{{Short description|Political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups}} {{Distinguish|text=[[Corporate capitalism]]}} {{About|the general social theory|business influence in politics|Corporatocracy|the process of reorganizing institutions on a corporate or business basis|Corporatization}} [[File:Zunftwappen.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Emblems used by [[medieval German guilds]] and [[corporation]]s, displaying various symbols related to their professions]] {{Corporatism sidebar}} '''Corporatism''' is a political ideology<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23915086 |title=Corporatist Theory and Ideology: A Latin American Development Paradigm |first=Howard J. |last=Wiarda |author-link=Howard J. Wiarda |journal=Journal of Church and State |volume=20 |issue=1 |year=1978 |pages=29–56 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/jcs/20.1.29 |jstor=23915086 |quote="Discredited by the outcome of World War II, by the Nuremberg trials, and by its supposed affinities with fascism, corporatism as an ideology and form of socio political organization seemed, for a time, to have been erased and forgotten as one of the major alternative "isms" of the twentieth century."}}</ref> and political system of interest representation and policymaking whereby [[Corporate group (sociology)|corporate groups]], such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or [[guild]] associations, come together and negotiate contracts or policy ([[collective bargaining]]) on the basis of their common interests.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Molina |first1=Oscar |last2=Rhodes |first2=Martin |date=2002 |title=Corporatism: The Past, Present, and Future of a Concept |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.112701.184858 |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=305–331 |doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.112701.184858 |issn=1094-2939|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|pp=27, 141}}<ref name="Clarke, Paul A. B. 2001. Pp. 113">{{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Paul A. B |last2=Foweraker |first2=Joe |title=Encyclopedia of democratic thought |location=London, UK; New York, US |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |page=113}}</ref> The term is derived from the Latin ''corpus'', or "body".
Corporatism does not refer to a political system dominated by large business interests, even though the latter are commonly referred to as "corporations" in modern American vernacular and legal parlance. Instead, the correct term for that theoretical system would be [[corporatocracy]].
Corporatism developed during the 1850s in response to the rise of [[classical liberalism]] and [[Marxism]], and advocated cooperation between the classes instead of [[class struggle]]. Adherents of diverse ideologies, including [[economic liberalism]], [[fascism]], and [[social democracy]], have advocated for corporatist models.<ref name=":2" /> Corporatism became one of the main tenets of [[Italian fascism]], and [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Fascist Italy|Fascist regime in Italy]] advocated the total integration of divergent interests into the state for the common good.<ref name=":1" /> However, the more democratic neo-corporatism often embraced [[tripartism]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Hans |last=Slomp |title=European politics into the twenty-first century: integration and division|location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Praeger Publishers |date=2000 |page=81}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
Corporatist ideas have been expressed since [[Greco-Roman world|ancient Greek and Roman societies]], and have been integrated into [[Catholic social teaching]] and [[Christian democratic]] political parties. They have been paired by various advocates and implemented in various societies with a wide variety of political systems, including [[authoritarianism]], [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutism]], [[fascism]], [[liberalism]], and [[social democracy]].{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| pp=31, 38, 44, 111, 124, 140}}{{sfn|Hicks|1988}}
==Kinship corporatism== [[Kinship]]-based corporatism emphasizing [[clan]], ethnic and family identification has been a common phenomenon in [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[Latin America]]. [[Confucianism|Confucian societies]] based upon families and clans in [[East Asia|Eastern]] and [[Southeast Asia]] have been considered types of corporatism. [[Muslim world|Islamic societies]] often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=10}}
==Politics and political economy== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Plato]] (left) and [[Aristotle]] (right)]]
===Communitarian corporatism=== Early concepts of corporatism evolved in [[Classical Greece]]. [[Plato]] developed the concept of a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] and [[Communitarianism|communitarian]] corporatist system of natural-based classes and natural [[Social hierarchy|social hierarchies]] that would be organized based on function, such that groups would cooperate to achieve social harmony by emphasizing [[collective]] interests while rejecting individual interests.<ref name="Adler, Franklin Hugh Pp. 349"/>
In [[Politics (Aristotle)|''Politics'']], [[Aristotle]] described society as being divided between natural classes and functional purposes: those of priests, rulers, slaves and warriors.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=29}} [[Ancient Rome]] adopted Greek concepts of corporatism into its own version of corporatism, adding the concept of political representation on the basis of function that divided representatives into military, professional and religious groups and set up institutions for each group known as [[Collegium (ancient Rome)|''collegia'']].{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|p=29}}
After the 5th-century fall of Rome and the beginning of the [[Early Middle Ages]], corporatist organizations in western Europe became largely limited to [[religious order]]s and to the idea of [[Agape|Christian brotherhood]]—especially within the context of economic transactions.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|pp=30-33}} From the [[High Middle Ages]] onward, corporatist organizations became increasingly common in Europe, including such groups as religious orders, [[monasteries]], [[Confraternity|fraternities]], [[Military order (religious society)|military orders]] such as the [[Knights Templar]] and the [[Teutonic Order]], educational organizations such as the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|emerging European universities]] and [[learned societies]], the [[Municipal charter|chartered]] [[German town law|towns]] and [[Free Imperial City|cities]], and most notably the [[Guild|guild system]] which dominated the economies of population centers in Europe.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|pp=30-33}} The military orders notably gained prominence during the period of the [[Crusades]]. These corporatist systems co-existed with the governing medieval [[Estates of the realm|estates system]], and members of the first estate (the [[clergy]]), the second estate (the [[aristocracy]]), and third estate (the [[common people]]) could also participate in various corporatist bodies.