Groupements'' ! align="left" valign="top" |Basic activities !Ref. |- | align="left" valign="top" |'''Lulenge''' | align="left" valign="top" |Basimimbi | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basimunyaka-Sud | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basikasingo | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basombo | align="left" valign="top" | |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Obekulu | align="left" valign="top" | |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |'''Mutambala''' | align="left" valign="top" |Basimukindji | align="left" valign="top" |Fishing and breeding |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Balala-Sud | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basimukuma-Sud | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Botombwe | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture and fishing |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Babwari | align="left" valign="top" |Fishing |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |'''Ngandja''' | align="left" valign="top" |Basikalangwa | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basikasilu | align="left" valign="top" |Mining |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Babungwe | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture and Mining |<ref name=":3" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |'''Tanganyika''' | align="left" valign="top" |Babungwe-Nord | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":53">{{Cite web |date=20 September 2018 |title=Annexe IV: De la repartition des sieges pour l'election des conseillers de secteur ou de chefferie |url=https://www.ceni.cd/assets/bundles/documents/cadre-legal/cadre-legal_1531157427.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920234927/https://www.ceni.cd/assets/bundles/documents/cadre-legal/cadre-legal_1531157427.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2018 |access-date=27 July 2023 |website=Ceni.cd |publisher=Independent National Electoral Commission |page=366 |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Balala-Nord | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":53" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basimunyaka-Nord | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":53" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basimukuma-Nord | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":53" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" |Basilotcha | align="left" valign="top" |Agriculture |<ref name=":53" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2008 |title=Uvira: Conflits de pouvoir et insécurité dénoncés à Fizi |trans-title=Uvira: Power conflicts and insecurity denounced in Fizi |url=https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2008/07/16/uvira-conflits-de-pouvoir-et-insecurite-denonces-a-fizi |access-date=18 June 2025 |website=Radio Okapi |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Watchdog |first=Benjamin |date=28 May 2024 |title=Fizi: The Jeunes Méthodistes association is training local communities in the Tanganyika sector in complaint management. |url=https://watchdogmedia.net/2024/05/28/fizi-with-financial-support-from-wwf-drc-through-its-leading-the-change-ltc2-project/ |access-date=18 June 2025 |website=Watchdog Media |language=fr-FR}}</ref> |} In terms of political representation, Fizi Territory is represented in the 2024–2029 National Assembly by four deputies: Théophile Basoshi Lubwe (A/A-UNC), Janvier Msenyibwa Apele (2A/TDC), who replaced Jean-Jacques Myewa Elakano, Obedi Nyamangyoku Ishibwela (AFDC-A), and Th Tchakubuta Mufaume (AAAP).<ref>{{cite web |title=Liste des députés 2024–2028: Fizi |url=https://talatala.cd/deputes/?search=fizi&legislature=1 |access-date=28 April 2025 |website=Talatala |publisher=Congo Research Group and Ebuteli |language=fr}}</ref>

== History == The region has a long history of independence from Kinshasa. It was the location of the ''maquis'' set up by Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 1967,<ref>[http://www.usafricaonline.com/news/n_crises.html "Anatomy & History of the Zaire-Congo Crises"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010142925/http://www.usafricaonline.com/news/n_crises.html|date=10 October 2007}} by Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, usafricaonline.com, 19 November 1996</ref> as well as the place where Laurent-Désiré Kabila raised his son, the former president Joseph Kabila, in 1973.<ref>[http://www.africaaction.org/docs97/cong9709.1.htm "Background Brief on the Current Situation in Kivu"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806072210/http://www.africaaction.org/docs97/cong9709.1.htm|date=6 August 2007}}, ''IRIN'', 10 September 1997 (hosted by africaaction.org); [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR620381998?open&of=ENG-2AF "Thousands of civilians victims of atrocities in the DRC"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831181656/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR620381998?open&of=ENG-2AF|date=31 August 2006}}, ''Amnesty International'', 23 November 1998; and [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/cc7b11c0c886ebba85256ef6006c743d "DR Congo: Complex Emergency Situation Report #4 (FY 2004)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190851/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/cc7b11c0c886ebba85256ef6006c743d|date=27 September 2007}}, United States Agency for International Development, 20 August 2004 (hosted by reliefweb.int)</ref>

=== Regional conflicts and wars ===

==== First Congo War ==== {{Further information|First Congo War}}{{Multiple image | total_width = 210 | image1 = Mihanda camp.jpg | caption1 = A 1996 aerial photograph showing the Mihanda refugee camp in Zaire, situated within the Mitumba Mountains. The camp is densely populated, with over 500 tents set up across the landscape. The tents are arranged in clusters, covering a significant area amidst the rugged terrain of the mountains. | caption_align = center }}

The eruption of the First Congo War (1996–1997), precipitated by the fallout of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, drastically destabilized the region. Following the genocide, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), under the leadership of Paul Kagame, ousted the Hutu-led regime of President Juvénal Habyarimana. However, the RPF's military incursions extended into eastern Zaire (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo), targeting not only Hutu insurgent factions but also perpetrating extensive violence against Hutu civilians.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp93kUfdhC0C |title=Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe |date=31 December 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-970583-2 |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |pages=12–15 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 1999 |title=The Rwandan Patriotic Front (HRW Report - Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda) |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=Hrw.org |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Moloo |first=Zahra |date=12 September 2018 |title=The crimes of the Rwandan Patriotic Front |url=https://africasacountry.com/2019/04/the-crimes-of-the-rwandan-patriotic-front |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=Africa Is a Country |language=en-US}}</ref> United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) consultant Robert Gersony documented these atrocities, estimating that between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals were killed monthly during mid-1994. The influx of over two million Rwandan Hutu refugees into eastern Zaire exacerbated tensions in provinces such as South Kivu.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp93kUfdhC0C |title=Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe |date=31 December 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-970583-2 |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |pages=12–15 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Black |first=Christopher |date=12 September 2010 |title=The Rwandan Patriotic Front's Bloody Record and the History of UN Cover-Ups |url=https://mronline.org/2010/09/12/the-rwandan-patriotic-fronts-bloody-record-and-the-history-of-un-cover-ups/ |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=Monthly Review Online |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=10The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath |url=https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/3ebf9bb60.pdf |access-date=13 November 2024 |website=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |page=2 (246) |publication-place=Geneva, Canton of Geneva, Switzerland}}</ref> The Zairean government under President Mobutu Sese Seko was unable to adequately address the humanitarian and security crises resulting from this influx.<ref name=":222" /> By 1996, the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), along with Ugandan forces and the Burundian Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), began supporting Banyamulenge and other Tutsi militias operating in eastern Zaire.<ref name=":222">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=First Congo War - Attacks against Hutu refugees - South Kivu |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/first-congo-war-attacks-against-hutu-refugees-sud-kivu/ |access-date=23 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> Belgian legal and political scholar Filip Reyntjens characterizes the First Congo War as the intersection of two concurrent agendas: a legitimate resistance movement by Congolese Tutsi fearing retaliation, and the strategic use of this struggle by the Rwandan government to justify the RPA's military intervention in Zaire.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |date=1999 |title=La deuxième guerre du Congo: plus qu'une réédition |trans-title=The Second Congo War: More Than a Reissue |url=https://medialibrary.uantwerpen.be/oldcontent/container2143/files/Publications/Annuaire/1998-1999/12-Reyntjens.pdf |access-date=23 May 2025 |website=Medialibrary.uantwerpen.be |publisher=University of Antwerp |page=3 |language=fr}}</ref> On 12 September 1996, Banyamulenge militias launched attacks in the Itombwe Sector of Mwenga Territory, specifically in the villages of Kanyura and Makutano.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=Attacks against other civilian populations - South Kivu |url=http://www.mapping-report.org/en/aattacks-against-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/ |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> Nine civilians, including prominent local leaders and their families, were executed. The casualties included an ethnic Rega administrator and the chief of the Basimunyaka II ''groupement'', a Bembe from Fizi Territory, along with two of his relatives. These killings were widely perceived by local communities as the onset of a systematic campaign of ethnically targeted violence.<ref name=":52" /> [[File:Lamba village, Fizi, South Kivu Province.jpg|thumb|MONUSCO peacekeepers and a FARDC Navy sailor in a village of Fizi Territory|210x210px]] As the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo (AFDL), supported by the RPA and Burundian forces, advanced through South Kivu, they were implicated in multiple massacres within Fizi Territory. Beginning in October 1996, AFDL and RPA units also initiated the conscription of child soldiers in the territories of Uvira, Fizi, and the city of Bukavu.<ref name=":52" /> In Bukavu, recruitment operations were carried out from the AFDL headquarters situated in the Lolango Building on Avenue Maniema. The recruited children underwent rudimentary military training in the village of Kidoti before being deployed to active combat zones.<ref name=":52" /> In late October 1996, AFDL and RPA forces killed 27 civilians, primarily women and children, in the village of Mboko, located approximately 52 kilometers south of Uvira. Victims attempting to escape across Lake Tanganyika to Tanzania were either shot or drowned.<ref name=":52" /> On 28 October 1996, another massacre occurred in Abala-Ngulube, a village situated at the junction of the ''Moyen Plateau'' and ''Haut Plateau'' near Minembwe. In this attack, 101 civilians belonging to the Bembe ethnic group and members of the Third Malikia wa Ubembe Church were killed by AFDL and RPA forces.<ref name=":52" /> Many victims were burned alive inside the church after refusing to evacuate the village. This attack followed an ambush in which Bembe fighters reportedly killed two AFDL and RPA soldiers in the surrounding area.<ref name=":52" /> Since then, the Third Malikia wa Ubembe Church has observed an annual commemoration on 28 October to honor the victims.<ref name=":52" />

The violence of this period ultimately contributed to the fall of Kinshasa in May 1997, which led to the overthrow of Mobutu and the rise of Laurent-Désiré Kabila as the new head of state. Subsequently, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 May 1997 |title=Zaire Watch News Briefs - 5 May 1997 - Democratic Republic of the Congo |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/zaire-watch-news-briefs-5-may-1997 |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=Reliefweb.int |publisher=ReliefWeb |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=Attacks against other civilian populations – Kinshasa |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-other-civilian-populations-kinshasa/ |access-date=3 June 2023 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite the Congolese facade of the AFDL movement, a significant number of its officials were, in fact, members of the RPF.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last1=Matumo |first1=Bienvenu |last2=Muhindo |first2=Stewart |date=25 January 2022 |title=Rwanda: déstabiliser le Congo pour mieux le piller |trans-title=Rwanda: Destabilizing the Congo to Better Plunder It |url=https://lvsl.fr/rwanda-destabiliser-le-congo-pour-mieux-le-piller/ |access-date=23 May 2025 |website=Le Vent Se Lève (LVSL) |language=fr-FR}}</ref> As a result, numerous Rwandan nationals occupied prominent positions within the new Congolese administration.<ref name=":9" /> The Congolese armed forces came under the ''de facto'' leadership of Rwandan General James Kabarebe, who was appointed Chief of Staff.<ref name=":9" />

