Quercus robur

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}} {{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=July 2020}} {{speciesbox |image = Quercus robur.jpg |image_caption = Leaves and acorns |status = LC |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name="Barstow-2017">{{cite iucn |author-last1=Barstow|author-first1= M. |author-last2=Khela|author-first2= S. |date=2017 |title=''Quercus robur'' |volume=2017 |article-number=e.T63532A3126467 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63532A3126467.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> |genus = Quercus |display_parents = 2 |parent = Quercus sect. Quercus |species = robur |authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |subdivision_ranks = Subspecies |subdivision_ref = <ref name="POWO">{{cite POWO |id=304293-2 |title=''Quercus robur'' L. |access-date=9 June 2025}}</ref> |subdivision = *''Quercus robur'' subsp. ''brutia'' (Ten.) O.Schwarz *[[Quercus robur subsp. imeretina|''Quercus robur'' subsp. ''imeretina'']] (Steven ex Woronow) Menitsky *[[Quercus robur subsp. pedunculiflora|''Quercus robur'' subsp. ''pedunculiflora'']] (K.Koch) Menitsky *''Quercus robur'' subsp. ''robur'' |range_map = Quercus robur range.svg |range_map_caption = Native distribution of pedunculate oak |synonyms = {{collapsible list | {{plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | * ''Quercus abbreviata'' Vuk. * ''Quercus accessiva'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus accomodata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus acutiloba'' Borbás * ''Quercus aesculus'' Boiss. * ''Quercus aestivalis'' Steven * ''Quercus afghanistanensis'' K.Koch * ''Quercus alligata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus altissima ''Petz. & G.Kirchn. * ''Quercus amoenifolia'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus appenina'' var. ''cylindracea'' (Guss. ex Parl.) Nyman * ''Quercus appenina'' var. ''rumelica'' (Griseb. & Schenk) Nyman * ''Quercus apula'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus arenaria'' Borbás * ''Quercus argentea'' Morogues * ''Quercus assimilis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus asterotricha'' Borbás & Csató * ''Quercus asturica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus atropurpurea'' K.Koch * ''Quercus atrosanguinea'' K.Koch * ''Quercus atrovirens'' Sm. * ''Quercus aurea'' K.Koch * ''Quercus australis'' A.Kern. * ''Quercus auzin'' Secondat ex Bosc. * ''Quercus avellanoides'' Vuk. * ''Quercus axillaris'' Schur * ''Quercus banatica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus batavica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus bavarica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus bedoi'' Borbás * ''Quercus belgica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus bellogradensis'' Borbás * ''Quercus borealis'' var. ''pilosa'' (Schur) Simonk. * ''Quercus brachycarpa'' Guss. ex Parl. * ''Quercus brevipes'' A.Kern. * ''Quercus brevipes'' Borbás * ''Quercus brutia'' Ten. * ''Quercus bruttia'' Borbás * ''Quercus castanoides'' Vuk. * ''Quercus commiserata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus comptoniifolia'' K.Koch * ''Quercus concordia'' K.Koch * ''Quercus condensata'' Schur * ''Quercus coriifolia'' Vuk. * ''Quercus crispa'' Vuk. * ''Quercus croatica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus cunisecta'' Borbás * ''Quercus cuprea'' K.Koch * ''Quercus cupressoides'' K.Koch * ''Quercus cupulatus'' Gilib. not validly published * ''Quercus cylindracea'' Guss. ex Parl. * ''Quercus dacica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus danubialis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus dilatata'' A.Kern. * ''Quercus discredens'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus dissecta'' K.Koch * ''Quercus emarginulata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus erucifolia'' Steven * ''Quercus esthonica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus estremadurensis'' O.Schwarz * ''Quercus ettingeri'' Vuk. * ''Quercus extensa'' (Schur) Schur * ''Quercus falkenbergensis'' Booth ex Loudon * ''Quercus farinosa'' Vuk. * ''Quercus fastigiata'' Lam. * ''Quercus femina'' Mill. * ''Quercus fennessii'' A.DC. * ''Quercus filicifolia'' A.DC. * ''Quercus filipendula'' Schloss. & Vuk. * ''Quercus foemida'' Mill. * ''Quercus fructipendula'' Schrank * ''Quercus frutetorum'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus geltowiensis'' K.Koch * ''Quercus germanica'' Lasch * ''Quercus grecescui'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus haas'' Kotschy * ''Quercus haerens'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus hentzei'' Petz. & G.Kirchn. * ''Quercus hispanica'' Willk. * ''Quercus hodginsii'' Lodd. ex Steud. not validly published * ''Quercus hohenackeri'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus horizontalis'' Dippel * ''Quercus hyemalis'' Steven * ''Quercus imeretina'' Steven ex Woronow * ''Quercus immodica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus implicata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus kunzei'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus kurdica'' Wenz. * ''Quercus laciniata'' Lodd. * ''Quercus lanuginosa'' Beck * ''Quercus lasistan'' Kotschy ex A.DC. * ''Quercus lentula'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus longaeva'' Salisb. not validly published * ''Quercus longiglans'' Debeaux * ''Quercus longipedunculata'' Cariot & St.-Lag. * ''Quercus longipes'' Steven * ''Quercus louettii'' Dippel * ''Quercus lucorum'' Vuk. * ''Quercus ludens'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus lugdunensis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus macroloba'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus madritensis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus malacophylla'' (Schur) Schur * ''Quercus mestensis'' Bondev & Gancev * ''Quercus microcarpa'' Lapeyr. * ''Quercus microcarpa'' Morogues * ''Quercus monorensis'' Simonk. * ''Quercus montivaga'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus natalis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus nescensis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus nigricans'' K.Koch * ''Quercus ochracea'' Morogues * ''Quercus oelandica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus paleacea'' Desf. * ''Quercus palmata'' Vuk. * ''Quercus parmenteria'' Mutel * ''Quercus pectinata'' K.Koch * ''Quercus pedemontana'' Colla * ''Quercus pedunculata'' Ehrh. * ''Quercus pedunculata'' Hoffm. * ''Quercus pedunculiflora'' K.Koch * ''Quercus pendula'' (Neill) Lodd. * ''Quercus pendulina'' Kit. * ''Quercus petropolitana'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus pilosa'' (Schur) Simonk. * ''Quercus pilosula'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus pinnatipartita'' (Boiss.) O.Schwarz * ''Quercus plebeia'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus pluriceps'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus pseudopedunculata'' Vuk. * ''Quercus pseudoschorochensis'' Boiss. * ''Quercus pseudosessilis'' Schur * ''Quercus pseudotscharakensis'' Kotschy ex A.DC. * ''Quercus pulverulenta'' K.Koch * ''Quercus purpurea'' Lodd. ex Loudon * ''Quercus pyramidalis'' C.C.Gmel. * ''Quercus pyrenaica'' Steven * ''Quercus quaerens'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus racemosa'' Lam. * ''Quercus robur'' (Ten.) A. DC. * ''Quercus rossica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus rostanii'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus rubens'' Petz. & G.Kirchn. * ''Quercus rubicunda'' Dippel * ''Quercus rumelica'' Griseb. & Schenk * ''Quercus salicifolia'' Steud. not validly published * ''Quercus scandica'' Gand. nom. not validly published * ''Quercus schlosseriana'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus scolopendrifolia'' K.Koch * ''Quercus scotica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus scythica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus semipinnata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''condensata'' (Schur) Nyman * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''microcarpa'' (Lapeyr.) Nyman * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''pedemontana'' (Colla) Nyman * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''tcharachensis'' Albov * ''Quercus sieboldii'' Dippel * ''Quercus similata'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus speciensis'' Dippel * ''Quercus stilbophylla'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus subvelutina'' Schur * ''Quercus svecica'' Borbás * ''Quercus tanaicensis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus tardiflora'' Czern. ex Stev. * ''Quercus tennesi'' Wesm. * ''Quercus tephrochlamys'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus tetracarpa'' Vuk. * ''Quercus tholeyroniana'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus thomasii'' Ten. * ''Quercus tomentosa'' Ehrh. ex A.DC. not validly published * ''Quercus tozzae'' Dippel * ''Quercus transiens'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus tricolor'' Petz. & G.Kirchn. * ''Quercus tristis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus turbinata'' Kit. * ''Quercus urbica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus vallicola'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus verecunda'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus versatilis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus vialis'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus viminalis'' Bosc * ''Quercus virgata'' Martrin-Donos * ''Quercus volhynica'' Gand. not validly published * ''Quercus vulgaris'' Bubani * ''Quercus welandii'' Simonk. * ''Quercus wolgensis'' Gand. not validly published }} }} |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Quercus+robur|title=Search results — The Plant List|website=www.theplantlist.org}}</ref> }}