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|pp=30-33}} The development of the guild system involved the guilds gaining the power to regulate trade and prices, and guild members included artisans, tradesmen, and other [[professionals]]. This diffusion of power is an important aspect of corporatist economic models of economic management and [[class collaboration]]. However, from the 16th century onward, [[absolute monarchies]] began to conflict with the diffuse, decentralized powers of the medieval corporatist bodies.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|pp=30-33}} Absolute monarchies during the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] gradually subordinated corporatist systems and corporate groups to the authority of centralized and [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist governments]], removing any checks on royal power these corporatist bodies had previously utilized.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=33}}
After the outbreak of the [[French Revolution]] (1789), the existing absolutist corporatist system in France was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special "corporate privilege". The new French government considered corporatism's emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the government's [[Individualism|promotion of individual rights]]. Subsequently, corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=33}} From 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were [[Reactionary|reactionaries]].{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=35}} A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end [[liberal capitalism]] and to restore the [[feudalism|feudal system]].<ref name="J. Barry Jones 2001. Pp. 243">{{cite book |first= R. J. Barry |last= Jones |title= Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A–F |publisher= Taylor & Frances |date= 2001 |page =243}}</ref> Countering the reactionaries were the ideas of [[Henri de Saint-Simon]] (1760- 1825), whose proposed "industrial class" would have had the representatives of various economic groups sit in the political chambers, in contrast to the popular representation of liberal democracy.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Keith |editor-last= Taylor |title= Henri de Saint Simon, 1760–1825: Selected writings on science, industry and social organization |location= London |date=1975}}</ref>
===Social corporatism=== {{Main|Social corporatism}} From the 1850s onward, progressive corporatism developed in response to [[classical liberalism]] and to [[Marxism]].{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=35}} Progressive corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the [[middle class|middle]] and [[working class|working]] classes in order to secure cooperation among the classes in opposition to the [[Marxism|Marxist]] conception of [[class struggle]]. By the 1870s and 1880s, corporatism experienced a revival in Europe with the formation of [[trade union]]s committed to negotiations with employers.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=35}}
In his 1887 work ''[[Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft]]'' ("Community and Society"), [[Ferdinand Tönnies]] began a major revival of corporatist philosophy associated with the development of [[neo-medievalism]], increasing promotion of [[guild socialism]] and causing major changes to [[sociological theory]]. Tönnies claims that [[organicism|organic communities]] based upon clans, communes, families and professional groups are disrupted by the mechanical society of economic classes imposed by [[capitalism]].<ref name="Peter F. Klarén 1986. Pp. 221">Peter F. Klarén, Thomas J. Bossert. ''Promise of development: theories of change in Latin America''. Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press, 1986. P. 221.</ref>
The German [[Nazi Party]] used Tönnies' theory to promote their notion of ''[[Volksgemeinschaft]]'' ("people's community").<ref>Francis Ludwig Carsten, Hermann Graml. ''The German resistance to Hitler''. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press. P. 93</ref> However, Tönnies opposed [[Nazism]]: he joined the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] in 1932 to oppose fascism in Germany and was deprived of his honorary professorship by [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1933.<ref>Ferdinand Tönnies, José Harris. ''Community and civil society''. Cambridge University Press, 2001 (first edition in 1887 as ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft''). Pp. xxxii-xxxiii.</ref>
===Corporatism in the Catholic Church=== {{See also|Christian corporatism}} In 1881, [[Pope Leo XIII]] commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and to provide a definition for it. In 1884 in [[Freiburg]], the commission declared that corporatism was a "system of social organization that has at its base the grouping of men according to the community of their natural interests and social functions, and as true and proper organs of the state they direct and coordinate labor and capital in matters of common interest".{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=31}} Corporatism is related to the [[sociology|sociological]] concept of [[structural functionalism]].<ref name="Adler, Franklin Hugh Pp. 349">{{cite book |last= Adler |first= Franklin Hugh |title= Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, 1906–34 |page= 349}}</ref>{{sfn|Wiarda|1997| p=10}}<ref name="Murchison, Carl Allanmore 1967. P. 150">{{cite book |last1= Murchison |first1= Carl Allanmore |last2= llee |first2= Warder Clyde |title= A handbook of social psychology |volume= 1 |date= 1967 |page= 150}}</ref><ref name="Conwy Lloyd Morgan 2009. P. 14">{{cite book |first= Conwy Lloyd |last= Morgan |title= Animal Behaviour |publisher= Bibliolife, LLC |date= 2009 |page= 14}}</ref>
Corporatism's popularity increased in the late 19th century and a corporatist internationale was formed in 1890, followed by the 1891 publishing of ''[[Rerum novarum]]'' by the [[Catholic Church]] that for the first time declared the Church's blessing to trade unions and recommended that politicians recognize organized labour.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|p=37}} Many corporatist unions in Europe were endorsed by the [[Catholic Church]] to challenge the [[Anarchism|anarchist]], [[Marxism|Marxist]] and other radical unions, with the corporatist unions being fairly conservative in comparison to their radical rivals.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|p=38}} Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the 1932–1934 [[leadership]] of Federal Chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and Ecuador under the leadership of [[García Moreno]] (1861–1865 and 1869–1875). The economic vision outlined in ''[[Rerum novarum]]'' and ''[[Quadragesimo anno]]'' (1931) also influenced the régime (1946–1955 and 1973–1974) of [[Juan Perón]] and [[Justicialism]] in [[Argentina]] and influenced the drafting of the 1937 [[Constitution of Ireland]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bethell |first1=Leslie |title= Argentina Since Independence |date= 1993 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |page= 229}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Rein |first1= Monica |title= Politics and Education in Argentina, 1946-1962 |date= 2016 |publisher= Routledge |quote= The Church's social concept presented an alternative to the [[Marxism|Marxist]] and capitalist positions, both of which it saw as misguided. Justicialism sought to extend this line of thinking.