==== Second Congo War ==== {{Further information|Second Congo War}} During the Second Congo War, which erupted in 1998, Fizi Territory was plunged into intense insecurity and conflict. The war was triggered by deteriorating relations between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his former allies in Rwanda and Uganda, whom he accused of harboring ''coup d'état'' ambitions and of interfering in Congolese sovereignty.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last1=Muiu |first1=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve_GAAAAQBAJ&dq=Laurent+Kabila+James+Kabarebe+of+his+position&pg=PA128 |title=A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika |last2=Martin |first2=G. |date=5 January 2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-61831-2 |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=128 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Katulondi |first=Hubert Kabasu Babu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzKNDwAAQBAJ&dq=Laurent+Kabila+James+Kabarebe+of+his+position&pg=PT124 |title=Democratisation in the Dr Congo from Joseph Mobutu to Joseph Kabila: A Modelled Exploration |date=14 March 2019 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-7283-8287-6 |location=Bloomington, Indiana, United States |language=en}}</ref> Allegations also surfaced that the United States provided indirect support to Rwanda during this period, including military training by the Rwanda Interagency Assessment Team (RIAT), reportedly to secure access to the DRC's rich mineral resources.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Snow |first=Keith Harmon |date=17 December 2023 |title=Exposing U.S. agents of low intensity warfare in Africa: The policy wonks behind covert warfare and humanitarian fascism |url=https://africanagenda.net/exposing-u-s-agents-of-low-intensity-warfare-in-africa-the-policy-wonks-behind-covert-warfare-humanitarian-fascism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124012146/https://africanagenda.net/exposing-u-s-agents-of-low-intensity-warfare-in-africa-the-policy-wonks-behind-covert-warfare-humanitarian-fascism/ |archive-date=24 January 2025 |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=African Agenda |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":152">{{Cite web |last=Madsen |first=Wayne |date=30 August 2001 |title=America's covert operations in the Great Lakes Region |url=https://l-hora.org/en/americas-covert-operations-in-the-great-lakes-region-wayne-madsen-august-2001/ |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=L'HORA |language=en-US}}</ref> Additional reports implicated American officials and organizations, such as Roger Winter of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, in fueling insurgent activities.<ref name=":142">{{Cite web |last=Snow |first=Keith Harmon |date=17 December 2023 |title=Exposing U.S. agents of low intensity warfare in Africa: The policy wonks behind covert warfare and humanitarian fascism |url=https://africanagenda.net/exposing-u-s-agents-of-low-intensity-warfare-in-africa-the-policy-wonks-behind-covert-warfare-humanitarian-fascism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124012146/https://africanagenda.net/exposing-u-s-agents-of-low-intensity-warfare-in-africa-the-policy-wonks-behind-covert-warfare-humanitarian-fascism/ |archive-date=24 January 2025 |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=African Agenda |language=en-GB}}</ref> In turn, Kabila dismissed Rwandan General James Kabarebe from his post as Chief of Staff and ordered all Rwandan troops to leave the country.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> This action triggered a swift and violent response, as Rwanda and Uganda backed a new rebel movement, the ''Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie'' (RCD). On 2 August 1998, mutinous elements within the Congolese army, alongside Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian forces, declared their rebellion from Goma.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=The Second Congo War (August 1998–January 2001) |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/the-second-congo-war/ |access-date=6 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> The RCD and its allies rapidly seized control of key areas across eastern and northern DRC, including parts of North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and Équateur Province.<ref name=":20" /> However, their push toward the capital, Kinshasa, and the western province of Bas-Congo was thwarted by military reinforcements from Angola and Zimbabwe, who intervened in support of Kabila.<ref name=":20" />

This military and political fragmentation resulted in the ''de facto'' partition of the country. Kabila's regime, bolstered by Zimbabwean, Angolan, Namibian, Chadian, and Sudanese troops, maintained control over the western and central regions.<ref name=":20" /> Conversely, the eastern regions fell under the authority of the RCD's armed wing, the ''Armée Nationale Congolaise'' (ANC), supported by Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian forces.<ref name=":20" /> In an attempt to push back against this eastern coalition, Kabila allied with local militias, most notably the Mayi-Mayi, and with Burundian and Rwandan Hutu rebel groups, including the ''Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie'' (FDD) and the ''Armée de Libération du Rwanda'' (ALiR), which included elements of the former Rwandan army and Interahamwe militia.<ref name=":20" /> Simultaneously, Uganda, while holding significant portions of Orientale Province, sponsored the formation of a rival rebel group, the ''Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo'' (MLC), led by Jean-Pierre Bemba, to govern its occupied territories in Équateur.<ref name=":20" /> Strategic and ideological disagreements between Uganda and Rwanda eventually caused a schism within the RCD itself, leading to the emergence of two rival factions: ''Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie–Goma'' (RCD-Goma), aligned with Rwanda, and RCD-ML, aligned with Uganda.<ref name=":20" /> The security environment in eastern DRC remained highly volatile following the occupation of urban centers in South Kivu by the RCD-Goma and its allied military forces, ANC, RPA, and FAB.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/ |access-date=9 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> While these forces succeeded in asserting authority over major towns, they struggled to establish effective control in rural territories, where resistance from local militias, endemic mistrust, and ethnic tensions undercut their efforts.<ref name=":21" />

The RCD-Goma's dependence on the Banyamulenge and its overt reliance on Rwandan military support fostered deep resentment among other ethnic groups. Accusations of brutality, forced recruitment, looting, and summary executions by ANC and allied troops further alienated the local population.<ref name=":21" /> In response, communities increasingly turned to self-defense militias, primarily Mayi-Mayi groups, whose decentralized and often ethnically-based structure enabled them to resist external forces.<ref name=":21" /> One such group, Mudundu 40, emerged in Walungu Territory as a reaction to the abuses committed by occupying forces. Some Mayi-Mayi factions aligned themselves with Hutu militias, including ex-FAR/Interahamwe remnants and ALiR, as well as the ''Burundian Conseil National pour la Défense de la Démocratie–Forces de Défense de la Démocratie'' (CNDD-FDD).<ref name=":21" /> These alliances, though often opportunistic and fluid, signaled the convergence of local defense efforts with broader regional dynamics. While Kinshasa occasionally supplied arms and logistical support to certain Mayi-Mayi leaders, such as General Padiri in Bunyakiri and Colonel Dunia's ''Forces d'Autodéfense Populaires'' (FAP) in Shabunda Territory, the majority of these militias operated autonomously, driven by local grievances rather than coordinated national strategy.<ref name=":21" /> In retaliation for increasing attacks from Mayi-Mayi and allied forces, troops from the ANC, RPA, and FAB intensified forceful search operations, during which they carried out widespread sexual violence and deliberately targeted civilians.<ref name=":21" />

{{Multiple image | total_width = 210 | image1 = Images de Makobola 1954b.jpg | caption1 = A view of Makobola village in 1954, before the massacre that would later occur there from 30 December 1998 to 2 January 1999. | caption_align = center }}

In October and November 1998, the villages of Swima and Lusambo in the Tanganyika Sector were the sites of deliberate massacres, where 22 civilians were killed during a market day. ANC and FAB troops opened fire on unarmed residents, accusing them of supporting local militias.<ref name=":21" /> The situation deteriorated further after a Burundian rebel combatant wounded an allied soldier, prompting indiscriminate retaliation against the civilian population.<ref name=":21" /> A pattern of violent reprisal continued into December 1998. On the 21st of that month, joint forces of the ANC, RPA, and FAB executed nine civilians in the village of Mboko following the expulsion of Mayi-Mayi fighters.<ref name=":21" /> These operations involved systematic house-to-house searches, during which civilians were summarily executed, either by gunfire or by edged weapons. The brutality culminated in the Makobola massacre, one of the conflict's most heinous attacks.<ref name=":21" /> From 30 December 1998 to 2 January 1999, soldiers rampaged through the villages of Makobola II, Bangwe, Katuta, Mikunga, and Kashekezi, killing more than 800 civilians. Witness accounts describe horrific scenes of victims burned alive in their homes, looting on a large scale, and the widespread destruction of property.<ref name=":21" />

The violence persisted in subsequent months. In March 1999, FAB troops in Kazimia, also in Fizi Territory, burned six fishermen alive shortly after fresh fighting with Mayi-Mayi and CNDD-FDD militias.<ref name=":21" /> In May of the same year, following the retaking of Baraka, ANC troops massacred 28 civilians in the village of Mwandiga. The victims, including entire families, had sought refuge and were lured into a gathering under the false pretense of a community meeting, only to be set ablaze.<ref name=":21" /> Further atrocities occurred on 30 June 2000, when ANC and RPA troops attacked Lulinda and nearby localities including Mwachata and Icwa. At least 29 civilians were killed in this operation, which also featured acts of rape and the burning of homes.<ref name=":21" />

==== Transition of power, political upheaval, and diplomatic engagement ==== Following the assassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila on 16 January 2001, Fizi Territory entered a new phase in its prolonged conflict. His successor and son, Joseph Kabila, assumed the presidency and began to shift the country's political trajectory by promoting diplomacy and dialogue. Joseph Kabila's administration prioritized de-escalation and initiated preparations for the Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD), a national reconciliation framework designed to bring together government representatives, rebel factions, political opposition, and civil society.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=DRC Towards Transition (January 2001–June 2003) |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/drc-towards-transition-january-2001-june-2003/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> In March 2001, the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) deployed personnel along major frontlines to monitor the implementation of the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. Despite these peacebuilding measures, hostilities persisted, especially in the eastern provinces of North and South Kivu, where violence remained endemic due to ongoing confrontations between Mayi-Mayi militias, the FDD, the ALiR, and the RCD-Goma's military wing, ANC, backed by the RPA.<ref name=":622">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=DRC Towards Transition (January 2001–June 2003) |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/drc-towards-transition-january-2001-june-2003/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> In September 2001, RCD-Goma attempted to assert greater control over South Kivu by organizing the inter-Kivu dialogue, a regional peace initiative aimed at brokering localized agreements with Mayi-Mayi groups.<ref name=":722">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=Towards Transition – South Kivu |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/towards-transition-south-kivu/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> However, the effort largely failed. Most Mayi-Mayi factions, many of which had the tacit or open support of the Kinshasa government, rejected the initiative. Only the Mudundu 40 faction agreed to participate, while a broad spectrum of civil society organizations boycotted the talks.<ref name=":722" />

