{{short description|Species of mustelid}} {{Speciesbox | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|0.7|0}}Middle Pleistocene – Recent | image = Mäyrä Ähtäri 4.jpg | image_caption = In Ähtäri Zoo, Finland | image2 = European Badger (Meles meles) (W1CDR0001490 BD4).ogg | image2_caption = Calls recorded in Surrey, England | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Meles meles'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Kranz, A. |author2=Abramov, A.V. |author3=Herrero, J. |author4=Maran, T. |date=2016 |article-number=e.T29673A45203002 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T29673A45203002.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | genus = Meles | species = meles | authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | range_map = European Badger area.png | range_map_caption = European badger range (also includes Caucasian badger range) | synonyms = ''Ursus meles'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} }}
The '''European badger''' ('''''Meles meles'''''), also known as the '''Eurasian badger''', is a species of badger in the family Mustelidae native to Europe and West Asia and parts of Central Asia. It is classified as least concern on the IUCN Red List due to its wide range and large, stable population size which is thought to be increasing in some regions. Several subspecies are recognised, with the nominate subspecies (''M. m. meles'') predominating in most of Europe.<ref name=iucn /> In the UK it is the only extant species, and is simply known as the "'''badger'''".
The European badger is a powerfully built animal with a small head, stocky body, small black eyes and short tail, and a coat of black, white, brown, and grey fur. Its weight varies, ranging from {{cvt|7|–|13|kg}} in spring to {{cvt|15|–|17|kg}} in autumn before the winter sleep period. It is nocturnal and social, living in burrows and sleeping during the day in one of several setts within its territory. These burrows have multiple chambers and entrances and comprise extensive systems of underground passages measuring {{convert|35|-|81|m|abbr=on}} in length. Several badger families use these setts for decades. Badgers are particular about the cleanliness of their burrows, carrying in fresh bedding and removing soiled material. They defecate in latrines situated strategically outside their setts or en route to others.<ref name ="Kilshaw">{{cite journal | vauthors=Kilshaw K, Newman C, Buesching CD, Bunyan J, Macdonald DW | title=Coordinated latrine use by European badgers, Meles meles: Potential consequences for territory defense | journal=Journal of Mammalogy | volume=90 | issue=5 | date=2009 | pages=1188–1198 | doi=10.1644/08-MAMM-A-200.1 | jstor=27755113 | s2cid=86435009 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Although the European badger is taxonomically classified as a carnivoran, it is actually an omnivore that feeds on a variety of plant and animal foods, including earthworms, large insects, small mammals, carrion, cereals, and tubers. Litters of up to five cubs are born in spring. The young are weaned after a few months, but they usually remain within the family group. European badgers have been known to share their burrows with other species, such as rabbits, red foxes, and raccoon dogs. However, they can be ferocious when provoked, a trait that was exploited in the now illegal blood sport of badger-baiting. Like many wild and domesticated mammals, badgers can carry bovine tuberculosis, which can spread between species and be particularly detrimental to cattle. In England, badger populations are culled in an attempt to reduce the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle,<ref name="Downs">{{cite journal | vauthors=Downs SH, Prosser A, Ashton A, Ashfield S, Brunton LA, Brouwer A, Upton P, Robertson A, Donnelly CA, Parry JE | title=Assessing effects from four years of industry-led badger culling in England on the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle, 2013–2017 | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=9 | issue=14666 | date=October 2019 | article-number=14666 | pmid=31604960 | pmc=6789095 | doi=10.1038/s41598-019-49957-6 | bibcode=2019NatSR...914666D }}</ref> although the efficacy of this practice is strongly disputed,<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|date=11 October 2019|access-date=21 November 2020|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50005580|title=Badger culls have varying impacts on cattle TB|author=Pallab Ghosh}}</ref> and badger culls are widely considered cruel and inhumane.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Independent|date=28 February 2014|access-date=21 November 2020|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/badger-culls-were-cruel-and-ineffective-says-independent-panel-9160087.html|title=Badger culls were 'cruel' and 'ineffective', says independent panel|author=James Tapsfield}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Farming UK|date=21 October 2014|access-date=21 November 2020|url=https://www.farminguk.com/news/badger-cull-poll-nine-out-of-ten-want-culling-to-end_31139.html|title=Badger cull poll: Nine out of ten want culling to end}}</ref>
==Nomenclature== The source of the word "badger" is uncertain. The Oxford English Dictionary states that it probably derives from "badge" + ''-ard'', in reference to the white mark on its forehead that resembles a badge. This etymology may date to the early 16th century.<ref name="OED">{{cite book |author1=Weiner, E. S. C. |author2=Simpson, J. R. |title=The Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1989 |isbn=0-19-861186-2 |access-date=30 August 2008|url=http://dictionary.oed.com}}</ref> The French word {{lang|fr|bêcheur}} ('digger') has also been suggested as a source.<ref>Neal, Ernest G. and Cheeseman, C. L. (1996) ''Badgers'', p. 2, T. & A.D. Poyser {{ISBN|0-85661-082-8}}</ref> A male badger is a boar, a female is a sow, and a young badger is a cub. A badger's home is called a sett.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/publications/wildlife/badger.pdf |title=Scotland's Wildlife: Badgers and Development |access-date=2015-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924104416/http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/publications/wildlife/badger.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 }}</ref> Badger colonies are often called clans.