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Aasmundsen |first1= Hans Geir |title= Pentecostals, Politics, and Religious Equality in Argentina |date= 2016 |publisher= BRILL |page= 33}}</ref> In response to the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] corporatism of the 1890s, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] corporatism developed, especially in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Scandinavia]].{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|p=39}} However, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] corporatism has been much less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] counterpart.{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|p=41}}
===Corporate solidarism=== [[File:Emile Durkheim.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Émile Durkheim]]]] Sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]] (1858–1917) advocated a form of corporatism termed "solidarism" that advocated creating an [[Organicism|organic]] social [[solidarity]] of society through functional representation.<ref name="Antony Black 1984. P226">Antony Black, pp. 226.</ref> Solidarism built on Durkheim's view that the dynamic of human society as a [[collective]] is distinct from the dynamic of an individual, in that society is what places upon individuals their cultural and social attributes.<ref>Antony Black, pp. 223.</ref>
Durkheim posited that solidarism would alter the [[division of labour]] by evolving it from mechanical [[social solidarity|solidarity]] to organic solidarity. He believed that the existing industrial [[Capitalism|capitalist]] division of labour caused "juridical and moral ''[[anomie]]''", which had no norms or agreed procedures to resolve conflicts and resulted in chronic confrontation between employers and trade unions.<ref name="Antony Black 1984. P226"/> Durkheim believed that this anomie caused social dislocation and felt that by this "it is the law of the strongest which rules, and there is inevitably a chronic state of war, latent or acute".<ref name="Antony Black 1984. P226"/> As a result, Durkheim believed it is a moral obligation of the members of society to end this situation by creating a moral organic solidarity based upon [[profession]]s as organized into a single public institution.<ref>Antony Black, pp. 226, 228.</ref>
Corporate solidarism is a form of corporatism that advocates creating [[solidarity]] instead of [[collectivism]] in society through functional representation, believing that it is up to the people to end the chronic confrontation between employers and labor unions by creating a single public institution. Solidarism rejects a "materialistic" approach to social, economic, and political problems, while also rejecting [[class conflict]]. Just like corporatism, it embraces [[tripartism]] as its economic system.
===Liberal corporatism=== {{main|Liberal corporatism}}
[[File:John-stuart-mill-sized.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[John Stuart Mill]]]][[John Stuart Mill]] supported corporatism as needing to predominate in society to create equality for [[Laborer|labourers]] and give them a voice in management through [[Economic democracy|democratic economic]] rights.<ref>Gregg, Samuel. ''The commercial society: foundations and challenges in a global age''. Lanham, USA; Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2007. Pp. 109. {{ISBN|073911994X}}</ref> Unlike a number of other forms of corporatism, liberal corporatism does not reject [[Market economy|markets]] or [[individualism]], but rather believes that a business is a social institution that requires a recognition of the needs of its members.<ref name="Waring, Stephen P. 1994. Pp. 1932">Waring, Stephen P. ''Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory Since 1945''. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Pp. 193. {{ISBN|0807844691}}</ref> This liberal corporatist ethic was similar to [[Taylorism]] but called for [[Social ownership|democratisation of the firm]] and [[Labor-managed firm|election of management]].<ref name="Waring, Stephen P. 1994. Pp. 1932" />
Liberal corporatism was an influential component of the [[progressivism in the United States]] that has been referred to as "interest group liberalism".<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 134">Wiarda, Howard J. ''Corporatism and comparative politics''. M.E. Sharpe, 1996. Pp. 134. {{ISBN|156324716X}}</ref> Labour leaders' and progressives' advocacy of liberal corporatism is believed to have been influenced in reaction to the rise of [[syndicalism]] and particularly [[anarcho-syndicalism]] at the time in Europe.<ref name="Wiarda, Howard J. 1996. Pp. 134" />
===Fascist corporatism=== {{See also|Prussianism and Socialism}} {{more citations needed section|date=April 2024}} [[File:SKA poster.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[National Trade Union Confederation of Finland|SKA]] poster: "Away with the party lines! Work for the [[Volksgemeinschaft|national community]]!"]] A fascist corporation can be defined as a government-directed confederation of employers and employees unions, with the aim of overseeing production in a comprehensive manner. Theoretically, each corporation within this structure assumes the responsibility of advocating for the interests of its respective profession, particularly through the negotiation of labor agreements and similar measures. Fascists theorized that this method could result in [[Class collaboration|harmony amongst social classes]].<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Mark Mazower |last=Mazower |first=Mark |title=Dark Continent: Europe's 20th Century |year=1999 |page=29 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |isbn=0-679-43809-2}}</ref>
In Italy, from 1922 until 1943, corporatism became influential amongst Italian nationalists led by [[Benito Mussolini]]. The 1920 [[Charter of Carnaro]] gained much popularity as the prototype of a "corporative state", having displayed much within its tenets as a [[Gremialismo|guild system]] combining the concepts of autonomy and authority in a special synthesis.<ref>{{cite book |last= Parlato|first= Giuseppe|title= La sinistra fascista|publisher= Il Mulino |year= 2000|location=Bologna|pages=88|language=Italian}}</ref> [[Alfredo Rocco]] spoke of a corporative state and declared corporatist ideology in detail. Rocco would later become a member of the Italian fascist régime.<ref>{{cite book |last= Payne |first= Stanley G. |date= 1996 |title=A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wHNrF7nFecC |publisher=Routledge |page=64 |isbn=1-85728-595-6}}</ref> Subsequently, the [[Labour Charter of 1927]] was implemented, thus establishing a [[collective agreement]] system between employers and employees, becoming the main form of [[class collaboration]] in the fascist government.