'''''Quercus robur''''', '''pedunculate oak''', or '''English oak''', is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the beech and [[oak]] family, [[Fagaceae]]. It is a large tree, [[native plant|native]] to [[Europe]] and western [[Asia]], and is widely cultivated in other temperate regions. It grows on soils of near neutral [[Soil pH|acidity]] in the lowlands and is notable for its value to natural ecosystems, supporting a diversity of herbivorous insects, acorn eating mammals and birds, and fungi.

The common name pedunculate oak refers to the acorns being borne on a [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncule]], or stalk

English oaks can live to very old ages, often growing for over 500 years, with some specimens believed to be over 1,000 years old They are characterised by thick and heavily fissured bark.

==Description== Pedunculate oak is a [[deciduous]] tree, typically maturing at up to 20 m in height,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quercus robur (English oak): Go Botany |url=https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/quercus/robur/ |access-date=2026-04-17 |website=gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Common Oak (Quercus Robur) Tree Profile |url=https://www.tcv.org.uk/i-dig-trees-tree-library/common-oak/ |access-date=2026-04-17 |website=tcv |language=en-GB}}</ref> and sometimes up to {{Convert|40|m}},<ref name="Stace-2019">{{cite book |last1=Stace |first1=C.A. |title=New Flora of the British Isles |date=2019 |location=Suffolk |publisher=C & M Floristics |edition=4th |isbn=978-1-5272-2630-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-08-28 |title=Wiltshire oak tree declared UK's tallest |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-wiltshire-19402113 |access-date=2026-04-17 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> with a single stout trunk typically reaching up to 4 m, sometimes exceeding {{Convert|10|m|abbr=on}} in girth (circumference at breast height),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oak - Ancient Tree inventory |author= |work=[[Woodland Trust]] |date= |access-date=14 February 2026 |url= https://ati.woodlandtrust.org.uk/how-to-record/species-guides/oak/}}</ref> or even reportedly 14 m in [[Pollarding|pollarded]] specimens.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English Oak - Quercus Robur |url=https://www.chewvalleytrees.co.uk/products/detail/quercus-robur |access-date=2026-04-17 |website=Chew Valley Trees |language=en-GB}}</ref> Older trees tend to be pollarded, with boles (the main trunk) about 3 m long. They often live longer and become more stout than unpollarded trees. [[File:Oak bark.jpg|thumb|Oak bark.]]