The far older name "brock" ({{langx|ang|brocc}}), ({{langx|sco|brock}}) is a Celtic loanword (cf. Gaelic {{lang|cel|broc}} and Welsh {{lang|cy|broch}}, from Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel|*brokko}}) meaning 'grey'.<ref name="OED" /> The Proto-Germanic term was {{lang|gem|*þahsu-}} (cf. German {{lang|de|Dachs}}, Dutch {{lang|nl|das}}, Norwegian {{lang|no|svin-toks}}; Early Modern English ''dasse''), probably from the PIE root {{lang|ine|*tek'-}} 'to construct', which suggests that the badger was named after its digging of setts (tunnels); the Germanic term {{lang|gem|*þahsu-}} became {{lang|la|taxus}} or {{lang|la|taxō}}, {{lang|la|-ōnis}} in Latin glosses, replacing {{lang|la|mēlēs}} ('marten' or 'badger'),<ref>{{cite book | first1=Alfred | last1=Ernout | first2=Antoine | last2=Meillet | author-link2=Antoine Meillet | title=Dictionnaire étimologique de la langue latine | edition=4th | orig-date=1932 | year=1979 | publisher=Klincksieck | location=Paris | language=fr}}</ref> and from these words the common Romance terms for the animal evolved (Italian {{lang|it|tasso}}, French {{lang|fr|tesson/taisson/tasson}}—now {{lang|fr|blaireau}} is more common—, Catalan {{lang|ca|toixó}}, Spanish {{lang|es|tejón}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|texugo}}) except Asturian {{lang|ast|melandru}}.<ref>{{cite book| first=Giacomo | last=Devoto | author-link=Giacomo Devoto | title=Avviamento all'etimologia italiana | edition=6th | orig-date=1979 | year=1989 | publisher=Mondadori | location=Milano | language=it}}</ref>
Until the mid-18th century, the European badger was known by various names in English, including brock, pate, grey, and bawson. The name "bawson" is derived from "bawsened", meaning striped with white. "Pate" is a local name that was once popular in northern England. The name "badget" was once common, but only used in Norfolk, while "earth dog" was used in southern Ireland.<ref name="n150">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|pp=150–152}}</ref> The badger is commonly referred to in Welsh as a {{lang|cy|mochyn daear}} ('earth pig').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geiriadur.net/index.php?page=ateb&term=badger&direction=ew&type=all&whichpart=exact |title=Badger |work=Geiriadur: Welsh-English / English-Welsh On-line Dictionary |publisher=University of Wales: Trinity Saint David |access-date=2013-10-05}}</ref>
==Taxonomy== ''Ursus meles'' was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, who described the badger in his work ''Systema Naturae''.<ref name="Linn1758">{{cite book |last=Linnaeus|first= C. |year=1758 |title=Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |volume=Tomus I |edition=decima, reformata |location=Holmiae |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |page=48 |chapter=''Ursus meles'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000798865#page/48/mode/1up}} {{in lang|la}}</ref>
=== Evolution === The species probably evolved from the Chinese ''Meles thorali'' of the early Pleistocene. The modern species originated in the early Middle Pleistocene, as evidenced by fossil sites in Episcopia, Grombasek, Süssenborn, Hundsheim, Erpfingen, Koněprusy, Mosbach 2, and Stránská Skála. Comparisons between fossil and living specimens demonstrate a progressive adaptation to omnivory, particularly evident in the increased surface area of the molars and the modification of the carnassials. Badger bones are occasionally discovered in earlier strata due to the burrowing habits of the species.<ref name="k103">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=103–105}}</ref><ref name="marinis226">{{Harvnb|Spagnesi|De Marinis|2002|pp=226–227}}</ref>
===Subspecies=== In the 19th and 20th centuries, several badger type specimens were described and proposed as subspecies. {{As of|2005}}, eight subspecies were recognized as valid taxa, but four (''canescens'', ''arcalus'', ''rhodius'', ''severzovi'') are now considered to belong to a distinct species, the Caucasian badger (''M. canescens'').<ref>{{MSW3 Wozencraft |pages=611–612 |id=14001283 |heading=Species ''Meles meles''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Explore the Database|url=https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#species-id=1005857|access-date=2021-06-25|website=www.mammaldiversity.org}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible" font=90% |- bgcolor="#115a6c" !Subspecies !Trinomial authority and synonyms !Description !Range |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Common badger''' (''M. m. meles'') 150 px |Linnaeus, 1758<br /> {{small|''taxus'' (Boddaert, 1785)}}<br/> {{small|''alba'' (Gmelin, 1788)}}<br/> {{small|''maculata'' (Gmelin, 1788)}}<br/> {{small|''vulgaris'' (Tiedemann, 1808)}}<br/> {{small|''europaeus'' (Desmarest, 1816)}}<br/> {{small|''caninus'' (Billberg, 1827)}}<br/> {{small|''communis'' (Billberg, 1827)}}<br/> {{nowrap|{{small|''typicus'' (Barrett-Hamilton, 1899)}}}}<br/> {{small|''britannicus'' (Satunin, 1905)}}<br/> {{small|''caucasicus'' (Ognev, 1926)}}<br/> {{small|''tauricus'' (Ognev, 1926)}}<br/> {{small|''danicus'' (Degerbøl, 1933)}} |A large subspecies with a strongly developed sagittal crest, it has a soft pelage and relatively dense underfur. The back has a relatively pure silvery-grey tone, while the main tone of the head is pure white. The dark stripes are wide and black, while the white fields fully extend along the upper and lateral parts of the neck. It can weigh up to 20–24 kg in autumn, with some specimens attaining even larger sizes.