The failure of local peace efforts fueled continued violence into 2002. In a particularly brutal episode, between 17 and 20 civilians, including a baby and two minors, were killed in the village of Kaboke II, located in the Tanganyika Sector. These atrocities, carried out by ANC and RPA troops, involved shooting, burning victims alive, and killing those in hiding.<ref name=":722" /> During the same period, a rebellion emerged within the Banyamulenge community of Minembwe. Led by Patrick Masunzu, a former ANC commander, the ''Forces Républicaines et Fédéralistes'' (FRF) broke away from RCD-Goma and formed alliances with Mayi-Mayi groups in the territories of Mwenga, Uvira, and Fizi.<ref name=":7222">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=Towards Transition – South Kivu |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/towards-transition-south-kivu/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref> With clandestine support from the Kinshasa-based central government, this alliance launched coordinated attacks against ANC and RPA positions.<ref name=":7222" /> Despite these challenges, the formal Inter-Congolese Dialogue opened on 25 February 2002 in Sun City, South Africa. On 19 April, a preliminary power-sharing agreement was announced by President Joseph Kabila and Jean-Pierre Bemba. Although the deal was welcomed by some stakeholders, it faced resistance from RCD-Goma and key political parties such as the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS).<ref name=":622" /> Nevertheless, an important breakthrough occurred on 30 July 2002, when the governments of Rwanda and the DRC signed a peace agreement in Pretoria. This agreement stipulated the withdrawal of Rwandan forces in exchange for the disarmament of the FDLR and other Hutu militias operating in Congolese territory. A similar bilateral accord was reached with Uganda in Luanda on 6 September 2002, aimed at ending its military involvement and stabilizing the conflict-ridden Ituri Province.<ref name=":622" /> By the end of 2002, the phased withdrawal of foreign military forces from Congolese territory had commenced. Troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia began to exit the country.<ref name=":622" /> However, the departure of RDF created a power vacuum in South Kivu, which allowed Mayi-Mayi militias and the FDLR to regain control over their previously lost areas. In response, the ANC and RDF launched renewed military operations to reclaim strategic positions.<ref name=":722" />

Efforts to resolve the conflict culminated in the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement signed in Pretoria on 17 December 2002, which proposed a power-sharing arrangement and the integration of armed groups into a unified national army.<ref name=":622" /> Nevertheless, the fragile peace was repeatedly undermined. In a bid to consolidate its influence, the RCD-Goma initiated talks with the political wing of Mudundu 40, offering political appointments, including that of Patient Mwendanga as Governor of South Kivu, in return for the withdrawal of RDF from Walungu Territory.<ref name=":722" /> This overture failed to bring lasting stability, as the military wing of Mudundu 40, led by Albert Kahasha (alias Foka Mike) and aligned with Padiri's Mayi-Mayi forces, refused to disarm and instead fortified its positions in the Burhale area.<ref name=":722" /> By March 2003, with negotiations collapsing, Mwendanga was dismissed, and RCD-Goma's military wing, the ANC, supported by RDF reinforcements, launched a renewed offensive in Walungu Territory.<ref name=":722" /> Parallel to these developments, other regions such as North Katanga and Ituri were also engulfed in militia-driven violence.<ref name=":622" />

The conflict's toll on civilians in Fizi Territory was severe, particularly between 1998 and 2003. During this period, the region experienced widespread sexual violence and systematic looting.<ref name=":722" /> At least 1,660 cases of rape were documented across three major localities, though the true extent of the abuse is believed to be much higher due to underreporting, social stigma, and the remoteness of many affected areas.<ref name=":722" /> All major armed factions operating in the territory, including foreign and domestic forces, were implicated in these violations. Among the recorded sexual violence cases, 89 involved male victims.<ref name=":722" /> Kalundja village emerged as a symbol of the brutality inflicted on the territory's civilian population. The village earned the grim nickname "''Dubai''" from residents, a sardonic reference to the frequency and scale of pillaging, in sharp contrast to the prosperity typically associated with the Emirati city.<ref name=":722" />

Despite these ongoing challenges, participants in the Inter-Congolese Dialogue ratified the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement on 1 April 2003 in Sun City. An accompanying memorandum outlined plans for the integration of armed groups into the national army and the establishment of transitional governance structures.<ref name=":622" /> On 30 June 2003, these transitional institutions were formally inaugurated.<ref name=":6223">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2009 |title=DRC Towards Transition (January 2001–June 2003) |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/drc-towards-transition-january-2001-june-2003/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Mapping-report.org |publisher=The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Interethnic and territorial disputes ===

==== Babembe and Babuyu ==== {{Multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = Bembe 1002.jpg | caption1 = Bembe women participating in the ''Uhulana'' ceremony, circa 1950s. Photographed by Daniel P. Biebuyck. | caption_align = center | image2 = Bembe 1000.jpg | caption2 = An elderly Bembe man seated indoors, dressed in traditional attire, engaged in a cultural and spiritual practice. Photographed by Daniel P. Biebuyck, circa 1950s. }}

The Babembe and Babuyu are considered indigenous to the region but have distinct cultural, linguistic, and historical identities. The Babembe, who trace their ancestry to a common forebear named ''M'Mbondo'', are organized into six major clans and traditionally engage in agriculture in the Mutambala plain, hunting in the Itombwe forest, and fishing on Lake Tanganyika.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last=Rukakiza |first=Bosco Muchukiwa |url=https://repository.globethics.net/bitstream/handle/20.500.12424/166524/GE_Focus_34_Identites_territorials_conflits.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Identités territoriales et conflits dans la province du Sud-Kivu, R.D. Congo |date=2016 |publisher=Globethics |isbn=978-2-88931-112-5 |publication-place=Geneva, Switzerland |pages=14–20 |language=fr |trans-title=Territorial identities and conflicts in South Kivu province, DR Congo |access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> The Babuyu, by contrast, are organized into eight clans and primarily inhabit the Lwama plain, where they practice fishing and hunting. They claim kinship ties with the Baluba of Katanga and are believed to have settled in the region during the 17th century.<ref name=":42" /> Before colonial intervention, Babembe and Babuyu lived in relative harmony, operating within mobile chiefdoms and engaging in social exchanges, including intermarriage and trade.<ref name=":42" /> However, colonial administration restructured these communities into fixed territorial sectors within the newly defined Fizi Territory. These administrative changes laid the groundwork for later disputes by imposing rigid boundaries and redefining identities.<ref name=":42" />

In 1997, these tensions erupted into open conflict in the Lulenge sector, centered around contested land rights and competing claims of indigeneity. The conflict is particularly acute in the Basikasingo ''groupement'', where the Babuyu, who form the majority, assert ancestral ownership of the Lwama plain and claim that Babembe are recent arrivals, brought in during the 1950s under Belgian colonial policies to cultivate cotton.<ref name=":42" /> The Babuyu contend that the Lulenge sector should be annexed to Maniema Province as their ethnic homeland, a proposal strongly opposed by the Babembe. The Babuyu also argue that Babembe communities in the ''groupements'' of Basimimbi, Basombo, and Obekulu should recognize their authority and pay tributes as symbolic acknowledgment of Babuyu ownership of the land.<ref name=":42" /> Conversely, the Babembe reject these claims, asserting their equal indigeneity and emphasizing their demographic and educational ascendancy in the postcolonial period. By the late 20th century, Babembe were the majority of strategic positions in local administration, education, healthcare, and the palm oil economy in Lulenge.<ref name=":42" /> They resisted any efforts to redefine administrative boundaries or to impose Babuyu leadership, viewing such moves as a regression to colonial power structures. They also opposed the colonial-era principle of rotating traditional authority, which they believed had been co-opted by the less-educated Babuyu minority to their detriment.<ref name=":42" /> These grievances culminated in a series of violent clashes in 1997 across several areas, including Bibwe, Kilembwe, Kimanu II, Kolo Maindombe, Kukwe, Penemende, and Sakya.<ref name=":42" /> The violence was further fueled by conflicting understandings of "ethnic" versus "state" territory, the politicization of ethnicity by local leaders, and historical resentments. The involvement of external actors, including Banyamulenge allies who encouraged the Babuyu to assert their rights in the face of perceived Babembe dominance, intensified the conflict.<ref name=":42" /> This led to the militarization of both sides, with the formation of Mayi-Mayi militias by the Babembe and "Audacious" militias by the Babuyu.<ref name=":42" />

According to field interviews conducted in 2009 and 2010, three major factors reignited conflict between the two communities during and after the First Congo War: the Babuyu's demand for territorial autonomy, the Babembe's increasing dominance of the local economy, and disruptions caused by the war. Many Babuyu families had fled to Kabambare Territory in the neighboring Maniema Province during the war.<ref name=":42" /> After their return, they found that their ancestral lands and villages had been occupied by Babembe families who refused to relinquish control. This fueled bitter disputes framed around the opposing identities of "natives" versus "non-natives". The demographic imbalance in the Lulenge sector, where the Babembe make up roughly three-quarters of the population, also intensified these tensions.<ref name=":42" /> Land is a particularly sensitive issue for the Babuyu, who follow a matrilineal system of inheritance and regard land and its associated resources as central to their cultural and religious identity.<ref name=":42" /> Many of these palm groves, crucial for producing palm wine, are often exploited by the Babembe, without compensating the Babuyu. Some Babembe dignitaries also used their administrative influence to secure land concessions in the Lulenge sector, actions perceived by the Babuyu as further encroachment and domination.<ref name=":42" /> In response to this marginalization, some Babuyu leaders have advocated for the annexation of Babuyu ''groupements'' in Lulenge to the Babuyu Kabeya sector in Kabambare Territory. This proposal has reinforced the ethnic divide and deepened the conflict over territorial control.<ref name=":42" /> The historical roots of these tensions trace back to colonial governance, when, as scholar Bruno Thembo Amundala notes, the Belgian administration sought to manage ethnic relations by preserving tribute payments and establishing a power-sharing arrangement between the Babembe and Babuyu. However, in the post-colonial era, this system was challenged by Babembe communities, especially those in the Basimimbi, Basombo, and Obekulu ''groupements'', who rejected leadership by members of what they considered a minority ethnic group. The proposed annexation of the Basikasingo ''groupement'' to the Babuyu sector in Kabambare Territory was also firmly opposed.<ref name=":42" />