[[Italian fascism]] involved a corporatist political system in which the economy was [[Tripartism|collectively managed]] by employers, workers and state officials by formal mechanisms at the national level.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |title=The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right |date=2002 |first1= Peter Jonathan |last1= Davies |first2= Derek |last2= Lynch |publisher= Routledge (UK) |isbn= 0-415-21494-7 |page= 143}}</ref> Its supporters claimed that corporatism could better recognize or "incorporate" every divergent interest into the state organically, unlike majority-rules democracy, which (they said) could marginalize specific interests. This total consideration was the inspiration for their use of the term [[Totalitarianism|"totalitarian"]], described without coercion (which is connoted in the modern meaning) in the 1932 ''[[Doctrine of Fascism]]'' as thus: {{blockquote|When brought within the orbit of the State, Fascism recognizes the real needs which gave rise to socialism and trade unionism, giving them due weight in the guild or corporative system in which divergent interests are coordinated and harmonized in the unity of the State.<ref name=doctrine>[http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm Mussolini{{spaced en dash}}The Doctrine of Fascism]</ref>}} {{blockquote|[The state] is not simply a mechanism which limits the sphere of the supposed liberties of the individual... Neither has the Fascist conception of authority anything in common with that of a police ridden State... Far from crushing the individual, the Fascist State multiplies his energies, just as in a regiment a soldier is not diminished but multiplied by the number of his fellow soldiers.<ref name=doctrine />}} {{multiple image | direction = horizontal | align = right | total_width = 380 | image1 = Deutsche Arbeitsfront Symbol.svg | image2 = Sindicato Vertical logo, early version.svg | image3 = SKA logo.png | footer = Fascist organizations aiming to unite employers and employees: [[German Labour Front]] (DAF), [[Spanish Syndical Organization]] (OSE), [[National Trade Union Confederation of Finland]] (SKA) }} A popular slogan of the Italian Fascists under Mussolini was "{{lang|it|Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato}}" ("everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state").
Within the corporative model of Italian fascism, each corporate interest was supposed to be resolved and incorporated under the state. Much of the corporatist influence upon Italian fascism was partly due to the Fascists' attempts to gain endorsement by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] that itself sponsored corporatism.<ref name="Morgan, Philip 2003. P. 170">{{cite book |last= Morgan |first= Philip |title= Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945 |publisher= Routledge |date= 2003 |page= 170}}</ref> However, the Roman Catholic Church's corporatism favored a bottom-up corporatism, whereby groups such as families and professional groups would voluntarily work together, whereas fascist corporatism was a top-down model of state control managed primarily by government officials.<ref name="Morgan, Philip 2003. P. 170" /><ref>{{cite book |last= Lewis |first= Paul H. |title= Authoritarian regimes in Latin America: dictators, despots, and tyrants |location= Lanham, Maryland |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc |date= 2006 |page=131 |quote= Fascism differed from Catholic corporatism by assigning the state the role of final arbiter, in the event that employer and labor syndicates failed to agree.}}</ref>
The fascist state corporatism of Roman Catholic Italy influenced the governments and economies{{snd}}not only of other Roman Catholic-majority countries, such as the governments of [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] in [[Federal State of Austria|Austria]], [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] in [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Portugal]], [[Juan Domingo Perón]] in [[Argentina]] and [[Getúlio Vargas]] in Brazil<ref>{{Cite book |last=Teixeira |first=Melissa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.6988032 |title=A Third Path: Corporatism in Brazil and Portugal |date=2024 |volume=4 |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.2307/jj.6988032 |isbn=978-0-691-25816-4}}</ref>{{snd}}but also of [[Konstantin Päts]] and [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] in non-Catholic [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]].{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}
Fascists in non-Catholic countries also supported Italian Fascist corporatism, including [[Oswald Mosley]] of the [[British Union of Fascists]], who commended corporatism and said that "it means a nation organized as the human body, with each organ performing its individual function but working in harmony with the whole".<ref name="Robert Eccleshall 1994. P. 208">{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Eccleshall |first2=Vincent |last2= Geoghegan |first3=Richard |last3=Jay |first4=Michael |last4=Kenny |first5=Iain |last5= Mackenzie |first6=Rick |last6=Wilford |title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction |edition= 2nd |publisher=Routledge |date=1994 |page=208}}</ref> Mosley also regarded corporatism as an attack on ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economics and "international finance".<ref name="Robert Eccleshall 1994. P. 208" />
The corporatist state of Portugal had similarities to [[Benito Mussolini]]'s Italian fascist corporatism, but also differences in its moral approach to governing.{{sfn|Kay|1970|pp= 50–51}} Although Salazar admired Mussolini and was influenced by his [[Labour Charter of 1927]],{{sfn|Wiarda|1997|p=98}} he distanced himself from fascist dictatorship, which he considered a pagan [[Caesarism|Caesarist]] political system that recognised neither legal nor moral limits. Salazar also had a strong dislike of Marxism and liberalism.