The crown is spreading and unevenly domed, and trees often have massive lower branches. The bark is greyish-brown and closely grooved, with vertical plates. There are often large burrs on the trunk, which typically produce many small shoots.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English oak |url=https://www.forestryengland.uk/article/english-oak |access-date=2026-04-17 |website=Forestry England |language=en-gb}}</ref> Oaks do not produce [[Basal shoot|suckers]] but do recover well from pruning or lightning damage. The twigs are hairless and the buds are rounded (ovoid), brownish and pointed.<ref name="Stace-2019"/><ref name="Mitchell-1974">{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alan |title=A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe |date=1974 |publisher=Collins |location=Glasgow |isbn=0-00-219213-6}}</ref><ref name="Rose-2006">{{cite book |last1=Rose |first1=Francis |title=The Wild Flower Key |date=2006 |publisher=Frederick Warne |location=London |isbn=978-0-7232-5175-0}}</ref>

The [[leaves]] are arranged alternately along the twigs and are broadly oblong or ovate, 10–12 cm long by 7–8 cm wide, with a short (typically 2–3 mm) [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]]. They have a cordate (auricled) base and 3–6 rounded lobes, divided no further than halfway to the midrib. The leaves are usually glabrous or have just a few simple hairs on the lower surface. They are dark green above, paler below, and are often covered in small disks of spangle gall by autumn.<ref name="Mitchell-1974" />

[[File:Quercus robur flowers kz01.jpg|thumb|Male flowers]] Flowering takes place in spring (early May in Northern Europe) and the flowers are wind-pollinated. The male flowers occur in narrow catkins some 2-4 cm long and arranged in small bunches. The female flowers are small, brown with dark red stigmas, about 2 mm in diameter and are found at the tips of new shoots on [[Peduncle_(botany)|peduncles]] 2–5 cm long.<ref name="Mitchell-1974" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oak tree flowers - Tree Guide UK |url=https://www.treeguideuk.co.uk/oak-tree-flowers/ |access-date=2026-04-17 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The fruits ([[acorn]]s) are borne in clusters of 2–3 on a long peduncle (stalk) 4–8 cm long. Each acorn is 1.5–4 cm long, ovoid with a pointed tip, starting whitish-green and becoming brown, then black. The acorns are carried in a distinctive shallow cup which can be useful in identifying the species.<ref name="Mitchell-1974" /> It is an "alternate bearing" species, with large crops produced every other year.<ref name="Crawley-2005">{{cite book |last1=Crawley |first1=M.J. |title=The Flora of Berkshire |date=2005 |publisher=Brambleby Books |location=Harpenden |isbn=0-9543347-4-4}}</ref>

=== Chemistry === [[Grandinin]]/[[roburin E]], [[castalagin]]/[[vescalagin]], [[gallic acid]], monogalloyl glucose ([[glucogallin]]) and [[valoneic acid dilactone]], monogalloyl glucose, [[digalloyl glucose]], [[trigalloyl glucose]], [[rhamnose]], [[quercitrin]] and [[ellagic acid]] are phenolic compounds found in ''Q. robur''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mämmelä | first1 = Pirjo | last2 = Savolainenb | first2 = Heikki | last3 = Lindroosa | first3 = Lasse | last4 = Kangasd | first4 = Juhani | last5 = Vartiainen | first5 = Terttu | year = 2000| title = Analysis of oak tannins by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry | url = | journal = Journal of Chromatography A | volume = 891 | issue = 1| pages = 75–83 | doi = 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00624-5 | pmid = 10999626 | bibcode = 2000JChA..891...75M }}</ref> The heartwood contains [[triterpene saponin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 12494747 | doi=10.1002/pca.658 | volume=13 | title=Identification of triterpene saponins in Quercus robur L. and Q. petraea Liebl. Heartwood by LC-ESI/MS and NMR | year=2002 | journal=Phytochem Anal | pages=305–10 | last1 = Arramon | first1 = G | last2 = Saucier | first2 = C | last3 = Colombani | first3 = D | last4 = Glories | first4 = Y | issue=6 | bibcode=2002PChAn..13..305A }}</ref>

=== Similar species === ''Q. robur'' is most likely to be confused with [[Quercus petraea|sessile oak]], which shares much of its range. Distinguishing features of ''Q. robur'' include the auricles at the leaf base, the very short petiole, its clusters of acorns being borne on a long peduncle, and the lack of stellate hairs on the underside of the leaf. The two often [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridise]] in the wild, forming [[Quercus × rosacea|''Quercus'' × ''rosacea'']].<ref name="Stace-2019" />

[[Quercus cerris|Turkey oak]] is also sometimes confused with it, but that species has "whiskers" on the winter buds and deeper lobes on the leaves (often more than halfway to the midrib). The acorn cups are also very different.<ref name="Crawley-2005" />