Numerous efforts have been made to mediate the conflict, albeit with limited success. Dialogues were organized by territorial administrators from Fizi Territory and Kabambare Territory, including a key meeting on 27 December 1996 in Kolomwanamuke, and later on 27 October 1997 by the National Pacification Commission chaired by General Lwecha Sylvestre and Mawazo Mahango. Both initiatives failed, largely due to a lack of neutrality and an inability to address the underlying issue of boundary demarcation.<ref name=":42" /> A further attempt in 1998 by ''groupement'' chiefs in Lwiku collapsed due to the same shortcomings. Civil society actors, including the Catholic Church through its Diocesan Commission for Justice and Peace led by Abbé Alexis, also attempted to facilitate dialogue, but again with no tangible outcome.<ref name=":42" /> In recent years, local leaders and youth have attempted to bridge the ethnic divide by organizing joint markets and peace-building sports events aimed at fostering coexistence. These efforts have had mixed results. While they have contributed to a period of relative calm, the underlying tensions remain unresolved.<ref name=":42" />

==== Babembe and Banyamulenge ==== {{Multiple image | total_width = 220 | image1 = Un village Babembe, plateau d'Itombwe, 2005.jpg | caption1 = A village of the Bembe people located in the Itombwe plateau. | caption_align = center }}

The Banyamulenge are an ethnically Tutsi population whose presence in the highlands of South Kivu, particularly the Itombwe Plateau, can be traced to early migrations from Rwanda, with documented settlement as early as 1881 according to geographer George Weis.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Weis |first=George |url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/33624 |title=Le pays d'Uvira, étude de géographie régionale sur la bordure occidentale du lac Tanganika |date=1959 |publisher=Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales |location=Uccle, Brussels, Belgium |pages=250 |language=fr |trans-title=The country of Uvira, a study of regional geography on the western edge of Lake Tanganyika}}</ref> These early settlers were few in number and remained largely autonomous from pre-colonial and colonial political structures. However, the largest waves of Banyamulenge migration occurred between 1959 and 1974, largely as a result of regional instability and ethnic persecution in Rwanda.<ref name=":7" /> Many initially settled in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom of Uvira Territory, particularly in areas like Bwegera and Mulenge, before moving into the higher plateaus of Fizi Territory and Itombwe.<ref name=":7" /> Tensions between the Banyamulenge and indigenous groups, particularly the Babembe and Bafuliiru, predated Congolese independence. By 1952, Fizi and Mwenga territories had a Babembe population of approximately 60,000, though many had migrated elsewhere due to internal rivalries and economic opportunities in urban centers.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Biebuyck |first=Daniel P. |date=1952 |title=The Seniority Principle in the Bembe Marriage System |url=https://danielbiebuyck.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/bembe-seniority.pdf |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=Danielbiebuyck.com |pages=2}}</ref> Belgian anthropologist Daniel P. Biebuyck noted in his 1952 study that the Babembe were generally hostile toward the Banyamulenge and avoided intermarriage with them.<ref name=":12" />

The 1964 Simba Rebellion, intensified local animosities. When the ''Armee Populaire de Libération'' (APL) retreated into areas settled by the Banyamulenge, the local population suffered from widespread cattle raiding and forced taxation.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last1=Mullins |first1=Christopher W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YkY4FrSTawIC |title=Blood, Power, and Bedlam: Violations of International Criminal Law in Post-colonial Africa |last2=Rothe |first2=Dawn |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-0-8204-8841-7 |pages=157 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sonck |first=JP |title=Congo 1964-1965: l'échec de l'Armée populaire de libération |trans-title=Congo 1964-1965: Failure of the People's Liberation Army |url=https://www.orbspatrianostra.com/ops/ops-congo/sonck-apl/ |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=Orbspatrianostra.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> In response, the Banyamulenge formed self-defense militias, initially known as ''les Guerriers'', and later aligned with Mobutu Sese Seko's national army, the ''Armée Nationale Congolaise'' (ANC), to repel the APL.<ref name=":13" /> Their collaboration with Mobutu's forces won them military success but also deepened their alienation from other ethnic groups like the Babembe and Bafuliiru, who had supported the rebellion and now viewed the Banyamulenge as traitors and foreign collaborators.<ref name=":13" /> Legal and political developments further complicated the status of the Banyamulenge. Under Mobutu's 1981 nationality law, they were officially recognized as Zairean nationals due to their presence in the country before 1885.<ref name=":13" /> Nevertheless, tensions persisted, culminating in episodes of electoral violence in the 1980s. In 1982 and 1987, elections in Uvira Territory and Fizi Territory were marred by violent disruptions, with reports of ballot boxes being destroyed and election officials tortured or killed, incidents attributed to armed Banyamulenge factions.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Kitungano |first=Jean-Luc Malango |date=2002 |title=L'administration publique locale face à la sécurité des personnes et de leurs biens dans la province du Sud Kivu |trans-title=Local public administration and the security of people and their property in the province of South Kivu |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/04/06/151/m_administration-publique-locale-securite-personnes-biens-sud-kivu23.html |access-date=25 May 2025 |publisher=University of Kisangani |language=fr |publication-place=Kisangani, Tshopo, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

By the early 1990s, the Banyamulenge's ties to the RPF added another dimension to the conflict as young Banyamulenge men were increasingly recruited into the RPF, acting as both soldiers and emissaries to their communities in South Kivu.<ref name=":13" /> This external alliance heightened fears among local populations, particularly the Babembe, who began to organize militias to block the southward advance of Banyamulenge forces aligned with the AFDL.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Pottier |first=Johan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRz_QzoVdJcC |title=Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century |date=26 September 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52873-3 |location=Cambridge, England, United Kingdom |pages=101 |language=en}}</ref> While the AFDL campaign aimed to unseat Mobutu, many in the region, especially the Babembe, viewed it as a Rwandan-backed incursion. Prominent figures such as Célestin Anzuluni Bembe Isilonyonyi led anti-Banyamulenge campaigns, reinforcing local resistance.<ref name=":16" /> Some Babembe, former allies of Laurent-Désiré Kabila during his time in the ''maquis'', turned against him upon perceiving his growing reliance on Banyamulenge forces.<ref name=":16" /> Reports from Zairean refugees in Tanzania, published by ''La Libre Belgique'' in December 1996, described Babembe efforts to block the AFDL's advance toward Kalemie in the neighboring Shaba region.<ref name=":16" />

Having actively participated in the First Congo War, and then in the Second Congo War, given their modern weaponry supplied by Rwanda, the Banyamulenge initiated a process of expropriating the traditional land holdings of the indigenous ethnic groups in the middle and high plateaus of Fizi Territory, Uvira Territory and Mwenga Territory (Itombwe).<ref name=":15" /> This expropriation process was notably supported by the pro-Rwandan RCD administration. The RCD facilitated the proliferation of unauthorized politico-administrative structures, which served to formalize the Banyamulenge's territorial claims.<ref name=":15" /> In September 1999, the RCD, through its head of the territorial administration department, Maître Mudumbi, issued Decree No. 001/MJ/DAT/ROUTE/MB/1999, establishing provisional territories in Minembwe and Bunyakiri. These measures were followed by Ministerial Order No. 056/ADM-TER-MPJSL/2000, which approved the creation of 35 new ''groupements'' explicitly designated for the Tutsi population, despite the lack of feasibility studies or consultations with existing administrative authorities.<ref name=":15" /> The establishment of these new entities was highly irregular. The RCD-appointed administrator for Minembwe reportedly lacked both effective control and basic information, such as the names of local chiefs.<ref name=":15" /> Many of these ''groupements'' operated independently of the recognized traditional ''collectivités'', leading to administrative fragmentation and legal ambiguity.<ref name=":15" /> Compounding the situation was the alleged assassination of local customary leaders, including Chief Munyaka and his relatives in June 1998, acts attributed to armed Banyamulenge factions. These incidents provoked retaliatory mobilization among Babembe militias, which further escalated the conflict in Itombwe and surrounding areas.<ref name=":15" />

The formalization of Minembwe as a territory, rather than mitigating tensions, significantly worsened security conditions. The Minembwe Territory Report of 2000 acknowledged severe instability, with roads rendered impassable by hostile actors and a general breakdown of order.<ref name=":15" /> Indigenous communities found themselves subjected to exploitation and repression by Banyamulenge-dominated security services rather than protected by them. This state of insecurity fueled armed resistance among local groups, who viewed the new administrative order as an imposition favoring one ethnic group at the expense of others.<ref name=":15" /> Criticism of the territorial reorganization was widespread, with many local actors and observers advocating for the repeal of the decree that established the Minembwe Territory.<ref name=":15" /> Eventually, the entity was formally dissolved following the 2002 Sun City Accords.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Barlet |first=Matthieu |date=29 January 2024 |title=Affaire Minembwe, Banyamulenge et conflits communautaires au Sud-Kivu |trans-title=Minembwe affair, Banyamulenge and community conflicts in South Kivu |url=https://www.observatoirepharos.com/pays/republique-democratique-du-congo/affaire-minembwe-banyamulenge-et-conflits-communautaires-au-sud-kivu/ |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=Observatoirepharos.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Despite this reversal, tensions reignited in 2013 when a decree (13-029) attempted to formally establish Minembwe as a commune, though the decree was never implemented. The local situation continued to deteriorate, with ongoing clashes involving Burundian and Rwandan rebel groups as well as Mayi-Mayi and Banyamulenge self-defense forces, often resulting in violence against civilians and the forced displacement of populations.<ref name=":17" /> The formal visit of Banyamulenge politician Azarias Ruberwa to Minembwe in September 2020, to announce the commune's creation, sparked widespread outrage.<ref name=":17" /> Critics viewed the move as an effort to institutionalize what they perceived as an expansionist agenda supported by Rwanda. Legal objections included claims about the area's insufficient population, dubious boundary demarcations, and procedural irregularities.<ref name=":17" /> The growing perception of the Banyamulenge as proxies of Rwandan geopolitical interests, a so-called "fifth column", inflamed nationalist sentiment and fueled fears of foreign annexation. These fears, often stoked by political leaders invoking historical secessionist crises such as Katanga's breakaway in the 1960s, turned the issue of Minembwe into a national flashpoint.<ref name=":17" /> In response to the uproar, President Félix Tshisekedi annulled the 2013 decree in October 2020 and appointed a neutral scientific committee to reassess the matter.<ref name=":17" />