In 1933, Salazar stated: <blockquote>Our Dictatorship clearly resembles a fascist dictatorship in the reinforcement of authority, in the war declared against certain principles of democracy, in its accentuated nationalist character, in its preoccupation of social order. However, it differs from it in its process of renovation. The fascist dictatorship tends towards a pagan Caesarism, towards a state that knows no limits of a legal or moral order, which marches towards its goal without meeting complications or obstacles. The Portuguese New State, on the contrary, cannot avoid, not think of avoiding, certain limits of a moral order which it may consider indispensable to maintain in its favour of its reforming action.<ref>''Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review'' Vol. 92, No. 368, Winter, 2003</ref></blockquote>
The [[Patriotic People's Movement]] (IKL) in Finland envisioned a system with elements of direct democracy and professional parliament. The president would be elected with direct vote, who would then appoint the government from among professionals in their respective fields. All parties would be banned, and members of parliament would be elected by vote from corporate groups representing different sectors; Agriculture, Industry and Public servants, free trades, etc. Every law passed in the parliament would be either ratified or overturned by a referendum.<ref>[[Jussi Niinistö]], Paavo Susitaival. Kolme sotaa, kaksi kapinaa, neljä linnareissua.{{ISBN| 978-952-375-225-2}}</ref><ref>Mikko Uola: Sinimusta veljeskunta – Isänmaallinen kansanliike 1932–1944. Otava, 1982. ISBN 951-1-06982-9 p.76-79</ref><ref>[http://tampub.uta.fi/haekokoversio.php?id=129 Jussi Maijala : ''Kansankokonaisuuden puolesta : IKL – ei luokkia tai yksilöitä vaan kansankokonaisuus'', teoksessa Petri Juuti (toim) : ''Sinistä, punaista, mustaa - Näkökulmia Suomen 1930–40-lukujen poliittiseen historiaan''. Tampereen yliopistopaino, Tampere 2005 ss. 68–69 ]</ref>
===Neo-corporatism=== During the post-[[World War II]] reconstruction period in Europe, corporatism was favored by [[Christian democracy|Christian democrats]] (often under the influence of [[Catholic social teaching]]), [[National conservatism|national conservatives]] and [[Social democracy|social democrats]] in opposition to liberal capitalism. This type of corporatism became unfashionable but revived again in the 1960s and 1970s as "neo-corporatism" in response to the new economic threat of [[stagflation|recession-inflation]].
Neo-corporatism is a democratic form of corporatism which favors economic [[tripartism]], which involves strong [[labour union]]s, [[employers' association]]s and governments that cooperate as "[[social partners]]" to negotiate and manage a national economy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wiarda |first=Howard J. |url= https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315481050/corporatism-comparative-politics-howard-wiarda |title=Corporatism and Comparative Politics: The Other Great "Ism" |date =2016-06-24 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-48105-0 |location=New York |doi= 10.4324/9781315481050}}</ref><ref name="J. Barry Jones 2001. Pp. 243" /> [[Social corporatism|Social corporatist]] systems instituted in Europe after World War II include the [[Ordoliberalism|ordoliberal]] system of the [[social market economy]] in Germany, the [[Social Partnership|social partnership]] in Ireland, the [[polder model]] in the Netherlands (although arguably the polder model already was present at the end of World War I, it was not until after World War II that a social-service system gained foothold there), the concertation system in Italy, the [[Rhine capitalism|Rhine model]] in Switzerland and the Benelux countries and the [[Nordic model]] in the Nordic countries.
Attempts in the United States to create neo-corporatist capital-labor arrangements were unsuccessfully advocated by [[Gary Hart]] and [[Michael Dukakis]] in the 1980s. As secretary of labor during the Clinton administration, [[Robert Reich]] promoted neo-corporatist reforms.<ref name="Waring, Stephen P. 1994. Pp. 194">Waring, Stephen P. ''Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory Since 1945''. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Pp. 194.</ref>
===Contemporary examples by country=== ====Argentina====
[[Juan Perón|Juan Peron]]'s governments are known for having corporatist elements. They aimed to represent the interests of different sectors of Argentine society by grouping them into multiple organizations:<ref>{{cite book |last=Ostiguy |first=Pierre |title=Argentina's Double Political Spectrum: Party System, Political Identities, and Strategies, 1944-2007 |publisher=Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies |year=2009 |page=3 |quote="He repeatedly praised a national form of socialism, against capitalist exploitation and US or Soviet imperialism."}}</ref> workers were represented by the [[General Confederation of Labour (Argentina)|CGT]], Peronist businessmen in the General Economic Confederation, landowners by the Argentine Agrarian Federation, women by the [[Female Peronist Party]], Jews in the Argentine Israelite Organization, students in the Secondary Student Union.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buchanan |first=Paul G. |date=1985 |title=State Corporatism in Argentina: Labor Administration under Peron and Ongania |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2503258 |journal=Latin American Research Review |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=61–95 |doi=10.1017/S0023879100034269 |issn=0023-8791 |jstor=2503258 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Peron was able to coordinate and centralize the working class, which he mobilized to act on his behest. [[Trade union]]s have been incorporated into Peronism's structure and remain a key part of the movement today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clohesy |first=William |date=1993-01-01 |title=Argentine Unions, the State and the Rise of Perón, 1930-1945; Argentine Workers: Peronism and Contemporary Class Consciousness |url=https://www.academia.edu/54834931 |journal=The Latin American Anthropology Review |volume=5 |pages=30–31 |doi=10.1525/jlca.1993.5.1.30}}</ref> Also, the state intervened in labor-capital conflicts,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miorelli |first=Romina |year=2008 |title=The Discourse on Civil Society in Poverty: Reduction Policy in the Argentina of the 1990s. The neoliberal and populist political project's struggles for hegemony |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4187749.pdf |url-status=usurped |journal=The London School of Economics and Political Science |location=London |page=72 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201010555/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4187749.