<ref name="s1253">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1253–1254}}</ref> |Continental Europe, except for the Iberian Peninsula. Its eastern range encompasses the European area of the former Soviet Union eastward to the Volga, Crimea, Ciscaucasia, and the northern Caucasus |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Iberian badger''' (''M. m. marianensis'') |Graells, 1897<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graells |first1=M. de la P. |year=1897 |title=Fauna Mastodológica Ibérica |series=Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales de Madrid |volume=17 |chapter=Meles Taxus. (Schreb.) |pages=170–173 |publisher=Madrid |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/memoriasdelareal1797real/page/170}}</ref> <br /> {{small|''mediterraneus'' (Barrett-Hamilton, 1899)}} | |Spain and Portugal |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Kizlyar badger''' (''M. m. heptneri'') |Ognev, 1931 |A large subspecies, it exhibits several traits of the Asian badger, namely its very pale, dull, dirty-greyish-ocherous colour and narrow head stripes.<ref name="s1254">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1254–1255}}</ref> |Steppe region of northeastern Ciscaucasia, the Kalmytsk steppes and the Volga delta |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Norwegian badger''' (''M. m. milleri'') 150 px |Baryshnikov, Puzachenko and Abramov, 2003<ref name=Baryshnikov>{{cite journal |author1=Baryshnikov, G. F. |author2=Puzachenko, A. Y. |author3=Abramov, A. V. |year=2003 |title=New analysis of variability of check teeth in Eurasian badgers (Carnivora, Mustelidae, ''Meles'') |journal=Russian Journal of Theriology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=133–149 |doi=10.15298/rusjtheriol.01.2.07 |url=http://www.zin.ru/labs/theriology/staff/baryshnikov/references/baryshnikov_et_al_2002c.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref> |This subspecies has a smaller skull and smaller teeth than the nominate badger subspecies in Sweden and Finland.<ref name=Baryshnikov/> |Southwestern Norway, west of Telemark<ref name=Baryshnikov/> |- |}
In 2009, a cranial study was conducted comparing the skulls of European badgers from different regions. The results of the study suggested that the European badgers could be divided into three subspecies: ''M. m. millerei'' (Baryshnikov ''et al''., 2003) for the south-western Norwegian badgers, ''M. m. meles'' (Linnaeus, 1758) for the main Fennoscandian badgers and the name ''M. m. europaeus'' (Desmarest, 1816) was proposed for the non-Fennoscandian badgers.<ref name=Abramov>{{cite journal |author1=Abramov, Alexei V. |author2=Puzachenko, Andrey |author3=Wiig, Øystein |year=2009 |title=Cranial variation in the European badger Meles meles (Carnivora, Mustelidae) in Scandinavia |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=157 |issue=2 |pages=433-450 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00507.x }}</ref> In 2016, the system of three ''Meles meles'' subspecies was appointed again, but the name for the non-Fennoscandian badgers was corrected to ''M. m. taxus'' (Boddaert, 1785).<ref name=Proulx>{{cite book |title=Badgers: systematics, biology, conservation and research techniques |last=Proulx |first=Gilbert |author2=Do Linh San, Emmanuel |year=2016 |edition=1 |publisher=Alpha Wildlife Publications |place= Sherwood Park, Alberta, Canada |chapter=2: World distribution and status of badgers - A review |pages=31-116 }}</ref> The new taxonomic system of ''Meles meles'' subspecies can be summarized as follows:
{| class="wikitable collapsible" font=90% |- bgcolor="#115a6c" ! style="width: 20%;" | Subspecies ! style="width: 35%;" | Trinomial authority and synonyms ! style="width: 45%;" | Range |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Swedish badger''' <br/> (''M. m. meles'') |Linnaeus, 1758<br /> {{small|''europaeus'' (Desmarest, 1816)}}<br/> {{small|''caninus'' (Billberg, 1827)}}<br/> {{small|''communis'' (Billberg, 1827)}}<br/> {{nowrap|{{small|''typicus'' (Barrett-Hamilton, 1899)}}}}<br/> |Sweden, the eastern part of Norway, and southern Finland. |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Common badger''' <br/> (''M. m. taxus'') |Boddaert, 1785<br /> {{small|''alba'' (Gmelin, 1788)}}<br/> {{small|''maculata'' (Gmelin, 1788)}}<br/> {{small|''vulgaris'' (Tiedemann, 1808)}}<br/> {{small|''marianensis'' (Graells, 1897)}}<br/> {{small|''mediterraneus'' (Barrett-Hamilton, 1899)}}<br/> {{small|''britannicus'' (Satunin, 1905)}}<br/> {{small|''caucasicus'' (Ognev, 1926)}}<br/> {{small|''tauricus'' (Ognev, 1926)}}<br/> {{small|''danicus'' (Degerbøl, 1933)}} |The British Islands, and all continental Europe, eastward to the Volga River and the North Caucasus. |-style="vertical-align: top;" |'''Norwegian badger''' <br/> (''M. m. milleri'') |Baryshnikov ''et al''., 2003 |South-western Norway. |- |}
==Description== [[File:European badger (Meles meles) skeleton at the Royal Veterinary College anatomy museum.JPG|thumb|A European badger skeleton at the Royal Veterinary College]] thumb|Skull of a European badger thumb|Dentition European badgers are powerfully built animals with small heads, thick, short necks, stocky, wedge-shaped bodies and short tails. Their feet are either plantigrade<ref name="Raichev">{{cite journal|author=Raichev, E.|year=2010|title=Adaptability to locomotion in snow conditions of fox, jackal, wild cat, badger in the region of Sredna Gora, Bulgaria|journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences|volume=8|issue=2|pages=499–505}}</ref> or semi-digitigrade<ref name="Polly">{{cite journal|author=Polly, P. D.|author2=MacLeod, N. |name-list-style=amp|year=2008|title=Locomotion in fossil Carnivora: an application of eigensurface analysis for morphometric comparison of 3D surfaces |journal=Palaeontologia Electronica|volume=11|issue=2|pages=10–13}}</ref> and short, with five toes on each foot.<ref name="h427"/> The limbs are short and massive, with bare lower surfaces on the feet. The claws are strong and elongated with an obtuse end to facilitate digging.<ref name="s1234">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1234–1237}}</ref> The claws are not retractable, and the hind claws wear with age. Old badgers sometimes have their hind claws almost completely worn away from constant use.<ref name="n23">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|p=23}}</ref> Their snouts, which are used for digging and probing, are muscular and flexible. Their eyes are small, and their ears are short and tipped with white. Whiskers are present on the snout and above the eyes.