=== Ongoing conflict ===

==== Ethnic militias and intercommunal clashes ==== Since the end of the Second Congo War in 2003, Fizi Territory has remained a hotspot of chronic insecurity, driven largely by persistent intercommunal violence and the proliferation of armed groups rooted in ethnic and regional grievances. A complex web of local and foreign militias, along with political and identity-based tensions, has sustained a protracted conflict with significant humanitarian and security consequences. The conflict has been characterized by recurring clashes between predominantly Banyamulenge militias, particularly the Twirwaneho group and its allies, such as Gumino, and various Mayi-Mayi factions representing the Babembe, Bafuliiru, and Banyindu communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rukakiza |first1=Bosco Muchukiwa |last2=Kasagwe |first2=Marcellin |date=2019 |title=Conflits dans les moyens et les hauts plateaux de Fizi, Mwenga et Uvira: facteurs d'escalade, modus operandi des acteurs et crise politique régionale en perspective |trans-title=Conflicts in the middle and highlands of Fizi, Mwenga and Uvira: factors of escalation, modus operandi of the actors and regional political crisis in perspective |url=https://www.isdrbukavu.ac.cd/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/ISDR-Bukavu_Conflit-dans-les-moyens-et-les-hauts-plateaux-de-Fizi-Uvira-Mwenga_Bosco-Muchukiwa-et-Marcellin.pdf |access-date=26 May 2025 |website=Isdrbukavu.ac.cd |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |page=12 |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> The Mayi-Mayi Mutetezi militia, in particular, has frequently engaged in hostilities with Twirwaneho forces. Armed confrontations have occurred regularly along key routes, especially the corridor between Baraka and Bibokoboko.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 February 2014 |title=Sud-Kivu: 5 agressions armées en un mois sur la route Baraka – Bibokoboko à Fizi |trans-title=South Kivu: 5 armed attacks in one month on the Baraka – Bibokoboko road in Fizi |url=https://www.radiookapi.net/actualite/2014/02/20/sud-kivu-5-agressions-armees-en-mois-sur-la-route-baraka-bibokoboko-fizi |access-date=30 April 2023 |website=Radio Okapi |language=fr}}</ref> Violence escalated in the Itombwe highlands around 2015, intensified by the involvement of foreign armed groups from neighboring Burundi and Rwanda. These include RED-Tabara, FOREBU, FNL-PALIPEHUTU, and FDLR, which have allied with local militias on both sides of the ethnic divide.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rukakiza |first1=Bosco Muchukiwa |last2=Kasagwe |first2=Marcellin |date=2019 |title=Conflits dans les moyens et les hauts plateaux de Fizi, Mwenga et Uvira: facteurs d'escalade, modus operandi des acteurs et crise politique régionale en perspective |trans-title=Conflicts in the middle and highlands of Fizi, Mwenga and Uvira: factors of escalation, modus operandi of the actors and regional political crisis in perspective |url=https://www.isdrbukavu.ac.cd/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/ISDR-Bukavu_Conflit-dans-les-moyens-et-les-hauts-plateaux-de-Fizi-Uvira-Mwenga_Bosco-Muchukiwa-et-Marcellin.pdf |access-date=26 May 2025 |website=Isdrbukavu.ac.cd |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |page=3 |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> The middle and high plateaus of Fizi, Mwenga, and Uvira territories have emerged as the epicenter of identity-driven violence involving multiple ethnic groups, including the Babembe, Bavira, Bafuliiru, Banyindu, Banyamulenge, and Batwa.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last1=Rukakiza |first1=Bosco Muchukiwa |last2=Kasagwe |first2=Marcellin |date=2019 |title=Conflits dans les moyens et les hauts plateaux de Fizi, Mwenga et Uvira: facteurs d'escalade, modus operandi des acteurs et crise politique régionale en perspective |trans-title=Conflicts in the middle and highlands of Fizi, Mwenga and Uvira: factors of escalation, modus operandi of the actors and regional political crisis in perspective |url=https://www.isdrbukavu.ac.cd/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/ISDR-Bukavu_Conflit-dans-les-moyens-et-les-hauts-plateaux-de-Fizi-Uvira-Mwenga_Bosco-Muchukiwa-et-Marcellin.pdf |access-date=26 May 2025 |website=Isdrbukavu.ac.cd |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |page=2 |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> This fragmentation has led to the proliferation of ethnically affiliated armed groups, such as Twirwaneho and Gumino among the Banyamulenge, and Biloze Bishambuke among the Babembe, Bafuliiru, and Banyindu. These groups operate with varying degrees of organization and frequently engage in retaliatory violence.<ref name=":18" />

==== Rise of Twirwaneho and Makanika's defection ==== A significant escalation occurred in 2019 with the rise of Twirwaneho, a Banyamulenge rebel group composed of local fighters, former Gumino combatants, and diaspora recruits, some nicknamed "''Androids''".<ref name=":63">{{Cite web |date=10 June 2021 |title=Letter dated 10 June 2021 from the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council |url=https://docs.un.org/en/S/2021/560 |access-date=16 May 2025 |website=Docs.un.org/en |publisher=United Nations Security Council |pages=30 |publication-place=New York, New York, United states}}</ref> Twirwaneho received material and financial backing from transnational Banyamulenge networks.<ref name=":63" /> In early 2020, the movement was further strengthened by the defection of Colonel Michel Rukunda, also known as Makanika, a former officer of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC). Under his command, Twirwaneho developed a more cohesive military structure, with centralized leadership and expanded recruitment from local and international Banyamulenge communities.<ref name=":63" /> The United Nations Group of Experts reported that some of these recruitments were forced.<ref name=":63" /> In addition to building a clandestine airstrip for arms logistics, later dismantled by FARDC forces, Twirwaneho maintained a network of armed civilian supporters in surrounding villages.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 June 2021 |title=Letter dated 10 June 2021 from the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council |url=https://docs.un.org/en/S/2021/560 |access-date=16 May 2025 |website=Docs.un.org/en |publisher=United Nations Security Council |pages=32 |publication-place=New York, New York, United states}}</ref><ref name=":63" /> From mid-2020 onwards, the region witnessed a marked intensification in violence. Twirwaneho engaged in combat with Mayi-Mayi and FARDC units and local civilian populations.<ref name=":72">{{Cite web |date=10 June 2021 |title=Letter dated 10 June 2021 from the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council |url=https://docs.un.org/en/S/2021/560 |access-date=16 May 2025 |website=Docs.un.org/en |publisher=United Nations Security Council |pages=31–32 |publication-place=New York, New York, United states}}</ref> The United Nations Security Council documented multiple instances of human rights violations attributed to Twirwaneho fighters, including acts of sexual violence such as gang rapes, abductions, and assaults primarily targeting Babembe and Bafuliiru women.<ref name=":83">{{Cite web |date=10 June 2021 |title=Letter dated 10 June 2021 from the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council |url=https://docs.un.org/en/S/2021/560 |access-date=16 May 2025 |website=Docs.un.org/en |publisher=United Nations Security Council |pages=32–33 |publication-place=New York, New York, United states}}</ref> Seven women from these communities reported being raped by one to three armed assailants in locations including Kamambo, Mikalati, Kitasha, and Marunde. During the assaults, perpetrators reportedly made ethnic slurs and, in some cases, explicitly threatened victims and their communities as well as instructing them to vacate the area.<ref name=":83" /> Other testimonies indicated knowledge of at least 12 additional similar incidents. More allegations included the abduction, sexual abuse, and killing of internally displaced persons from Mikenge and the Bijombo camp. At least one survivor reported having witnessed children aged over 16 participating in acts of sexual violence.<ref name=":83" />

In response to Twirwaneho's growing strength, prominent Mayi-Mayi leaders, such as William Yakutumba and Trésor Ebuela wa Seba, began forming a coalition of armed groups toward the end of 2020.<ref name=":72" /> This informal alliance included factions such as the National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo (CNPSC), the ''Forces des Patriotes pour la Défense du Congo''–''Mouvement de Libération'' (FPDC-ML), the ''Forces Armées'' "''Biloze Bishambuke''" (FABB), among others.<ref name=":72" /> Though lacking a centralized command, the coalition allowed for increased operational coordination, joint attacks, and mutual reinforcement. From late 2019 to 2020, both the Twirwaneho and Mayi-Mayi militias actively engaged in armed operations, and sustained their efforts through attacks on positions held by the FARDC and via support from sympathetic communities.<ref name=":72" /> The United Nations Group of Experts reported that during this period, at least 46 FARDC personnel, particularly from the 12th Rapid Reaction Brigade stationed in the ''Hauts-Plateaux'', were arrested on charges related to arms trafficking.<ref name=":72" /> Twirwaneho further consolidated its strength following the defection of high-ranking FARDC officers, most notably Colonel Charles Sematama in February 2021.<ref name=":72" /> The militia reportedly coerced Banyamulenge members to contribute recruits under threat of violence.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web |date=10 June 2022 |title=Final report of the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo |url=https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n22/338/70/pdf/n2233870.pdf |access-date=16 May 2025 |website=United Nations Security Council |pages=31–32 |publication-place=New York, New York, United States}}</ref> Between September 2021 and early 2022, at least three Banyamulenge leaders, including local authorities in Minembwe, were assassinated for resisting recruitment efforts or for their perceived support of rival factions, such as Gumino.<ref name=":92" /> The leader of the IDP camp in Mikenge was also abducted in October 2021.<ref name=":92" />