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> with the Ministry of Labour and Social Security being responsible for directly negotiating and enforcing agreements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiarda |first=Howard J. |date=July 2009 |title=The Political Sociology of a Concept: Corporatism and the "Distinct Tradition" |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/americas/article/abs/political-sociology-of-a-concept-corporatism-and-the-distinct-tradition/1073EE7B0F207BBCE6405AE828A4102C |journal=The Americas |language=en |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=81–106 |doi=10.1353/tam.0.0155 |issn=0003-1615 |s2cid=146378700 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buchanan |first=Paul G. |date=January 1985 |title=State Corporatism in Argentina: Labor Administration under Perón and Onganía |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-research-review/article/state-corporatism-in-argentina-labor-administration-under-peron-and-ongania/C8CB42244641277C1E950EF6E2AFBBD2 |journal=Latin American Research Review |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=61–95 |doi=10.1017/S0023879100034269 |issn=0023-8791 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Also, the [[Juan Carlos Onganía|Onganía]] regime during the [[Argentine Revolution]] had a corporatist ideology, experimenting in particular in [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]] under the governance of [[Carlos José Caballero|Carlos Caballero]]. Although in practice, it represented a type of exclusive corporatism, where only private interests were represented through organizations. They were given representation in the State in exchange for accepting certain controls. In reality, this led to many functions and structures of the State passing into private hands, but in an unbalanced way. Business and religious groups ended up taking control of important areas of the government. As a result, the state's ability to act independently and efficiently was greatly reduced, which also explains why resistance to these measures arose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=Guillermo |title=Acerca del corporativismo y la cuestión del Estado |date=1975 |publisher=Documento Cedes}}</ref>
For instance, some Catholic fundamentalists were in the Ministry of Social Welfare (although with a short stay), such as Minister Roberto Petracca and the Secretary of Promotion and Community Assistance (SEPAC), Roberto Gorostiaga. Both were Catholic militants, members of Ciudad Católica, of the Verbo Magazine and followers of [[Jacques de Mahieu]]. Together with these, in 1967, there were also other types of Catholic groups in the Ministry of Social Welfare, with [[Catholic social teaching|social Christian]] principles and modernizing for the time. In this spectrum were the minister, Julio Álvarez, the secretary of SEPAC, Raúl Puigbó, the undersecretary of SEPAC, Antonio Critto, and the undersecretary of Security.
Thus, the integration of the ministries offers a clear example of the corporatist element of this period. Especially, as it opened institutional areas to the representation of some interests of civil society. However, this opening occurred selectively, including mainly groups that already supported the government. The private actors that were incorporated had a limited role, as they could only provide information and technical advice, since this was considered to be the best form of participation.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Colombo |first1=Andreina |last2=Edling |first2=Philipp |title=Estructuras corporativas estatales durante el Onganiato (1966-1970) |url=https://www.revistapolitikon.com.ar/sistema-de-valores-racionalizacion-administrativa/ |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Revista Politikón |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osuna |first=Florencia |date= |title='El Ministerio de Onganía'. Un análisis de la conformación del Ministerio de Bienestar Social |trans-title='The Ministry of Onganía'. An Analysis of the Formation of the Ministry of Social Welfare (1966-1970) |url=https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/bitstream/handle/11336/76210/CONICET_Digital_Nro.edce200e-43e2-472c-9fbb-bd801f72891d_A.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |journal=Anuario de la Escuela de Historia Virtual |language=es |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=69–91 |issn=1853-7049 |access-date=2024-11-21 |via=CONICET Digital Institutional Repository |trans-journal=Yearbook of the School of Virtual History}}</ref>
====China==== {{See also|Party-state capitalism}}
[[Jonathan Unger]] and Anita Chan in their essay "China, Corporatism, and the East Asian Model" describe Chinese corporatism as follows:<ref>[http://ips.cap.anu.edu.au/psc/ccc/publications/papers/JUAC_China_Corporatism.pdf "China，Corporatism，and the East Asian Model"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511194101/http://ips.cap.anu.edu.au/psc/ccc/publications/papers/JUAC_China_Corporatism.pdf |date=2013-05-11 }}. By Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan, 1994.</ref> <blockquote>[A]t the national level the state recognizes one and only one organization (say, a national labour union, a business association, a farmers' association) as the sole representative of the sectoral interests of the individuals, enterprises or institutions that comprise that organization's assigned constituency. The state determines which organizations will be recognized as legitimate and forms an unequal partnership of sorts with such organizations. The associations sometimes even get channelled into the policy-making processes and often help implement state policy on the government's behalf.</blockquote>
By establishing itself as the arbiter of legitimacy and assigning responsibility for a particular [[constituency]] with one sole organization, the state limits the number of players with which it must negotiate its policies and co-opts their leadership into policing their own members. This arrangement is not limited to economic organizations such as business groups and social organizations.