== Taxonomy == ''Quercus robur'' (from the [[Latin]] ''quercus'', "oak" + ''robur'' derived from a word meaning robust, strong) was named by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' (1753).<ref>{{cite POWO |id=304293-2 |title=''Quercus robur'' L. |access-date=5 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=280706 |title=''Quercus robur '' |website=Plant Finder |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |language=en |access-date=5 November 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610165137/https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=280706 |archive-date=10 June 2024}}</ref> It is the [[type species]] of the genus and classified in the [[white oak]] section (''Quercus'' section ''Quercus'').<ref>{{cite web |last1=Global Biodiversity Information Facility |title=Quercus robur L. |url=https://www.gbif.org/species/2878688/treatments |access-date=29 January 2023}}</ref>

The genome of ''Q. robur'' has been completely sequenced (GenOak project); the first version was published in 2016. It comprises 12 chromosome pairs (2''n'' = 24), about {{formatnum:26000}} genes and 750 million [[base pair|bp]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=OAK GENOME SEQUENCING » Sequencing of the oak genome and identification of genes that matter for forest tree adaptation |url=https://www.oakgenome.fr/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |language=en-US}}</ref>

There are many synonyms, and numerous varieties and subspecies have been named.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hassler |first1=M. |title=Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World |url=https://www.gbif.org/species/2878688}}</ref> The populations in Iberia, Italy, southeast Europe, and Asia Minor and the Caucasus are sometimes treated as separate species, ''Q. orocantabrica,'' ''Q. brutia'' Tenore, ''Q. pedunculiflora'' K. Koch and ''Q. haas'' Kotschy respectively.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

''Quercus'' × ''rosacea'' ([[Sessile oak|''Q. petraea'']] x ''Q. robur'') is the only naturally occurring hybrid,<ref name="Stace-2015">{{cite book |last1=Stace |first1=C.A. |last2=Preston |first2=C.D. |last3=Pearman |first3=D.A. |title=Hybrid Flora of the British Isles |date=2015 |publisher=Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland |location=Bristol |isbn=978-0-901158-48-2}}</ref> but the following crosses with other white oak species have been produced in cultivation: * [[Quercus × bimundorum|''Q.'' × ''bimundorum'']] ([[Quercus alba|''Q. alba'']] × ''Q. robur'') (two worlds oak) * [[Quercus × macdanielli|''Q.'' × ''macdanielli'']] ([[Bur oak|''Q. macrocarpa'']] × ''Q. robur'') (heritage oak) * [[Quercus × turneri|''Q.'' × ''turneri'']] [[Carl Ludwig Willdenow|Willd.]] ([[Quercus ilex|''Q. ilex'']] × ''Q. robur'') (Turner's oak) * [[Quercus × warei|''Q.'' × ''warei'']] (''Q. robur'' 'Fastigiata' x ''[[Quercus bicolor|Q. bicolor]]'').

There are numerous cultivars available, among which the following are commonly grown: * 'Fastigiata', cypress oak, is a large imposing tree with a narrow columnar habit. * 'Concordia', golden oak, is a small, very slow-growing tree, eventually reaching {{cvt|10|m}}, with bright golden-yellow leaves throughout spring and summer. It was originally raised in Van Geert's nursery at [[Ghent]] in 1843. * 'Pendula', weeping oak, is a small to medium-sized tree with pendulous branches, reaching up to {{cvt|15|m}}. * 'Purpurea' is another small form, growing to {{cvt|10|m}}, with purple leaves. * 'Pectinata' (syn. 'Filicifolia'), cut-leaved oak, is a cultivar where the leaf is pinnately divided into fine, forward-pointing segments.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Royal Horticultural Society |title=Quercus robur L. |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/search-results?form-mode=true&query=Quercus%20robur |access-date=8 February 2023}}</ref>

===Names=== ''Quercus robur'' has numerous [[common name]]s including ''pedunculate oak'', ''common oak'', ''European oak'', or ''English oak''.<ref>{{Cite OED|Pedunculate oak, n.|7511855636}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wiersema |first1=John Harry |last2=León |first2=Blanca |date=1999 |title=World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference |language=en |location=Boca Raton, Florida |publisher=CRC Press |page=418 |isbn=978-0-8493-2119-1 |oclc=40444531}}</ref> In French it is called {{lang|fr|chêne pédonculé}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Nixon |first1=Kevin C. |last2=Muller |first2=Cornelius H. |date=5 November 2020 |orig-date=In print 1997 |url=https://floranorthamerica.org/Quercus_robur |title=''Quercus robur'' |website=[[Flora of North America]] |page= |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-511246-7 |oclc=48601434 |access-date=30 June 2025 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250209122902/https://floranorthamerica.org/Quercus_robur |archive-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> As a wood product its timber will often be called ''French oak'', ''Polish oak'', ''Slavonian oak'', or similar names based upon its geographic origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Forest Products Research Board |date=1956 |title=A Handbook of Hardwoods |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofhardwo0000rget |url-access=registration |language=en |edition=First |location=London |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |page=166 |oclc=250152382 |access-date=15 July 2025}}</ref>

==Distribution== The species is [[native plant|native]] to most of [[Europe]] and western [[Asia]], and is widely cultivated in other temperate regions.<ref name="POWO" /><ref name=Mitchell>{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alan |title=A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe |date=1974 |publisher=Collins |location=Glasgow |isbn=0 00 219213 6}}</ref>