==== M23 resurgence ==== {{Further information|M23 campaign (2022–present)}} The resurgence of the Rwandan-backed rebel group March 23 Movement (M23) in late 2021 resulted in significant territorial gains in North Kivu Province, prompting President Félix Tshisekedi in November 2022 to call for the formation of civilian "vigilance groups" to counter what he characterized as M23's "expansionist ambitions".<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |first= |date=6 August 2024 |title=The Resurgence of the M23: Regional Rivalries, Donor Policy, and a Stalled Peace Process |url=https://cic.nyu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/The-Resurgence-of-the-M23-EN.pdf |access-date=1 February 2025 |website=Ebuteli |publisher=Congo Research Group (CRG) |pages=17–20 |ref={{harvid|CRG|2024}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pierret |first=Coralie |date=19 December 2023 |title=The 'wazalendo': Patriots at war in eastern DRC |trans-title=The 'wazalendo': Patriots at war in eastern DRC |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/12/19/the-wazalendo-patriots-at-war-in-eastern-drc_6356363_4.html |access-date=26 May 2025 |work=Le Monde |location=Paris, France |language=en}}</ref> On 6 March 2023, Minister of Higher Education Butondo Muhindo Nzangi announced that local armed groups would be mobilized as reservists for the national army. A new law passed by Parliament on 4 May 2023 formalized this arrangement, leading to the emergence of several new militias collectively referred to as ''wazalendo'' (Swahili for "patriots").<ref name=":923222">{{Cite web |first= |date=6 August 2024 |title=The Resurgence of the M23: Regional Rivalries, Donor Policy, and a Stalled Peace Process |url=https://cic.nyu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/The-Resurgence-of-the-M23-EN.pdf |access-date=1 February 2025 |website=Ebuteli |publisher=Congo Research Group (CRG) |pages=29}}</ref> These groups formed near active conflict zones in North Kivu and in more remote territories such as Beni and Lubero.<ref name=":923222" /> Existing armed entities, including the Hutu-led ''Collectif des Mouvements pour le Changement'' (CMC) and Guidon Shimiray's ''Nduma Défense du Congo-Rénové'' (NDC-R), were also brought under the ''wazalendo'' umbrella.<ref name=":923222" /> Private military companies reportedly bolstered the FARDC's capabilities by deploying approximately 900 personnel to North Kivu and conducting training exercises at the Mubambiro military base near Goma.<ref name=":923222" />

By the end of 2024, M23 had consolidated control over five of North Kivu's six territories: Rutshuru, Nyiragongo, Beni, Masisi, and Walikale.<ref name=":93">{{Cite web |last=Bos |first=Jean-Michel |date=8 November 2024 |title=Congo's M23 rebels on the trail of mineral resources |url=https://www.dw.com/en/congos-m23-rebels-on-the-trail-of-mineral-resources/a-70715387 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250207020313/https://www.dw.com/en/congos-m23-rebels-on-the-trail-of-mineral-resources/a-70715387 |archive-date=7 February 2025 |access-date=20 March 2025 |website=DW News |language=en}}</ref> In early 2025, the group expanded operations into South Kivu, capturing Goma on 28 January and Bukavu on 15 February.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Laudet |first=Paloma |date=27 February 2025 |title=En RDC, dans les territoires pris par le M23: "Je ne sais pas s'il y a la paix, mais au moins il n'y a plus de bombes" |trans-title=In the DRC, in the territories taken by the M23: "I don't know if there is peace, but at least there are no more bombs" |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2025/02/27/en-rdc-dans-les-territoires-pris-par-le-m23-je-ne-sais-pas-s-il-y-a-la-paix-mais-au-moins-il-n-y-a-plus-de-bombes_6567544_3212.html |access-date=31 March 2025 |work=Le Monde |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavanagh |first=Michael J. |date=15 February 2025 |title=Rwanda-Backed Rebels Capture Second Major City in Eastern DRC |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-02-15/rwanda-backed-rebels-capture-second-major-city-in-eastern-congo?embedded-checkout=true |access-date=20 March 2025 |website=Bloomberg News}}</ref> In parallel, Twirwaneho maintained its operations, often in alliance with other armed groups such as RED-Tabara and the Android coalition, which aligned with M23. On 19 February 2025, a significant blow was dealt to the group when Twirwaneho leader Michel Rukunda (alias Makanika) was killed by a Congolese military drone strike in Minembwe.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2025 |title=Est de la RDC: le chef militaire Michel Rukunda tué dans une frappe de drone |trans-title=Eastern DRC: Military leader Michel Rukunda killed in drone strike |url=https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250221-est-de-la-rdc-le-chef-militaire-michel-rukunda-tu%C3%A9-dans-une-frappe-de-drone |access-date=25 February 2025 |website=Radio France Internationale |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":66">{{Cite web |date=22 February 2025 |title=Hundreds of Congolese police join rebels in occupied city |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/hundreds-congolese-police-join-rebels-occupied-city-2025-02-22/ |url-access=limited |access-date=24 February 2025 |website=Reuters}}</ref> Despite this, Twirwaneho captured Minembwe and its airfield two days later.<ref name=":662">{{Cite web |date=22 February 2025 |title=Hundreds of Congolese police join rebels in occupied city |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/hundreds-congolese-police-join-rebels-occupied-city-2025-02-22/ |url-access=limited |access-date=24 February 2025 |website=Reuters}}</ref> On 1 March, a coalition including Twirwaneho, RED-Tabara, and Android, aligned with M23, targeted Wazalendo positions in Bilalombili, a village housing displaced residents from Mikenge and its surroundings.<ref name=":06">{{Cite web |date=1 March 2025 |title=Sud-Kivu: violents combats entre Twirwaneho/M23 et Wazalendo à Mwenga |trans-title=South Kivu: violent fighting between Twirwaneho/M23 and Wazalendo in Mwenga |url=https://actualite.cd/2025/03/01/sud-kivu-violents-combats-entre-twirwanehom23-et-wazalendo-mwenga |access-date=1 March 2025 |website=Actualite.cd |language=fr}}</ref> Several homes were set on fire, but the full extent of the destruction remained uncertain.<ref name=":06" /> On 15 March, Wazalendo faction leader Trésor Ebuela wa Seba (alias Ebuela Mtetezi) was killed in an internal confrontation, with intelligence sources suggesting he may have been facilitating M23's expansion in the region, a claim denied by his supporters.<ref name=":019">{{Cite web |last=A. |first=David |date=15 March 2025 |title=Sud-Kivu: le Général autoproclamé Ebuela Mtetezi succombe arme à la main à Lutete |trans-title=South Kivu: Self-proclaimed General Ebuela Mtetezi dies with a weapon in his hand in Lutete |url=https://congorassure.cd/securite/2025/03/15/sud-kivu-le-general-autoproclame-ebuela-mtetezi-succombe-arme-la-main-lutete |access-date=20 March 2025 |website=CongoRassure |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Salumu |first=Modeste |date=17 March 2025 |title=Fizi: décès du général Trésor Ebuela wa Seba |trans-title=Fizi: death of General Trésor Ebuela wa Seba |url=https://www.hapamedia.net/blog/2025/03/17/fizi-deces-du-general-tresor-ebuela-wa-seba/ |access-date=20 March 2025 |website=Hapamedia.net |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Fighting intensified in mid-March 2025 as Wazalendo units under General Kakobanya Nakalambi clashed with the Twirwaneho-RED-Tabara-Android coalition in Mikenge (Mwenga Territory) and Kawera village (Fizi Territory). Between 19 and 21 March, Wazalendo launched a counteroffensive, retaking Kawera and advancing toward Minembwe. They succeeded in reclaiming strategic villages including Kivumu, Irumba, and Nyagishasha.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2025 |title=Fizi: Wazalendo et Twirwaneho s'affrontent à Kawera, à 6 Kilomètres de Minembwe Centre |trans-title=Fizi: Wazalendo and Twirwaneho clash in Kawera, 6 kilometers from Minembwe Center |url=https://actualite.cd/2025/03/20/fizi-wazalendo-et-twirwaneho-saffrontent-kawera-6-kilometres-de-minembwe-centre |access-date=20 March 2025 |website=Actualite.cd |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":020">{{Cite web |date=21 March 2025 |title=Hauts plateaux d'Uvira: nouvel accrochage entre Wazalendo et Twirwaneho à Rubarati et Ruhuha |trans-title=Uvira highlands: new clash between Wazalendo and Twirwaneho in Rubarati and Ruhuha |url=https://actualite.cd/2025/03/21/hauts-plateaux-duvira-nouvel-accrochage-entre-wazalendo-et-twirwaneho-rubarati-et-ruhuha |access-date=22 March 2025 |website=Actualite.cd |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":114">{{Cite web |date=21 March 2025 |title=Minembwe: après la prise de Kawera, les Wazalendo lancent les offensives à Muliza et Kakenge |trans-title=Minembwe: after the capture of Kawera, the Wazalendo launch offensives in Muliza and Kakenge |url=https://actualite.cd/2025/03/21/minembwe-apres-la-prise-de-kawera-les-wazalendo-lancent-les-offensives-muliza-et-kakenge |access-date=22 March 2025 |website=Actualite.cd |language=fr}}</ref>

== Economy ==

=== Agriculture and fishing === {{Multiple image | total_width = 150 | image1 = Yellow pigeon?.jpg | caption1 = A white pigeon perched on a wooden structure made of twigs and dried grass in a rural village setting outside of the city of Baraka, where pigeons are being kept. | align = right | caption_align = center }}