The political scientist [[Jean C. Oi]] coined the term "local state corporatism" to describe China's distinctive type of state-led growth, in which a communist party-state with [[Leninist]] roots commits itself to policies which are friendly to the market and to growth.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Jean C. |last=Oi |author-link=Jean C. Oi |title=The Role of the Local State in China's Transitional Economy |journal= The China Quarterly |volume= 144 |pages= 1132–1149 |date=December 1995|doi=10.1017/S0305741000004768 |s2cid=154845594 }}</ref>
The use of corporatism as a framework to understand the central state's behaviour in China has been criticized by authors such as Bruce Gilley and William Hurst.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10670564.2011.565181#.UhTA27FzZrQ | doi= 10.1080/10670564.2011.565181 | title= Paradigms of Chinese Politics: Kicking society back out | year= 2011 | last1= Gilley | first1= Bruce | journal= Journal of Contemporary China | volume= 20 | issue=70 | pages=517–533 | s2cid=155006410 | url-access= subscription }}</ref><ref>William Hurst (2007) "The City as the Focus: The Analysis of Contemporary Chinese Urban Politics’, ''China Information'' 20(30).</ref>
====Hong Kong and Macau==== In two [[special administrative region of China|special administrative regions]], some legislators are chosen by [[Functional constituency (Hong Kong)|functional constituencies]] ([[Legislative Council of Hong Kong]]) where the voters are a mix of individuals, associations, and corporations or [[Indirectly elected member|indirect election]] ([[Legislative Assembly of Macau]]) where a single association is designated to appoint legislators.
====Ireland==== Most members of the [[Seanad Éireann]], the upper house of the [[Oireachtas]] (parliament) of Ireland, are elected as part of [[vocational panel]]s nominated partly by current Oireachtas members and partly by vocational and special interest associations. The Seanad also includes two [[university constituencies]].
The [[Constitution of Ireland]] of 1937 was influenced by Roman Catholic Corporatism as expressed in the papal encyclical, ''Quadragesimo anno'' (1931).<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/letters/2024/02/20/the-constitution-family-and-care/ | title=The Constitution, family and care | newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Keogh|first=Dermot|date=2007|title='The Making of the Irish Constitution 1937:Bunreacht na hÉireann'|publisher=Mercier Press|isbn=978-1856355612}}</ref>
====Netherlands==== Under the Dutch [[polder model]], the [[Social and Economic Council]] of the Netherlands (Sociaal-Economische Raad, SER) was established by the 1950 Industrial Organisation Act (Wet op de bedrijfsorganisatie). It is led by representatives of unions, employer organizations, and government appointed experts. It advises the government and has administrative and regulatory power. It oversees Sectoral Organisation Under Public Law ([[Publiekrechtelijke Bedrijfsorganisatie]], PBO) which are similarly organized by union and industry representatives, but for specific industries or commodities.<ref>[https://www.ser.nl/en/SER/About-the-SER/-/media/544A7D818CA04A2FA1DFCCE9E0F09057.ashx The Social and Economic Council of the Netherlands (SER)]</ref>
====Slovenia==== The Slovene [[National Council (Slovenia)|National Council]], the upper house of the Slovene Parliament, has 18 members elected on a corporatist basis.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48609481 | jstor=48609481 | title=Corporatism packaged in pluralist ideology | last1=Lukšič | first1=Igor | journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies | year=2003 | volume=36 | issue=4 | pages=509–525 | doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2003.09.007 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==== Western Europe ==== Generally supported by [[nationalist]]{{sfn|Overy|2004|p=614}} and [[social-democratic]] political parties, [[social corporatism]] developed in the post-[[World War II]] period, influenced by [[Christian democrats]] and social democrats in Western European countries such as Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.{{sfn|Moschonas|2002|p=64}} Social corporatism has also been adopted in different configurations and to varying degrees in various Western European countries.{{sfn|Rosser|Rosser|2003|p=226}}
The Nordic countries have the most comprehensive form of collective bargaining, where [[trade unions]] are represented at the national level by official organizations alongside [[employers' associations]]. Together with the [[welfare state]] policies of these countries, this forms what is termed the Nordic model. [[Austria]], however, exhibits an equally comprehensive but more sectorally organized system of collective bargaining, supported by a highly institutionalized framework of [[:de:Sozialpartnerschaft#Das_österreichische_Modell_der_Sozialpartnerschaft|social partnership]]. A less extensive model exists in Germany ([[Rhine capitalism]]).{{sfn|Rosser|Rosser|2003|p=226}}
==See also== {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Class collaboration]] * [[Co-determination]] * [[Conflict theories]] * [[Corporate statism]] * [[Cooperative]] * [[Distributism]] * [[Fascism]] * [[Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft]] * [[Gremialismo]] * [[Guild]] * [[Guild socialism]] * [[Holacracy]] * [[Managerialism]] * [[Mutualism (movement)]] * [[Integralism]] * [[National syndicalism]] * [[Oligopoly]] * [[Paritarian Institutions]] * [[Pillarisation]] * [[Solidarism (disambiguation)]] * [[Third Position]] * [[Proprietary Corporation|Proprietary corporation]] * [[Corporatism in Switzerland]] {{div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * Black, Antony (1984). ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Guilds_and_Civil_Society_in_European_Pol.html?id=oQMOAAAAQAAJ Guilds and civil society in European political thought from the twelfth century to present]''. Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-416-73360-0}}. * {{cite book |last=Kay |first=Hugh |title=Salazar and Modern Portugal |year=1970 |publisher=Hawthorn Books |location=New York}} * {{cite book|last1=Moschonas|first1=Gerassimos|translator-last=Elliott|translator-first=Gregory|year=2002|title=In the Name of Social Democracy: The Great Transformation, 1945 to the Present|location=London, England|publisher=Verso Books|isbn=978-1-85984-639-1}} * {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard|year=2004|title=The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia|edition=illustrated, reprinted|location=London, England|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=9780713993097}} *{{cite book | last = Wiarda | first = Howard J. | title = Corporatism and comparative politics: the other great "ism" | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | location = Armonk, NY | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-1563247163 }} * [[Nicola Acocella|Acocella, N.]] and Di Bartolomeo, G. [2007], "Is corporatism feasible?", in: ''Metroeconomica'', 58(2): 340-59. * Jones, Eric. 2008. ''[https://global.oup.com/academic/product/economic-adjustment-and-political-transformation-in-small-states-9780199208333?cc=us&lang=en&# Economic Adjustment and Political Transformation in Small States]''. Oxford University Press. *Jones, R. J. Barry. ''Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A-F''. Taylor & Frances, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-415-14532-9}}. *Schmitter, P. (1974). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/review-of-politics/article/still-the-century-of-corporatism/DD5C2B4745211F043A83B2C301E10BDC "Still the Century of Corporatism?"] ''The Review of Politics'', 36(1), 85-131. * Taha Parla and Andrew Davison, ''Corporatist Ideology in Kemalist Turkey Progress or Order?'', 2004, Syracuse University Press, {{ISBN|0-8156-3054-9}} * Western, Bruce (1991). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096104 A Comparative Study of Corporatist Development]". ''American Sociological Review''. '''56''' (3): 283–294.
===On Italian corporatism=== * [[s:Constitution of Fiume|Constitution of Fiume]] * [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum_en.html ''Rerum novarum'': encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on capital and labor] * [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno_en.html ''Quadragesimo Anno'': encyclical of Pope Pius XI on reconstruction of the social order]
===On fascist corporatism and its ramifications=== * Baker, David, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", ''New Political Economy'', Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006, pages 227–250. * Marra, Realino, "''Aspetti dell'esperienza corporativa nel periodo fascista''{{-"}}, ''Annali della Facoltà di Giurisprudenza di Genova'', XXIV-1.2, 1991–92, pages 366–79. * An essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to [[Benito Mussolini]] appears in the 1932 edition of the ''Enciclopedia Italiana'', and excerpts can be read at [[Doctrine of Fascism]]. That article also links to the complete text. * ''My rise and fall'', Volumes 1–2 – two autobiographies of Mussolini, editors Richard Washburn Child, [[Max Ascoli]], Richard Lamb, Da Capo Press, 1998 * [https://www.questia.com/read/74000467?title=My%20Autobiography The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504011357/http://www.questia.com/read/74000467?title=My%20Autobiography |date=2008-05-04 }} ''[[My Autobiography (Mussolini book)|My Autobiography]]''. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928. {{ISBN|978-0-486-44777-3}}. * {{cite journal|last1=Hicks|first1=Alexander|year=1988|title=Social Democratic Corporatism and Economic Growth|journal=The Journal of Politics|location=Chicago, Illinois|publisher=University of Chicago Press|volume=50|issue=3|pages=677–704|doi=10.2307/2131463 |issn=0022-3816|jstor=2131463|s2cid=154785976 }}
===On neo-corporatism=== * [[Peter Katzenstein|Katzenstein, Peter]]. ''Small States in World Markets: industrial policy in Europe.'' Ithaca, 1985. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8014-9326-3}}. * [[Mancur Olson|Olson, Mancur]]. ''[[The Logic of Collective Action|The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups]]. [https://archive.org/details/logicofcollectiv00olso_0]'' 1965, 1971. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-53751-4}}. * Schmitter, P. C. and Lehmbruch, G. (eds.). ''Trends toward Corporatist Intermediation.'' London, 1979. {{ISBN|978-0-8039-9837-7}}. * Rodrigues, Lucia Lima. "[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200306/ai_n9301506/print Corporatism, liberalism and the accounting profession in Portugal since 1755]." ''Journal of Accounting Historians,'' June 2003. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220000907/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200306/ai_n9301506/print |date=2006-02-20 }} * {{cite book |last1=Rosser |first1=J. Barkley |last2=Rosser |first2=Marina V. |year=2003 |title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy |edition=2nd |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-18234-8}}
==External links== {{Wiktionary}} ; Encyclopedias * [https://www.britannica.com/topic/corporatism Corporatism] – [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] * [https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/corporatism Corporatism] – [[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] ; Articles * [http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/corporatism.htm Professor Thayer Watkins, ''The economic system of corporatism''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510075734/https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/corporatism.htm |date=2020-05-10 }}, [[San Jose State University]], Department of Economics. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090129213146/http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html Chip Berlet, "Mussolini on the Corporate State"], 2005, Political Research Associates.
{{Political ideologies}} {{Political philosophy}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Corporatism| ]] [[Category:Collectivism]] [[Category:Corporations]] [[Category:Economic ideologies]] [[Category:Political systems]] [[Category:Political ideologies]]