==Habitat and ecology== Pedunculate oak is a long-lived tree of high-canopy woodland, coppice and wood pasture, and it is commonly planted in hedges. It is rare on thin, well-drained calcareous (chalk and limestone) soil. Sometimes it is found on the margins of swamps, rivers and ponds, showing that it is fairly tolerant of intermittent flooding.<ref name="Preston-2002">{{cite book |last1=Preston |first1=C.D. |last2=Pearman |first2=D.A. |last3=Dines |first3=T.D. |title=New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford}}</ref> [[Image:Wistman's Wood in winter.jpg|thumb|Ancient pedunculate oaks at [[Wistman's Wood]] in Devon, England]]

Its [[Indicator value|Ellenberg values]] (as revised in 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zeleny |first=David |date=2023-01-12 |title=Ellenberg-type indicator values for European vascular plant species |url=https://vegsciblog.org/2023/01/12/ellenberg-type-indicator-values-for-europe/ |access-date=2025-05-12 |website=vegsciblog.org |language=en-US}}</ref> in Europe are L = 7, T = 6, F = 6, R = 5, N = 2-6 and S = 0, which describe how it favours conditions of bright sunlight, moderate temperature, moisture and pH, a wide range of nutrient levels, and low salinity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tichý |first1=Lubomír |last2=Axmanová |first2=Irena |last3=Dengler |first3=Jürgen |last4=Guarino |first4=Riccardo |last5=Jansen |first5=Florian |last6=Midolo |first6=Gabriele |last7=Nobis |first7=Michael P. |last8=Van Meerbeek |first8=Koenraad |last9=Aćić |first9=Svetlana |last10=Attorre |first10=Fabio |last11=Bergmeier |first11=Erwin |last12=Biurrun |first12=Idoia |last13=Bonari |first13=Gianmaria |last14=Bruelheide |first14=Helge |last15=Campos |first15=Juan Antonio |date=2023 |title=Ellenberg-type indicator values for European vascular plant species |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jvs.13168 |journal=Journal of Vegetation Science |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |article-number=e13168 |doi=10.1111/jvs.13168 |bibcode=2023JVegS..34E3168T |issn=1654-1103|hdl=11585/918013 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[File:Philbhu P9020127 Knopper Gall - Andricus quercuscalicis.jpg|thumb|An oak knopper gall]]

In 2019 it was estimated that 2,300 species of insect, [[bryophyte]], [[lichen]], bird, mammal or other species are associated with ''Q. robur'' in the UK. Some entirely rely on it while others can make use of different tree species.<ref name="Mitchell et al 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=R. J. |last2=Bellamy |first2=P. E. |last3=Ellis |first3=C. J. |display-authors=etal |title=OakEcol: A database of Oak-associated biodiversity within the UK |journal=Data in Brief |date=2019 |volume=25 |article-number=104120 |doi=10.1016/j.dib.2019.104120 |bibcode=2019DIB....2504120M |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352340919304743 |access-date=23 December 2025|doi-access=free }}</ref> Within its native range, ''Q. robur'' is valued for its importance to [[insect]]s and other wildlife, famously supporting the highest biodiversity of insect herbivores of any British plant (at least 400 species).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=C. E. J. |first2=T. R. E. |last2=Southwood |title=The number of species associated with British Trees: a re-analysis |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |date=1984 |volume=53 |issue=2 |publisher=Wiley, British Ecological Society |page=459 |doi=10.2307/4528 |jstor=4528 }}</ref> The most well-known of these are the ones that form galls, which number about 35. The [[Andricus quercuscalicis|knopper gall]] is very common, and [[Andricus grossulariae]] produces somewhat similar spiky galls on the acorn cups. Also common are two types of spherical galls on the twigs: the [[Andricus kollari|oak marble gall]] and the [[Andricus lignicola|cola nut gall]]. The latter are smaller and rougher than the former. A single, large exit hole indicates that the wasp inside has escaped, whereas several smaller holes show that it was parasitised by another insect, and these emerged instead. The undersides of oak leaves are often covered in [[Neuroterus quercusbaccarum|spangle galls]], which persist after the leaves fall.<ref name="Crawley-2005" /> [[File:Oak marble gall exit hole.jpg|thumb|Marble galls on oak twig]]

One of the most distinctive galls is the [[oak apple]], a 4.5 cm diameter spongy ball created from the buds by the wasp ''[[Biorhiza pallida]]''. The [[Andricus foecundatrix|pineapple gall]], while less common, is also easily recognised.<ref name="Redfern-2002">{{cite journal |last1=Redfern |first1=Margaret |last2=Shirley |first2=Peter |title=British Plant Galls |journal=Field Studies |date=2002 |volume=10 |pages=207–531}}</ref> [[File:Oak apple on Pendunculate oak.jpg|thumb|Oak apple]]

The quantity of [[caterpillar]] species on an oak tree increases with the age of the tree,<ref name="MacDonald-2019" /> with [[Eurasian blue tit|blue tits]] and [[great tit]]s timing their egg hatching to the leaves opening.<ref name="MacDonald-2019">{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=Benedict |title=Rebirding |date=2019 |publisher=Pelagic |location=Exeter |isbn=978-1-78427-219-7 |page=78 |edition=2020}}</ref> The most common caterpillar species include the [[winter moth]], the [[Tortrix viridana|green tortrix]] and the [[mottled umber]], all of which can become extremely abundant on the first flush of leaves in May, but the oak trees do recover their foliage later in the year.<ref name="Crawley-2005" />