Fizi Territory's economy is primarily based on agriculture, livestock breeding, and fishing, all of which are supported by the region's expansive landmass and diverse eco-climatic zones.<ref name=":82">{{Cite web |last=M'mangwa |first=Maluxes Malumbe |date=2007 |title=Les ASBL et la problématique de développement socioéconomique du territoire de Fizi en RDC |trans-title=Non-profit organizations and the socio-economic development issues of the Fizi region in the DRC |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6696/Les-ASBL-et-la-problematique-de-developpement-socioeconomique-du-territoire-de-Fizi-en-RDC.html |access-date=22 May 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> The territory benefits from a prolonged rainy season lasting over nine months, making it particularly favorable for farming and animal husbandry.<ref name=":82" /> However, agricultural productivity is often undermined by several structural and socio-political challenges, including ongoing insecurity and repeated cycles of armed conflict that have forced much of the rural population to flee their homes, which then disrupts farming activities and destabilizes local livelihoods.<ref name=":82" /> The degradation of road infrastructure also complicates the transportation of goods, limiting access to local and regional markets.<ref name=":82" /> {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |Sectors ! colspan="4" align="left" valign="top" |Agricultural activities !Ref. |- ! align="left" valign="top" |Food plants ! align="left" valign="top" |Industrial plants ! align="left" valign="top" |Breeding ! align="left" valign="top" |Other activities ! |- | align="left" valign="top" |Lulenge | align="left" valign="top" | * Peanut * Banana * Bean * Cassava * Paddy (unhusked rice) * Sweet potato * Peas * Potato * Corn (maize) | align="left" valign="top" | * Oil palm * Coffee * Cotton | align="left" valign="top" | * Large cattle * Small livestock * Poultry (farmyard birds) | align="left" valign="top" | * Wood * Artisanal mining of gold and silver |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Mutambala | align="left" valign="top" | * Peanut * Banana * Bean * Cassava * Corn * Paddy | align="left" valign="top" | * ''Coffea robusta'' * Cotton * Tobacco * Oil palm | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" | * Fishing * Artisanal mining of gold and silver |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Ngandja | align="left" valign="top" | * Peanut * Banana * Bean * Cassava * Corn * Paddy | align="left" valign="top" | * ''Coffea robusta'' * Cotton * Oil palm * ''Cinchona'' * Papaya | align="left" valign="top" | | align="left" valign="top" | * Fishing * Artisanal mining of gold and silver |<ref name=":82" /> |- | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |Tanganyika | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" | * Cassava * Corn * Paddy | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" | * ''Coffea robusta'' * Cotton * Oil palm | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" | * Large cattle * Small livestock * Poultry | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |Fishing |<ref name=":82" /> |} Two principal types of fishing are practiced: traditional fishing using rudimentary tools such as canoes, small nets, and lines; and artisanal fishing, which represents a modest technological advancement.<ref name=":82" /> Artisanal fishing typically involves two or three canoes linked by poles, nets, and a lighting system for night operations.<ref name=":82" />

=== Local microfinance and mining === Efforts to stimulate the economy at the grassroots level are visible in the growing presence of local savings and credit initiatives. Encouraged by various non-governmental development organizations, communities are increasingly engaging with microfinance through cooperative structures.<ref name=":82" /> Notable examples include the Baraka and Kazimia Savings and Credit Cooperatives.<ref name=":82" /> As of 2010, more than 250 development actors, including local, national, and international NGOs, United Nations agencies, bilateral and multilateral partners, and local development initiatives, were active in the territory.<ref name=":82" /> That same year, the city of Baraka hosted over 64 registered local non-profit associations and dozens of individual beneficiaries involved in development programs.<ref name=":82" />

Mining operations are primarily artisanal and focused on gold production. Because gold is not bulky and moves easily, it often remains nearly invisible within trading networks.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=Birindwa |first=Valin Munguakonkwa |date=2017 |title=Les méthodes actuelles de traçabilité des minerais 3t exploités artisanalement au Kivu |trans-title=Current methods for tracing 3T minerals mined artisanaly in Kivu |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/01/23/13715/m_Les-mthodes-actuelles-de-traabilit-des-minerais-3t-exploits-artisanalement-au-Kivu5.html |access-date=23 May 2026 |publisher=Université Officielle de Bukavu |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivi, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Fizi Territory's location near Lake Tanganyika, bordering Tanzania and Burundi, together with the presence of multiple armed groups, including the ''Forces Pour la Défense de la Démocratie'' (FDD), which once operated in the area and now governs Burundi, contributes to widespread illicit trade.<ref name=":25" />

=== Protected areas === The territory is home to several protected areas, including two forest reserves, the Lolemba-Ngoma Forest Reserve and the Kifumbwe Island Forest Reserve, as well as the Itombwe Nature Reserve,<ref name=":82" /> which is known for its biodiversity, including rare bird species, endemic flora, and the presence of white gorillas.<ref name=":82" /> Itombwe holds considerable potential as a destination for eco-tourism.<ref name=":82" />

== Demographics ==

=== Ethnic composition ===

==== Bembe people ==== {{Multiple image | total_width = 210 | image1 = Bembe elder in Fizi Territory of South Kivu Province, DR Congo.jpg | caption1 = An elderly Bembe man from Fizi Territory | caption_align = center }}

Fizi Territory is predominantly inhabited by Babembe, who constitute the demographic majority, with their traditional homeland covering approximately 19,050 square kilometers across the entire Fizi Territory and the Itombwe sector of Mwenga Territory.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Kitungano |first=Jean-Luc Malango |date=2002 |title=L'administration publique locale face à la sécurité des personnes et de leurs biens dans la province du Sud Kivu |trans-title=Local public administration and the security of people and their property in the province of South Kivu |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/04/06/151/m_administration-publique-locale-securite-personnes-biens-sud-kivu14.html#toc38 |access-date=22 May 2025 |publisher=University of Kisangani |language=fr |publication-place=Kisangani, Tshopo, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> According to oral tradition preserved by Bembe griots, Babembe trace their lineage to a common ancestor named ''Mbondo'' (also rendered ''M'mbondo'').<ref name=":5" /> They are believed to have migrated alongside the Barega (Balega) from the northeast, via Urega, before settling in the Itombwe Mountains.<ref name=":5" /> There, the two groups are said to have separated: ''Mbondo''<nowiki/>'s descendants, the Babembe, spread toward Lake Tanganyika, while his brother Leka returned to Ulega, becoming the progenitor of the Barega.<ref name=":5" /> Another sibling, Bangu, married in Maniema and gave rise to the Bangubangu ethnic group.<ref name=":5" />

According to early colonial sources such as Alfred Moeller de Laddersous and Gaston Van Bulck, Babembe historically occupied the mountainous regions of Fizi Territory and gradually moved downhill toward Lake Tanganyika, displacing earlier lakeside inhabitants, including Sanze and Bwari fishing communities.<ref name=":5" /> These sources also describe Babembe as closely related to Barega, forming an extension of this ethnolinguistic lineage toward the southeast.<ref name=":5" />

==== Babuyu, Basanze, Babwari, Banyindu, Bazoba, and others ==== Among the earliest known inhabitants of the region are the Babuyu, Basanze, Babwari, Banyindu, Bazoba, Bagoma, Bakalangwa, Bakeci, Basikamanya and others. These groups were established in the territory prior to the arrival of Babembe and were concentrated along the shores of Lake Tanganyika and its hinterland.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Kitungano |first=Jean-Luc Malango |date=2002 |title=L'administration publique locale face à la sécurité des personnes et de leurs biens dans la province du Sud Kivu |trans-title=Local public administration and the security of people and their property in the province of South Kivu |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/04/06/151/m_administration-publique-locale-securite-personnes-biens-sud-kivu18.html |access-date=22 May 2025 |publisher=University of Kisangani |language=fr |publication-place=Kisangani, Tshopo, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web |last=Biebuyck |first=Daniel P. |date=25 September 2016 |title=Fieldnote on the Bembe |url=https://danielbiebuyck.com/manuscripts/bembe/ |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=Danielbiebuyck.com |language=en}}</ref> The Babwari form the majority population on the Ubwari Peninsula, where they live alongside the Bazoba, engaging primarily in fishing and subsistence farming.<ref name=":6" /> The Banyindu, though fewer in number, inhabit the Lulenge and Ngandja sectors, particularly the upland areas such as Luekya, where they practice farming and livestock husbandry.<ref name=":6" /> These indigenous groups, though significantly diminished over time due to the impact of 19th-century East African slave raids, sleeping sickness epidemics, and interethnic conflicts, including those involving newly arriving groups such as the Bembe and others like the Luba, maintained settlements in coastal villages and adjacent inland zones.<ref name=":24" /> Many of these communities had cultural and historical affiliations with the Boyo, Holoholo, northeastern Luba, and Lunda peoples. Among them were the Basikasingo and Basilugezi, some of whom were organized into compact settlements and maintained close ties with Boyo-related groups.<ref name=":24" /> Over time, increasing portions of this territory came under the influence and settlement of migratory groups that are now collectively identified as Bembe. These included the Basi'alangwa (also known as Bakalangwa), who were linked to certain Boyo groups, and the Basim'minje of Lwindi origin.<ref name=":24" /> Both groups incorporated strong Twa (Pygmy) elements, referred to in Bembe territory as Basi'asumba and Bahonga. These earlier waves were succeeded, possibly from the late 18th century onward, by the arrival of the so-called "true" Bembe, including clans such as the Babungwe, Balala, Basim'muma, and Basimnyaka, all of whom traced their lineage to the Lega ancestor Ikama.<ref name=":24" />

Gradually, segments of these Bembe populations moved from the mountainous interior toward the shores of Lake Tanganyika and its surrounding lowlands. Their increasing demographic and political dominance generated tensions with earlier inhabitants, particularly as colonial authorities granted administrative authority to Bembe chiefs, headmen, and judges.<ref name=":24" /> A 1918 colonial report noted the institutional structures brought by these Bembe migrants, including the Lega-derived ''Bwami'' association, a complex initiatory society, along with its female counterpart ''Buhumbwa'', the boys' circumcision rite ''Butende'', the ''Elanda'' association, and the children's ''Atende''.<ref name=":24" /> At the time of research conducted between 1949 and 1951, the ''Bwami'' society maintained a dual hierarchy: junior initiates (''bami ba banu'e'') who passed through stages like {{lang|beq|bukila}} or {{lang|beq|bukabo}}, and senior initiates (''bami ba ngoma''), who achieved progressively higher ranks called ''itembu'', (m)''pinji'', and ''biciba'', the latter being associated with the prestigious title of ''mwami wangwe'' or ''mwami wengwe'' (initiates of the leopard).<ref name=":24" />

==== Banyamulenge ==== Banyamulenge are an ethnically Tutsi population whose presence in the highlands of South Kivu, particularly in the Itombwe Plateau, stems from early migrations and more recent waves of displacement.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Kitungano |first=Jean-Luc Malango |date=2002 |title=L'administration publique locale face à la sécurité des personnes et de leurs biens dans la province du Sud Kivu |trans-title=Local public administration and the security of people and their property in the province of South Kivu |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/04/06/151/m_administration-publique-locale-securite-personnes-biens-sud-kivu16.html#toc41 |access-date=22 May 2025 |publisher=University of Kisangani |language=fr |publication-place=Kisangani, Tshopo, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> According to geographer George Weis, a small Rwandan Tutsi community was already present in the Itombwe region by 1881, although their numbers were limited and their political organization remained largely autonomous from colonial rule.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":19" /> The major waves of the Banyamulenge settlement occurred between 1959 and 1974 when thousands of Tutsi refugees fled Hutu Revolution and ethnic persecution in Rwanda.<ref name=":7" /> These migrants often first settled in localities such as Bwegera and Mulenge in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom of Uvira Territory before dispersing into the high plateaus of Fizi Territory and Itombwe.<ref name=":7" />