Boars typically have broader heads, thicker necks and narrower tails than sows. Sows have sleeker bodies, narrower, less domed heads and fluffier tails. Badgers have longer guts than red foxes, reflecting their omnivorous diet. The small intestine has an average length of {{cvt|5.36|m}} and lacks a cecum. Both sexes have three pairs of nipples, though these are more developed in females.<ref name="h427">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=427}}</ref> European badgers cannot flex their backs like martens, polecats and wolverines, nor can they stand fully erect like honey badgers. However, they can move quickly at full gallop.<ref name="s1234"/>
Adults measure {{cvt|25|–|30|cm}} at the shoulder,<ref name="p24">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|p=24}}</ref> {{cvt|60|–|90|cm}} in body length, {{cvt|12|–|24|cm}} in tail length, {{cvt|7.5|–|13|cm}} in hind foot length and {{cvt|3.5|–|7|cm}} in ear height. Males (or boars) exceed females (or sows) slightly in these measurements, but can weigh considerably more. Their weight varies seasonally, growing from spring to autumn and peaking just before winter. During the summer, European badgers commonly weigh {{cvt|7|–|13|kg}} and {{cvt|15|–|17|kg}} in autumn.<ref name="s1241">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1241–1242}}</ref>
The average weight of adults in the Białowieża Forest was {{cvt|10.2|kg}} in spring but up to {{cvt|19|kg}} in autumn, 46% higher than the spring low mass.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kowalczyk, R. |author2=Jȩdrzejewska, B. |author3=Zalewski, A. |year=2003 |title=Annual and circadian activity patterns of badgers (''Meles meles'') in Białowieża Primeval Forest (eastern Poland) compared with other Palaearctic populations |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=463–472 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00804.x |bibcode=2003JBiog..30..463K |s2cid=56433126 |url=http://www.academia.edu/download/43448017/Annual_and_circadian_activity_patterns_o20160306-9581-d6nee5.pdf}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In Woodchester Park, England, adults in spring weighed on average {{cvt|7.9|kg}} and in fall average {{cvt|9.5|kg}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Delahay, R. J. |author2=Carter, S. P. |author3=Forrester, G. J. |author4=Mitchell, A. |author5=Cheeseman, C. L. |year=2006 |title=Habitat correlates of group size, bodyweight and reproductive performance in a high-density Eurasian badger (''Meles meles'') population |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=270 |issue=3 |pages=437–447 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00165.x}}</ref> In Doñana National Park, average weight of adult badgers is reported as {{cvt|6|to|7.95|kg}}, perhaps in accordance with Bergmann's rule, that its size decreases in relatively warmer climates.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Rodriguez, A. |author2=Martin, R. |author3=Delibes, M. |year=1996 |title=Space use and activity in a Mediterranean population of badgers ''Meles meles'' |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=59–72 |doi=10.4098/AT.arch.96-5 |doi-access=free|hdl=10261/50772 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Revilla, E. |author2=Palomares, F. |author3=Delibes, M. |year=2001 |title=Edge-core effects and the effectiveness of traditional reserves in conservation: Eurasian badgers in Doñana National Park |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=148–158 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2001.99431.x |bibcode=2001ConBi..15..148R |s2cid=86810777 |url=}}</ref> Sows can attain a top autumn weight of around {{cvt|17.2|kg}}, while exceptionally large boars have been reported in autumn.
The heaviest verified specimen was {{cvt|27.2|kg}}, though unverified reports have suggested weights of up to {{cvt|30.8|kg}} and even {{cvt|34|kg}} (if so, the heaviest weight for any terrestrial mustelid). If average weights are used, the European badger ranks as the second largest terrestrial mustelid, behind only the wolverine.<ref name="s1241"/> Although they have an acute sense of smell, their eyesight is monochromatic, as has been demonstrasted by their lack of reaction to red lanterns. Only moving objects attract their attention. Their hearing is no better than that of humans.<ref name="s1272">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|p=1272}}</ref>
thumb|Badger skin – the contrasting markings of the fur serve to warn off attackers rather than camouflage, as they are conspicuous at night.<ref name="n25">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|p=25}}</ref> The skulls of European badgers are quite massive and heavy, with an elongated shape. Their braincases are oval in shape, while the front part of their skulls is elongated and narrow.<ref name="s1238">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|p=1238}}</ref> Adults have prominent sagittal crests which can reach 15 mm in height in older males,<ref name="h428"/> and these are more strongly developed than those of honey badgers.<ref name="s1214">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|p=1214}}</ref> Aside from anchoring the jaw muscles, the thickness of the crests protect their skulls from physical impact.<ref name="n29">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|p=29}}</ref> Similar to martens,<ref name="p21">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|p=29}}</ref> the dentition of European badgers is well-suited for their omnivorous diets. Their incisors are small and chisel-shaped, their canine teeth are prominent and their carnassials are not overly specialised. Their molars are flattened and adapted for grinding.<ref name="h428">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=428}}</ref> Their jaws are powerful enough to crush most bones, and a provoked badger was once bit down so heavily on a man's wrist that his hand had to be amputated.<ref name="p35">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|p=35}}</ref> The dental formula is {{DentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.1|lower=3.1.4.2}}.
Scent glands are present below the base of the tail and around the anus. The subcaudal gland produces a cream-coloured, musky-smelling fatty substance, while the anal glands secrete a stronger-smelling, yellowish-brown fluid.<ref name="h428"/>
===Fur=== [[File:Erythristicbadger.JPG|thumb|left|Mounted erythristic badger]] In winter, the fur on the back and flanks is long and coarse, consisting of bristly guard hairs with a sparse, soft undercoat. The belly fur consists of short, sparse hairs, with skin being visible in the inguinal region. Guard hair length on the middle of the back is {{cvt|75|–|80|mm}} in winter. Prior to the winter, the throat, lower neck, chest and legs are black. The belly is of a lighter, brownish tint, while the inguinal region is brownish-grey. The general colour of the back and sides is light silvery-grey, with straw-coloured highlights on the sides. The tail has long and coarse hairs, and is generally the same colour as the back. Two black bands pass along the head, starting from the upper lip and passing upwards to the whole base of the ears. The bands sometimes extend along the neck and merge with the colour of the upper body. The front parts of the bands are {{cvt|15|mm}}, and widen to {{cvt|45|–|55|mm}} in the ear region. A wide, white band extends from the nose tip through the forehead and crown. White markings occur on the lower part of the head, and extend backwards to a great part of the neck's length.