The acorns are typically produced in large quantities every other year (unlike ''Q. petraea'', which produces large crops only every 4-10 years)<ref name="Crawley-2005" /> and form a valuable food resource for several small [[mammal]]s and some birds, notably [[Eurasian jay]]s ''Garrulus glandarius''. Jays were overwhelmingly the primary propagators<ref>{{cite book |page= 131 |title=Forest and Woodland Trees in Britain |first= John |last=White |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 0-19-854883-4}}</ref> of oaks before humans began planting them commercially (and remain the principal propagators for wild oaks), because of their habit of taking acorns from the umbra of its parent tree and burying them undamaged elsewhere.{{cn|date=April 2024}}

===Diseases=== * [[Acute oak decline]] * [[Powdery mildew]] caused by ''[[Erysiphe alphitoides]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/infd-7b3d24|access-date=13 April 2013|title=Oak mildew|publisher=[[Forestry Commission]]|year=2013|archive-date=2017-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703052409/https://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/infd-7b3d24}}</ref> * [[Sudden oak death]]

== Uses == [[File:Quercus robur acorns in Tuntorp 1.jpg|thumb|''Quercus robur'' acorns in various stages of ripening, on an oak plank, Sweden]]

''Quercus robur'' is planted for [[forestry]], and produces a long-lasting and durable [[heartwood]], much in demand for interior and furniture work. The wood is identified by a close examination of a [[cross section (geometry)|cross-section]] perpendicular to fibres. The wood is characterised by its distinct (often wide) dark and light brown growth rings. The earlywood displays a vast number of large vessels (around 0.5 mm in diameter). There are rays of thin (about 0.1 mm) yellow or light-brown lines running across the growth rings. The timber is around 720 kg per cubic meter in density.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=British Oak: Niche Timbers Hardwood Merchant |url=http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/native-hardwood/british-oak |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911161158/http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/native-hardwood/british-oak |archive-date=2009-09-11 |website=www.nichetimbers.co.uk}}</ref>

Additionally, although bitter due to their high [[tannin]] content, the acorns can be roasted and ground into a [[coffee substitute]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Francis-Baker |first=Tiffany |title=Concise Foraging Guide |date=2021 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-4729-8474-6 |series=[[The Wildlife Trusts]] |location=London |page=39}}</ref>

==In culture== In the [[Scandinavia]]n countries, oaks were considered the "[[thunderstorm]] trees", representing [[Thor]], the god of thunder.<ref>{{cite book |title=Suomen terveyskasvit: luonnon parantavat yrtit ja niiden salaisuudet |page=256 |author-first1=Marja-Leena |author-last1=Huovinen |author-first2=Kaarina |author-last2=Kanerva |year=1982 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Valitut Palat |isbn=951-9078-87-8 |language=fi}}</ref> A [[Finns|Finnish]] myth is that the [[World tree]], a great oak which grew to block the movement of the sky, sunlight and moonlight, had to be felled, releasing its magic, thus creating the [[Milky Way]].<ref name="Nykänen-2006">{{cite web |url=https://www.ts.fi/teemat/1074138309 |first=Topi |last=Nykänen |title=Elämänvoiman juurella |date=6 August 2006 |language=fi |website=Turun Sanomat |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220603095221/https://www.ts.fi/teemat/1074138309 |archive-date=3 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The oak tree also had a symbolic value in France. Some oaks were considered sacred by the [[Gauls]]; druids would [[Ritual of oak and mistletoe|cut down the mistletoe growing on them]]. Even after [[Christianization]], oak trees were considered to protect as lightning would strike them rather than on nearby inhabitation. Such struck trees would often be turned into places of worship, like the [[Chêne chapelle]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}

In 1746, all oak trees in Finland were legally classified as royal property, and oaks had enjoyed legal protection already from the 17th century.<ref name=karjalohja>{{cite web|url=http://aikamatkakarjalohjalla.fi/pipola.html |year=2019 |title=Pipolan tammimetsikkö |language=fi |website=aikamatkakarjalohjalla.fi |publisher=Karjalohjan Kotiseutuyhdistys |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220603100914/http://aikamatkakarjalohjalla.fi/pipola.html |archive-date=3 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The oak is also the regional tree of the [[Southwest Finland]] region.<ref name=luontoportti>{{cite web |url=https://luontoportti.com/t/1365/tammi |title=Tammi |language=fi |website=Luontoportti |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220603102410/https://luontoportti.com/t/1365/tammi |archive-date=3 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[French Revolution]], oaks were often planted as [[Tree of Liberty (symbol)|trees of freedom]]. One such tree, planted during the [[French Revolution of 1848|1848 Revolution]], survived the destruction of [[Oradour-sur-Glane massacre|Oradour-sur-Glane]] by the [[Nazis]]. After the announcement of General [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s death, caricaturist [[Jacques Faizant]] represented him as a fallen oak.<ref>{{Cite web |last=nuageneuf |title=" Puisque tout recommence toujours, ce que j'ai fait sera, tôt ou tard, source d'ardeurs nouvelles, après que j'aurai disparu." |url=http://nuageneuf.over-blog.com/article-puisque-tout-recommence-toujours-ce-que-j-ai-fait-sera-tot-ou-tard-source-d-ardeurs-nouvelles-apres-86101629.html |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=nuageneuf.over-blog.com |language=fr}}</ref>

In Germany, the oak tree can be found in several paintings of [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and in "Of the life of a Good-For-Nothing" written by [[Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff]] as a symbol of the state protecting every citizen.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

[[File:Gornji-milanovac-grb.png|thumb|upright=0.75|The oak in the coat of arms of [[Gornji Milanovac]], [[Serbia]]]]