The historian Birakaheka Njinga and others emphasize that this migration was gradual and multifaceted, involving numerous small groups over time rather than a single mass movement.<ref name=":7" /> Further inflows were facilitated by colonial-era labor policies, particularly the Banyarwanda immigration program established in 1937.<ref name=":7" />

==== Bavira, Bafuliiru, and Barundi (Hutu refugees) ==== {{Multiple image | total_width = 210 | image1 = Fuliiru Herdsman.jpg | caption1 = A Fuliru herdsman standing on a grassy hillside at the Mitambo market in Bijombo ''groupement'' of Bavira Chiefdom, Uvira Territory. | caption_align = center }}

The Bavira and Bafuliiru, originally from neighboring Uvira Territory, began settling in Fizi Territory around 1955 in search of fertile land and grazing grounds for their livestock.<ref name=":6" /> The Bavira established communities in areas such as Nemba, Sebelle (south of Baraka), and Kenya and Mboko (north of Baraka, in the Tanganyika sector).<ref name=":6" /> The Bafuliiru similarly migrated into various parts of Fizi Territory, where they raised both small and large livestock, often alongside Banyarwanda settlers.<ref name=":6" />

The Barundi are predominantly Hutu refugees who fled Burundi in 1972 following the ethnic massacres of that year. According to a census carried out by the local administration in December 1972, approximately 12,685 Barundi had sought refuge in the Mutambala and Tanganyika sectors.<ref name=":6" /> The majority sustained themselves through farming and fishing.<ref name=":6" /> However, the onset of the First and Second Congo Wars (1996 and 1998) led to widespread instability, prompting many Barundi refugees or their descendants to either repatriate to Burundi or seek asylum in Tanzania.<ref name=":6" />

=== Education === {{See also|Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo}} The educational system follows the national structure of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, comprising both public and private institutions. Public schools are either directly managed by the State or administered by religious organizations in accordance with the School Convention signed on 26 February 1977.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=M'mangwa |first=Maluxes Malumbe |date=2007 |title=Les ASBL et la problématique de développement socioéconomique du territoire de Fizi en RDC |trans-title=Non-profit organizations and the socio-economic development issues of the Fizi region in the DRC |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6696/m_Les-ASBL-et-la-problematique-de-developpement-socioeconomique-du-territoire-de-Fizi-en-RDC10.html |access-date=22 May 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> These institutions fall into five categories: non-conventional schools operated solely by the State; Catholic convention schools under the administration of the Catholic Church; Protestant convention schools managed by various Protestant communities; Kimbanguist convention schools governed by the Kimbanguist Church; and Islamic accredited schools overseen by the Islamic Community of the DRC.<ref name=":8" /> In addition to these public institutions, there are approved private schools established and operated by individuals or legal entities, commonly referred to as "promoters".<ref name=":8" />

{{Multiple image | total_width = 400 | image1 = University students leaving at Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe.jpg | caption1 = University students heading home after a day of classes at Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe | image2 = Investing in their own future - 622362076.jpg | caption2 = Children participating in a community school rehabilitation project in Minembwe | caption_align = center }}

Education in the territory is organized into three main levels. The kindergarten level serves children aged 3 to 5 and functions as an extension of family upbringing.<ref name=":8" /> It emphasizes the holistic development of a child's personality through early learning that integrates sensory, motor, aesthetic, and moral dimensions, while also preparing them for entry into primary education.<ref name=":8" />

The primary level addresses the basic educational needs of children, including foundational literacy, numeracy, oral expression, and problem-solving skills.<ref name=":8" /> It also introduces essential knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes necessary for personal development and social participation.<ref name=":8" /> Primary education is designed to reflect and respond to the local environment and community context, while also preparing students for progression to secondary education.<ref name=":8" />

Secondary education aims to equip students with practical knowledge and skills that enable them to contribute meaningfully to society. It also lays the groundwork for access to higher and university education.<ref name=":8" />

Higher and university education has been present in the territory since 2009.<ref name=":8" /> Two prominent institutions serve the population: the ''Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Baraka'' (ISP-Baraka), which specializes in teacher training, and the ''Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Fizi'' (ISDR-Fizi), which focuses on rural development and applied sciences.<ref name=":8" />

== Infrastructure ==

=== Transport === The main overland route is the unpaved National Road No. 5, which links Fizi Territory to Uvira Territory. This road, although critical, remains in poor condition, especially during the rainy season.<ref name=":82" />

'''Agricultural service roads''' {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" valign="top" |Road axis ! align="left" valign="top" |Km !Ref. |- | align="left" valign="top" |Mutambala–Kinkonde–Kazimia | align="left" valign="top" |68 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Zero–Minembwe–Kazadi | align="left" valign="top" |35 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Mushimbaka–Bibokoboko | align="left" valign="top" |50 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Lusenda–Kilubi–Nakile-Kanguli | align="left" valign="top" |30 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kilembwe–Bif-Shabunda | align="left" valign="top" |36 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kilembwe–Kobokobo | align="left" valign="top" |25 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kilembwe–Hewa Bora | align="left" valign="top" |80 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kabala–Simbi | align="left" valign="top" |30 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Sebele–Nemba | align="left" valign="top" |15 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Ingomba–Kampu–Khungwe | align="left" valign="top" |25 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Bwala–Malicha | align="left" valign="top" |8 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Nkudu–Kenya | align="left" valign="top" |5 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Ehibe–Simbi | align="left" valign="top" |30 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Kamanda–Ibindi | align="left" valign="top" |60 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | align="left" valign="top" |Atonga–Wenga | align="left" valign="top" |20 |<ref name=":82" /> |- | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |'''Total''' | rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top" |'''517''' |<ref name=":82" /> |} {{Multiple image | total_width = 220 | image1 = Un Hélicoptère de la MONUSCO en train d'atterrir sur la piste de Baraka dans le Territoire de Fizi à 90 Km d'Uvira au Sud-Kivu. (15267267554).jpg | caption1 = Baraka Airfield in 2014 | caption_align = center }}

In addition to road transport, Lake Tanganyika serves as a crucial corridor for domestic and regional trade. Waterways connect Fizi Territory to Uvira, Kalemie, Bujumbura in Burundi, Kigoma in Tanzania, and Mpulungu in Zambia.<ref name=":82" /> These lake routes support the importation and distribution of goods using boats capable of carrying between 50 and 300 tonnes, making lake transport one of the more efficient modes of freight movement in the region.<ref name=":82" />

Air transport is minimal, with no international airport available. However, a number of private airstrips, mostly unpaved and maintained to varying degrees, serve small aircraft,<ref name=":82" /> including the Minembwe airstrip, which is under the management of the local Transport Division and is considered to be in good condition; the Baraka airstrip, also in good condition but rarely used; and the Nundu airstrip, which is operated by Protestant organizations.<ref name=":82" />

=== Communication, media, telecommunication, and energy === The territory is served by several community radio stations. These include Radio Baraka, Radio Amani, and Radio Umoja, all broadcasting from Baraka; and Radio Muungano and the national broadcaster Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), which transmit from Fizi Territory.<ref name=":82" /> These stations operate on FM frequencies and reach only limited areas within the territory.<ref name=":82" /> The more remote localities rely on international radio broadcasts due to the absence of local signals.<ref name=":82" />

Telecommunications services are similarly unevenly distributed. Major providers such as Airtel and Vodacom offer mobile network coverage in Fizi, Baraka, and Mississi.<ref name=":82" /> However, other areas such as Mboko, Lweba, and Nundu rely on U-COM, a telecommunications operator from neighboring Burundi. Several parts of the territory remain completely unconnected.<ref name=":82" />

The territory hosts the Kyimbi hydroelectric power station, also known as the Bendera plant, which remains operational. In addition, a small hydroelectric plant named Magembe, located near Fizi, has been abandoned, while other facilities, such as the Nundu power station, were dismantled and removed during the Second Congo War.<ref name=":482" /> Another hydroelectric installation is situated in Malikya, near Baraka.<ref name=":482" />

=== Housing and water supply === {{Multiple image | total_width = 340 | image1 = Repatriated Mamas at the fountain.jpg | caption1 = A group of women and children gathered around a water fountain in Fizi Territory. | image2 = The International Facilitation Group for DRC's Peace Process meet with FRF Armed Group in Kamombo, South Kivu. - 4325090600.jpg | caption2 = Traditional round huts with thatched roofs in Kamombo village, located in the Balala-Nord ''groupement'' of the Tanganyika sector. | caption_align = center }}

Housing conditions remain divided between rural and urban areas. In villages, dwellings are largely traditional, constructed with non-durable materials and offering minimal comfort or hygiene.<ref name=":82" /> In Baraka, some modern housing exists, though many structures remain informal, built with sun-dried adobe bricks, lacking courtyards, and developed outside any formal urban planning framework.<ref name=":82" />

Access to clean water remains a critical issue. Most of the population relies on untreated river water for domestic and hygiene purposes, due to the absence of a centralized water distribution network.<ref name=":82" /> According to Congolese writer Maluxes Malumbe M'mangwa, neither REGIDESO (''Régie de Distribution d'Eau'') nor the National Service for Rural Hydraulics (SNHR) has ever implemented water infrastructure projects in the territory.<ref name=":82" /> The only access to potable water comes through NGO-led initiatives that have installed limited water supply systems in certain localities.<ref name=":82" /> However, much of the population still lacks reliable access to clean drinking water.<ref name=":82" />

== Notes and references == {{reflist}}

==External links ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071008201049/http://www.fizi-itombwe.org/ Territoire de Fizi-Itombwe ou le pays de Babembe], fizi-itombwe.com {{in lang|fr}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928222644/http://www.kisombola.com/FWThumbnails/Seminaire%202006.pdf Rapport de l'Atelier de Réflexion sur les Resources Locales et la Dynamique du Développement Rural dans le Territoire de Fizi - Itombwe], report of seminar held 19–21 February 2006 {{in lang|fr}} {{Sud-Kivu}}

Category:Regions of Africa Category:Territories of South Kivu