The summer fur is much coarser, shorter and sparser. It is also deeper in colour, with black tones becoming brownish and sometimes yellowish.<ref name="s1234"/>
Partial melanism is known to occur in badgers, and albinos and leucistic individuals are not uncommon. Albino badgers are either pure white or yellowish with pink eyes, while leucistic badgers are similar but have normal eyes. Erythristic badgers are more common than albinos, and are characterised by a sandy-red colour on the parts of the body that are usually black. Yellow badgers are also known.<ref name="n27">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|p=27}}</ref>
==Distribution and habitat== The European badger is native to most of Europe. It is found in Albania, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Crete, Croatia, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine.<ref name=iucn />
The distributional boundary between the ranges of European and Asian badgers is the Volga River; the European species inhabits the western bank.<ref name=":0" /> The boundary between the ranges of the European and Caucasian badgers is in the North Caucasus. However, a clear boundary has not been defined, and the two species are sympatric in some regions, potentially forming a hybrid zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abramov |first1=A. V. |last2=Puzachenko |first2=A. Yu. |date=2013 |title=The taxonomic status of badgers (Mammalia, Mustelidae) from Southwest Asia based on cranial morphometrics, with the redescription of ''Meles canescens'' |journal=Zootaxa|volume=3681 |issue=1|pages=44–58 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3681.1.2 |pmid=25232583}}</ref> They are common in European Russia, where 30,000 individuals were recorded in 1990. They are abundant and increasing throughout their range, partly due to a reduction in rabies in Central Europe. In the UK, the badger population increased by 77% during the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name=iucn /> The badger population in Great Britain in 2012 was estimated to be 300,000.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.britishwildlifecentre.co.uk/planyourvisit/animals/badger.html |title=Badger: ''Meles meles'' |year=2012 |publisher=British Wildlife Centre |access-date=2013-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042857/http://www.britishwildlifecentre.co.uk/planyourvisit/animals/badger.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>
The European badger inhabits deciduous and mixed woodlands, clearings, spinneys, pastureland and scrub, including Mediterranean maquis shrubland. It has adapted to living in suburban areas and urban parks, though not to the same extent as red foxes. In mountainous regions, it can be found at altitudes of up to {{cvt|2000|m}}.<ref name=iucn /><ref name="k162"/>
==Behaviour and ecology== ===Social and territorial behaviour=== thumb|A badger's claws thumb|Scratching-tree of badgers thumb|Two European badgers grooming each other European badgers are the most sociable of all badger species,<ref name="m117"/> forming groups of six adults on average, though larger groups of up to 23 individuals have been recorded. Group size may be related to habitat composition. Under optimal conditions, badger territories can be as small as {{cvt|30|ha}}, but may be as large as {{cvt|150|ha}} in marginal areas.<ref name="h430"/> Badger territories can be identified by the presence of communal latrines and well-worn paths.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Schmid, T. K. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Roper, T. J. |author3=Christian, S. E. |author4=Ostler, J. |author5=Conradt, L. |author6=Butler, J. |year=1993 |title=Territorial marking with faeces in badgers (''Meles meles''): a comparison of boundary and hinterland latrine use |journal=Behaviour |volume=127 |issue=3–4 |pages=289–307 |doi=10.1163/156853993X00074 |s2cid=22043004}}</ref> It is mainly males that are involved in territorial aggression. A hierarchical social system is thought to exist among badgers and large powerful boars seem to assert dominance over smaller males. Large boars sometimes intrude into neighbouring territories during the main mating season in early spring.
Sparring and more vicious fights generally result from territorial defence during the breeding season.<ref name="Gallagher">{{cite journal |author1=Gallagher, J. |author2=Clifton-Hadley, R. S. |s2cid=12245569 |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Tuberculosis in badgers; a review of the disease and its significance for other animals |journal= Research in Veterinary Science |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=203–217 |doi= 10.1053/rvsc.2000.0422|pmid=11124091 }}</ref> However, animals within and outside a group generally show considerable tolerance towards each other. Boars tend to mark their territories more actively than sows, with their territorial activity increasing during the mating season in early spring.<ref name="h430">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=430–431}}</ref> Badgers groom each other thoroughly using their claws and teeth. This grooming may have a social function.<ref name="h432">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=432}}</ref> They are crepuscular and nocturnal by nature.<ref name="h432"/> Aggression among badgers is largely associated with territorial defence and mating. When fighting, they bite each other on the neck and rump while running and chasing each other, and the resulting injuries can sometimes be fatal. When attacked by dogs or when sexually excited, badgers may raise their tails and fluff up their fur.<ref name="h431"/>
thumb|Grunting and snuffling sounds European badgers have an extensive vocal repertoire. When threatened, they emit deep growls and, when fighting, make low {{not a typo|kekkering}} noises. They bark when surprised, whicker when playing or in distress,<ref name="h431">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=431}}</ref> and emit a piercing scream when alarmed or frightened.<ref name="k162">König 1973, pp. 162–163</ref>
===Denning behaviour=== {{Main|Sett}} thumb|Entrance to a badger sett thumb|A sett shown in an engraving
Like other badger species, European badgers are burrowing animals. However, the dens they construct, known as 'setts', are the most complex and are passed on from generation to generation.<ref name="m116">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|2001|p=116}}</ref> The number of exits in one sett can range from a few to fifty. These setts can be vast and can sometimes accommodate multiple families. Insuch cases, each family occupies its own passages and nesting chambers. Some setts may have exits which are only used in times of danger or play. A typical passage has a {{cvt|22|–|63|cm}} wide base and a {{cvt|14|–|32|cm}} height. Three sleeping chambers occur in a family unit, some of which are open at both ends. The nesting chamber is located {{cvt|5|–|10|m}} from the opening, and is situated more than a {{cvt|1|m}} underground, in some cases {{cvt|2.3|m}}. Generally, the passages are {{cvt|35|–|81|m}} long. The nesting chamber is on average {{cvt|74|x|76|cm}}, and are {{cvt|38|cm}} high.<ref name="s1269">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1269–1272}}</ref>