In Serbia the oak is a national symbol,<ref name="Hackspiel-Mikosch-2006">{{cite book|author-first1=Elisabeth |author-last1=Hackspiel-Mikosch|author-first2=Stefan |author-last2=Haas |title=Civilian uniforms as symbolic communication: sartorial representation, imagination, and consumption in Europe (18th - 21st century) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IzlwL-ihF8C&pg=PA196 |year=2006|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=978-3-515-08858-9|page=196|quote=The oak, symbol of Serbia, symbolized strength, longevity, and the olive branch represented peace and fertility}}</ref> having been part of the historical [[Coat of arms of Serbia|coat of arms]] of the [[Socialist Republic of Serbia]], the historical coat of arms and [[List of Serbian flags|flags]] of the [[Principality of Serbia]], as well as the current traditional [[Coat of arms of Vojvodina|coat of arms]] and [[Flag of Vojvodina|flag]] of [[Vojvodina]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.skupstinavojvodine.gov.rs/Strana.aspx?s=aktapv11 |title=Покрајинска скупштинска одлука о изгледу и коришћењу симбола и традиционалних симбола Аутономне покрајине Војводине |journal=Službeni liist AP Vojvodine |issue=51 |date=15 September 2016 |language=Serbian}}</ref> [[Image:Zapis-0454-Kolare-hrast-luznjak-spomenik-prirode 20150828 1335.jpg|thumb|A sacred pedunculate oak tree ([[Zapis]]) in the settlement of Kolare in [[Jagodina]], [[Serbia]]]]

In England, the oak has assumed the status of a national emblem. This has its origins in the oak tree at [[Boscobel House]], where the future [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] hid from his [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] pursuers in 1650 during the [[English Civil War]]; the tree has since been known as the [[Royal Oak]]. This event was celebrated nationally on 29 May as [[Oak Apple Day]], which continues to this day in some communities.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/moonraking/folklore_oak_apple.shtml |title=Wiltshire - Moonraking - Oak Apple Day |publisher=BBC |date=1931-05-29 |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref>

Many place names in England include a reference to this tree, including Oakley, Occold and Eyke. Copdock, in [[Suffolk]], probably derives from a pollarded oak ("copped oak").<ref name="Sanford-2010">{{cite book |last1=Sanford |first1=Martin |last2=Fisk |first2=Richard |title=A Flora of Suffolk |date=2010 |publisher=D.K. & M.N. Sanford |location=Ipswich |isbn=978-0-9564584-0-7}}</ref> 'The Royal Oak' is the third most popular [[pub name]] in Britain (with 541 counted in 2007)<ref>{{cite web |title=Real Ale and Pub News Features Archive |url=http://www.solihullcamra.org.uk/features_archive.htm |publisher=Solihullcamra.org.uk |date=2007-11-15 |access-date=2012-05-02 |url-status = usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171337/http://www.solihullcamra.org.uk/features_archive.htm |archive-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> and [[HMS Royal Oak|HMS ''Royal Oak'']] has been the name of eight major [[Royal Navy]] warships. The naval associations are strengthened by the fact that oak was the main construction material for sailing warships. The Royal Navy was often described as "The Wooden Walls of Old England"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=MEC1924 |title=National Maritime Museum |publisher=Nmm.ac.uk |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref> (a paraphrase of the [[Wooden Walls#Classical Period|Delphic Oracle]]) and the Navy's official quick march is "[[Heart of Oak]]". In folklore, the [[Major Oak]] is where [[Robin Hood]] is purported to have taken shelter.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ehbp.com/the-definitive-list-of-british-oak-trees-their-history/|title=The Definitive List of British Oak Trees & Their History {{!}} EHBP|date=2018-02-16|work=English Heritage Buildings|access-date=2018-03-12|language=en-GB}}</ref>

Oak leaves (not necessarily of this species) have been depicted on the Croatian 5 [[Croatian kuna|lipa]] coin;<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=HRVATSKA NARODNA BANKA |url=http://www.hnb.hr/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506012028/http://www.hnb.hr/ |archive-date=2009-05-06 |website=www.hnb.hr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Kuna and Lipa, Coins of the Republic of Croatia |url=http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622012116/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 |archive-date=2009-06-22 |website=www.hnb.hr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Description of the 5 Lipa Coin |url=http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e5lipa.htm?tsfsg=a5ee4c0e86800b7a3ae0a4fb87366071 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604014510/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e5lipa.htm?tsfsg=a5ee4c0e86800b7a3ae0a4fb87366071 |archive-date=2011-06-04 |website=www.hnb.hr}}</ref> on old German [[Deutsche Mark]] currency (1 through 10 Pfennigs; the 50 Pfennigs coin showed a woman planting an oak seedling), and now on German-issued [[euro]] currency coins (1 through 5 cents); and on British [[British one pound coin#Designs|pound coins]] (1987 and 1992 issues).

In [[Northern Ireland]], the city of [[Derry]], and the county of [[County Londonderry|Londonderry]], is an anglicisation of the Irish Daire or Doire, which translates as 'oak-grove/oak-wood'.

===Notable trees=== [[Image:Baginton oak tree july06.JPG|thumb|An old pedunculate oak in [[Baginton]], England]] It is often claimed that England has more ancient oaks than the rest of Europe combined.<ref>{{cite web |work=BRAHMS online |title=The Ancient Oaks of England |url=https://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/ancientoaksofengland |publisher=Oxford University |access-date=20 May 2023}}</ref> This is based on research by Aljos Farjon at the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]], who found that there were 115 oaks (of both species) in England with a circumference of 9 m or more, compared with just 96 in Europe. This is attributed to the persistence of mediaeval deer parks in the landscape.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Farjon |first1=Aljos |title=Ancient Oaks in the English Landscape |date=2022 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens |location=Kew |isbn=978-1-84246-766-4}}</ref> The Majesty Oak, with a circumference of {{cvt|12.2|m|ft}}, is the thickest such tree in [[Great Britain]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-04 |title=Britain's record-breaking trees identified |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/countryside/8557126/Britains-record-breaking-trees-identified.html |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref> The Brureika ([[Bridal Oak]]) in [[Norway]] with a circumference of {{cvt|10.86|m}} (in 2018)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/records/nor/ | title=The thickest, tallest, and oldest trees in Norway }}</ref> and the [[Kaive Oak]] in [[Latvia]] with a circumference of {{cvt|10.2|m}} are among the thickest trees in [[Northern Europe]].{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} The largest historical oak was known as the Imperial Oak from Bosnia and Herzegovina. This specimen was recorded at 17.5 m in circumference at breast height and estimated at over 150 m³ in total volume. It collapsed in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/world-quercusrobur/|title=Pedunculate Oaks (Quercus robur) worldwide|website=www.monumentaltrees.com}}</ref>

Two individuals of notable longevity are the [[Stelmužė Oak]] in [[Lithuania]] and the [[Granit Oak]] in [[Bulgaria]], which are believed to be more than 1500 years old, possibly making them the oldest oaks in Europe; another specimen, called the '[[Kongeegen]]' ('Kings Oak'), estimated to be about 1,200 years old, grows in [[Jaegerspris]], [[Denmark]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kong Frederik den Syvendes Stiftelse paa Jægerspris |url=http://www.kongfrederik.dk/main.asp?me=41&sc=3 |website=www.kongfrederik.dk|access-date=23 October 2017}}</ref> Yet another can be found in [[Rumskulla oak|Kvilleken]], [[Sweden]], that is over 1000 years old and {{cvt|14|m|ft|0}} around.<ref>{{cite web |last=Moström |first=Jerker |date=May 2006| url=http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Nerladdningssida/?fileType=pdf&downloadUrl=/Documents/publikationer/620-5617-4.pdf |title=The Oak Tree, from Peasant Torment to a Unifying Concept of Landscape Management |publisher=National Heritage Board of Sweden |work=The Oak – History, Ecology Management and Planning |location=Linköping, Sweden |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123212605/http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Nerladdningssida/?fileType=pdf&downloadUrl=/Documents/publikationer/620-5617-4.pdf |archive-date=2015-01-23}}</ref> Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of [[Ivenack]], [[Germany]]. [[Dendrochronology|Tree-ring research]] of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years. Also the [[Bowthorpe Oak]] in [[Lincolnshire]], [[England]] is estimated to be 1,000 years old, making it the oldest in the UK, although there is [[Knightwood Oak]] in the [[New Forest]] that is also said to be as old. The highest density of ''Q. robur'' with a circumference of {{cvt|4|m|ft|0}} and more is in Latvia.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Enin̦š |first1=Guntis |date=2008 |title=100 dižākie un svētākie |language=lv |location=Rīga, Lavia |publisher=Lauku Avīze |page=25 |isbn=978-9984-827-15-5 |oclc=427442989}}</ref>

In Ireland, at [[Birr Castle]], a specimen over 400 years old has a girth of {{cvt|6.5|m}}, known as the Carroll Oak.<ref>Fifty Trees of Distinction by Prof. D.A. Webb and the Earl of Ross. Booklet, published by Birr Castle Demesne, 2000.</ref>

In the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]] (Spain and France), the '[[Gernikako Arbola|tree of Gernika]]' is an ancient oak tree located in [[Gernika]], under which the [[Lehendakari]] (Basque prime minister) swears his oath of office.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

The largest example in Australia is in [[Donnybrook, Western Australia|Donnybrook]], [[Western Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|author-first1=Nina |author-last1=Smith |date=2009-12-10 |url=http://www.donnybrookmail.com.au/news/local/news/general/australias-biggest-oak-tree/1701700.aspx |title=Australia's Biggest Oak Tree |publisher=Donnybrookmail.com.au |access-date=2012-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706103500/http://www.donnybrookmail.com.au/news/local/news/general/australias-biggest-oak-tree/1701700.aspx|archive-date=2011-07-06}}</ref>

== See also == * [[Femeiche]]

==References== {{Reflist}}

== External links == {{Commons category|Quercus robur}} * [https://archive.today/20121204162908/http://www.deby.bialowieza.pl/ang Oaks from Bialowieza Forest in Poland (biggest oak cluster with the monumental sizes in Europe) {English}] * [http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/photos-englishoak/ Monumental Trees, Photos and location details of large English oak trees] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120205073112/http://poweroak.lv/ Latvia - the land of oaks] * [http://www.euforgen.org/species/quercus-robur/ ''Quercus robur''] - information, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN)

[[Category:Quercus|robur]] [[Category:Trees of Asia]] [[Category:Trees of Europe]] [[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]] [[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]] [[Category:Least concern flora of Asia]] [[Category:Least concern flora of Europe]] [[Category:Garden plants of Europe]] [[Category:Ornamental trees]] [[Category:Plants described in 1753]] [[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]