Badgers collect and dig bedding throughout the year, particularly in spring and autumn. Sett maintenance is usually carried out by subordinate sows and dominant boars. The chambers are frequently lined with bedding, brought in on dry nights. This bedding consists of grass, bracken, straw, leaves and moss. Up to 30 bundles can be carried to the sett in a single night. European badgers are fastidiously clean animals that regularly clear out and discard old bedding. During the winter, they may take their bedding outside on sunny mornings and retrieve it later in the day.<ref name="h430"/> Spring cleaning is associated with the birth of cubs and may occur several times during the summer in order to prevent accumulation of parasites.<ref name="s1269"/>
If a badger dies within the sett, its conspecifics will seal off the chamber and dig a new one. Some badgers drag their dead out of the sett and bury them outside.<ref name="s1279">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1279–1281}}</ref> A sett is almost invariably located near a tree, which the badgers use for stretching or claw scraping.<ref name="n83">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|p=83}}</ref> Badgers defecate in latrines located near the sett, as well as at strategic locations on territorial boundaries or near places with abundant food supplies.<ref name="h432"/>
In extreme cases, when suitable burrowing grounds are lacking, badgers may move into haystacks in winter.<ref name="s1269"/> They may share their setts with red foxes or European rabbits. In turn, the badgers may protect the rabbits from other predators. The rabbits usually avoid predation by the badgers by inhabiting smaller, harder-to-reach chambers.<ref name="p45">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|p=45}}</ref>
===Reproduction and development=== thumb|Badger with cubs The estrus cycle in European badgers lasts four to six days and can occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in spring. Sexual maturity in boars is usually attained at the age of twelve to fifteen months but this can range from nine months to two years. Males are normally fecund during January–May, with spermatogenesis declining in summer. Sows usually begin ovulating in their second year, though some exceptionally begin at nine months. They can mate at any time of the year, though the main peak occurs in February–May, when mature sows are in postpartal estrus and young animals experience their first estrus. Matings occurring outside this period typically occur in sows which either failed to mate earlier in the year or matured slowly.<ref name="h433"/> Badgers are usually monogamous; boars typically mate with one female for life, whereas sows have been known to mate with more than one male.<ref name="s1278">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1278–1279}}</ref> Mating lasts for fifteen to sixty minutes, though the pair may briefly copulate for a minute or two when the sow is not in estrus. A delay of two to nine months precedes the fertilized eggs implanting into the wall of the uterus, though matings in December can result in immediate implantation. Ordinarily, implantation happens in December, with a gestation period lasting seven weeks. Cubs are usually born in mid-January to mid-March within underground chambers containing bedding. In areas where the countryside is waterlogged, cubs may be born above ground in buildings. Typically, only dominant sows can breed, as they suppress the reproduction of subordinate females.<ref name="h433"/>
The average litter consists of one to five cubs.<ref name="h433">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=433–434}}</ref> Although many cubs are sired by resident males, up to 54% can be fathered by boars from different colonies.<ref name="h430"/> Dominant sows may kill the cubs of subordinates.<ref name="h431"/> Cubs are born pink, with greyish, silvery fur and fused eyelids. Neonatal badgers are {{cvt|12|cm}} in body length on average and weigh {{cvt|75|to|132|g}}, with cubs from large litters being smaller.<ref name="h433"/> By three to five days, their claws become pigmented, and individual dark hairs begin to appear.<ref name="s1278"/> Their eyes open at four to five weeks and their milk teeth erupt about the same time. They emerge from their setts at eight weeks of age, and begin to be weaned at twelve weeks, though they may still suckle until they are four to five months old. Subordinate females assist the mother in guarding, feeding and grooming the cubs.<ref name="h433"/> Cubs fully develop their adult coats at six to nine weeks.<ref name="s1278"/> In areas with medium to high badger populations, dispersal from the natal group is uncommon, though badgers may temporarily visit other colonies.<ref name="h432"/> Badgers can live for up to about fifteen years in the wild.<ref name="k162"/>
===Winter sleep=== Badgers begin to prepare for winter sleep during late summer by accumulating fat reserves, which reach a peak in October. During this period, the sett is cleaned and the nesting chamber is filled with bedding. Upon retiring to sleep, badgers block their sett entrances with dry leaves and earth. They typically stop leaving their setts once snow has fallen. In Russia and the Nordic countries, European badgers retire for winter sleep from late October to mid-November and emerge from their setts in March and early April.<ref name="s1272-1233">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1272–1233}}</ref> In areas such as England and Transcaucasia, where winters are less harsh, badgers either forgo winter sleep entirely or spend long periods underground, emerging in mild spells.<ref name="k162"/>
===Diet=== European badgers are among the least carnivorous members of the Carnivora.<ref name="s1265">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1265–1268}}</ref> They are highly adaptable and opportunistic omnivores whose diet encompasses a wide range of animals and plants. Their most important food source is earthworms, followed by large insects, carrion, cereals, fruit and small mammals, including rabbits, mice, rats, voles,<ref name=ADW>{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Annie |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Meles_meles/ |title=''Meles meles'' Eurasian Badger |website = ADW |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology}}</ref> shrews, moles and hedgehogs. Their insect prey includes chafers, dung and ground beetles, caterpillars, leatherjackets, and the nests of wasps and bumblebees. Badgers can destroy wasp nests, consuming the occupants, combs, and envelope, such as those of ''Vespula rufa'', as their thick skin and pelt protect them from stings.<ref name="Edwards">Edwards, Robin. (1980). Social Wasps: Their Biology and Control. W. Sussex, Great Britain: Rentokil Limited.</ref> Cereal food includes wheat, oats, maize and occasionally barley. Fruits taken include windfall apples, pears, plums, blackberries, bilberries, raspberries, cherries,<ref name=ADW/> strawberries, acorns, beechmast, pignuts and wild arum corms.
Occasionally, badgers feed on medium to large birds, amphibians, fish, small reptiles including tortoises and lizards, snails, slugs, fungi, tubers and green food such as clover and grass, particularly in winter and during droughts.<ref name="h432-433">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=432–433}}</ref><ref name=ADW/> Badgers typically capture large quantities of a single food type in each hunt. They generally do not consume more than {{cvt|0.5|kg}} of food per day, although young badgers under one year of age eat more than adults. An adult badger weighing {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}} eats a quantity of food equal to 3.4% of its body weight.<ref name="s1265"/> Badgers typically eat prey on the spot, and rarely transport it to their setts. Surplus killing has been observed in chicken coops.<ref name="h432"/>
thumb|A badger in England scavenging food Badgers prey on rabbits all year round, particularly when their young are available. They locate the young rabbits in their nests using their sense of smell, then dig downwards to reach them. In mountainous or hilly areas where plant food is scarce, badgers rely on young rabbits as their main food source. Adult rabbits are usually avoided, unless they are wounded or caught in traps.<ref name="n70">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|pp=70–80}}</ref> They consume them by turning them inside out and eating the meat, leaving the inverted skin uneaten.<ref name="p62">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|p=62}}</ref> Hedgehogs are eaten in a similar manner.<ref name="n70"/> In areas where badgers are common, hedgehogs are scarce.<ref name="m117">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|2001|p=117}}</ref>
Some rogue badgers may kill lambs,<ref name="n70"/> though this is very rare. They may be wrongly implicated in lamb killings when discarded wool and bones are found near their setts. However, foxes, which sometimes live alongside badgers, are often the real culprits, as badgers do not transport food to their setts. They typically kill lambs by biting them behind the shoulder.<ref name="n70"/> Poultry and game birds are also taken only rarely. Some badgers may build their setts in proximity to poultry or game farms without ever causing damage. In the rare instances in which badgers kill reared birds, this usually occurs in February–March when food is scarce due to harsh weather and increased badger populations. Badgers can easily breach bee hives with their jaws and are mostly indifferent to bee stings, even when set upon by swarms.<ref name="n70"/>
===Relationships with other non-human predators=== [[File:Red fox & two badgers.jpg|thumb|A red fox challenging two badgers moving towards a bird feeder at night]] <!-- Yes, I know this only shows two badgers and one fox. If you check out the full set on flickr you can see larger group photos but I chose this because of the more striking composition. --> European badgers have few natural enemies. Although they are normally docile, badgers can become extremely aggressive and ferocious when cornered, which makes them dangerous for predators to target. Grey wolves (''Canis lupus''), Eurasian lynxes (''Lynx lynx'') and brown bears (''Ursus arctos''), Europe's three largest remaining land predators, and large domestic dogs (''C. familiaris'') can pose a threat to adult badgers. However, deaths caused by them are rare as these predators are often limited in population due to human persecution and usually prefer larger, easier prey such as ungulates. Badgers, on the other hand, may fight viciously if they are aware of a predator and are cornered without an escape route.<ref name= Sidorovich>Sidorovich, V. E., Rotenko, I. I., & Krasko, D. A. (2011, March). ''Badger ''Meles meles'' spatial structure and diet in an area of low earthworm biomass and high predation risk''. In Annales Zoologici Fennici (Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 1–16). Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing.</ref><ref>Olsson, O., Wirtberg, J., Andersson, M., & Wirtberg, I. (1997). ''Wolf ''Canis lupus'' predation on moose ''Alces alces'' and roe deer ''Capreolus capreolus'' in south-central Scandinavia''. Wildlife biology, 3(1), 13–25.</ref><ref name= Naves>{{cite journal |author1=Naves, J. |author2=Fernández-Gil, A. |author3=Rodríguez, C. |author4=Delibes, M. |title=Brown Bear Food Habits at the Border of Its Range: A Long-Term Study|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=87|issue=5|page=899|doi=10.1644/05-MAMM-A-318R2.1|year=2006|hdl=10261/50290|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name= Butler>Butler, J. M., & Roper, T. J. (1995). ''Escape tactics and alarm responses in badgers Meles meles: a field experiment''. Ethology, 99(4), 313-322.</ref> They may live alongside red foxes (''Vulpes vulpes'') in isolated sections of large burrows.<ref name="s1279"/> The two species possibly tolerate each other out of commensalism; foxes provide badgers with food scraps, while badgers maintain the shared burrow's cleanliness.<ref>Dale, Thomas Francis, [https://archive.org/details/foxdale00dale ''The fox''], Longmans, Green, and Co., 1906</ref> However, cases are known of badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them.<ref name="s1279"/> In turn, red foxes are known to have killed badger cubs in spring.<ref>Palomares, F., & Caro, T. M. (1999). ''Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores''. The American Naturalist, 153(5), 492–508.</ref> Golden eagles (''Aquila chrysaetos'') are known predators of European badgers and attacks by them on badger cubs are not infrequent, including cases where they have been pulled out directly from below the legs of their mothers, and even adult badgers may be attacked by this eagle species when emerging weak and hungry from hibernation.<ref name= Watson>Watson, J. (2010). ''The golden eagle''. Poyser Monographs; A&C Black.</ref><ref>Sørensen, O. J., Totsås, M., Solstad, T., & Rigg, R. (2008). ''Predation by a golden eagle on a brown bear cub''. Ursus, 19(2), 190–193.</ref> Eurasian eagle owls (''Bubo bubo'') may also take an occasional cub and other large raptors such as white-tailed eagles (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') and greater spotted eagle (''Clanga clanga'') are considered potential badger cub predators.<ref name= Sidorovich/><ref name= Butler/><ref>Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989). ''Avian predation on mustelids in Europe 1: occurrence and effects on body size variation and life traits''. Oikos, 205–215.</ref> Raccoon dogs may extensively use badger setts for shelter. There are many known cases of badgers and raccoon dogs wintering in the same hole, possibly because badgers enter hibernation two weeks earlier than the latter, and leave two weeks later. In exceptional cases, badger and raccoon dog cubs may coexist in the same burrow. Badgers may drive out or kill raccoon dogs if they overstay their welcome.<ref>Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P., ''[https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov211998gept Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol.II Part 1a, SIRENIA AND CARNIVORA (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears)]'', p. 107, Science Publishers, Inc. USA. 1998, {{ISBN|1-886106-81-9}}</ref>
===Diseases and parasites=== Bovine tuberculosis (bovine TB) caused by ''Mycobacterium bovis'' is a significant factor in badger mortality, although infected badgers can survive and breed successfully for years before succumbing to the disease. The disease was first observed in badgers in Switzerland in 1951 in Switzerland where they were believed to have contracted it from chamois (''Rupicapra rupicapra'') or roe deer (''Capreolus capreolus'').<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bouvier, G. |author2=Burgisser, H |author3=Sweitzer, R. |year=1951 |title=Tuberculose chez un chamois |journal=Schweizer Arch Tierheil |volume=93 |pages=689–695 }}</ref> It was detected in the United Kingdom in 1971 where it was linked to an outbreak of bovine TB in cows. Evidence suggests that badgers are the primary reservoir of infection for cattle in the southwest of England, Wales and Ireland. Since then there has been considerable controversy as to whether culling badgers will effectively reduce or eliminate bovine TB in cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gallagher, J. |author2=Clifton-Hadley, R. S. |year=2000 |title=Tuberculosis in badgers; a review of the disease and its significance for other animals |journal=Research in Veterinary Science |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=203–217 |pmid=11124091 |url=http://www.bovinetb.info/docs/johngallt_b_review9-04.pdf |doi=10.1053/rvsc.2000.0422}}</ref>
Badgers are vulnerable to the mustelid herpesvirus-1, as well as rabies and canine distemper, though the latter two are absent in Great Britain. Other diseases found in European badgers include arteriosclerosis, pneumonia, pleurisy, nephritis, enteritis, polyarthritis and lymphosarcoma.<ref name="h435">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=435}}</ref>
Internal parasites of badgers include trematodes, nematodes and several species of tapeworm.<ref name="h435"/> Ectoparasites carried by them include the fleas ''Paraceras melis'' (the badger flea), ''Chaetopsylla trichosa'' and ''Pulex irritans'' (the human flea), the lice ''Trichodectes melis'' and the ticks ''Ixodes ricinus'', ''I. canisuga'', ''I. hexagonus'', ''I. reduvius'' and ''I. melicula''. They also suffer from mange<ref name="h435"/> and spend much time grooming, with individuals concentrating on their own ventral areas and alternating between sides, while social grooming involves one badger grooming another on its dorsal surface. Fleas try to avoid scratching by retreating rapidly downwards and backwards through the fur. This was in contrast to fleas away from their host, which ran upwards and jumped when disturbed. Grooming seems to disadvantage fleas rather than merely having a social function.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Stewart, Paul D. |author2=Macdonald, David W. |year=2003 |title=Badgers and Badger Fleas: Strategies and Counter-Strategies |journal=Ethology |volume=109 |issue=9 |pages=751–763 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0310.2003.00910.x |bibcode=2003Ethol.109..751S }}</ref>
==Conservation== The International Union for Conservation of Nature rates the European badger as being of least concern. This is because it is a relatively common species with a wide distribution, and its populations are generally stable. In Central Europe, badgers have become more abundant in recent decades due to a reduction in the incidence of rabies. In other areas it has also fared well, with increases in numbers in Western Europe including Great Britain. However, in some areas of intensive agriculture, it has declined due to loss of habitat, and in others it is hunted as a pest.<ref name=iucn />
==Cultural significance== [[File:The Wind in the Willows.PNG|thumb|upright|Mr. Badger, as portrayed in an illustrated edition of Kenneth Grahame's ''The Wind in the Willows'']] [[File:Tale of mr tod tommy brock.jpg|thumb|upright|Tommy Brock, as illustrated by Beatrix Potter in ''The Tale of Mr. Tod'']] {{main|List of fictional badgers}} Badgers play a part in European folklore and are featured in modern literature. In Irish mythology, badgers are portrayed as shape-shifters and kinsmen to Tadg, the king of Tara and foster father of Cormac mac Airt. In one story, Tadg berates his adopted son for having killed and prepared some badgers for dinner.<ref>Monaghan, Patricia, ''The encyclopedia of Celtic mythology and folklore'', p.436, Infobase Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8160-4524-0}}</ref> In German folklore, the badger is portrayed as a cautious, peace-loving Philistine, who loves more than anything his home, family and comfort, though he can become aggressive if surprised. He is a cousin of Reynard the Fox, whom he uselessly tries to convince to return to the path of righteousness.<ref name="n150"/>
In Kenneth Grahame's ''The Wind in the Willows'', Mr. Badger is depicted as a gruff, solitary figure who "simply hates society", yet he is a good friend to Mole and Ratty. As a friend of Toad's late father, he is often firm and serious with Toad, yet generally patient and well-meaning towards him. He can be seen as a wise hermit and a good leader, embodying common sense and gentlemanly behaviour. He is also brave and a skilled fighter, and helps rid Toad Hall of invaders from the wild wood.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Wind in the Willows |last=Grahame |first=Kenneth |year=1908 |publisher=Wordsworth Editions Ltd. |isbn=978-1-85326-017-9 }}</ref>
The "Frances" series of children's books by Russell and Lillian Hoban depicts an anthropomorphic badger family.
In T. H. White's Arthurian series ''The Once and Future King'', the young King Arthur is transformed into a badger by Merlin as part of his education. He meets with an elderly badger who tells him "I can only teach you two things – to dig, and love your home."<ref>White, T.H. (1939) 'The Once And Future King.' 200 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016.</ref>
A villainous badger named Tommy Brock appears in Beatrix Potter's 1912 book ''The Tale of Mr. Tod''. He kidnaps the children of Benjamin Bunny and his wife Flopsy, and hides them in an oven at the home of Mr. Tod the fox, whom he fights at the end of the book. The portrayal of the badger as a filthy animal which appropriates fox dens was criticised from a naturalistic viewpoint. However, the inconsistencies are few and are used to create individual characters rather than to depict archetypical foxes and badgers.<ref>MacDonald, Ruth K., ''Beatrix Potter'', p.47, Twayne Publishers, 1986, {{ISBN|0-8057-6917-X}}</ref> A wise old badger named Trufflehunter appears in C. S. Lewis' ''Prince Caspian'', where he aids Caspian X in his struggle against King Miraz.<ref>{{cite book |title= Prince Caspian | first= Lewis |last= C.S. |year=1951 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-00-671679-2 }}</ref>
A badger takes a prominent role in Colin Dann's ''The Animals of Farthing Wood'' series as second in command to Fox.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Animals of Farthing Wood |last=Dann |first=Colin |year=1979 |publisher=Egmont Publishing |isbn=1-4052-2552-1 }}</ref> The badger is also the house symbol for Hufflepuff in the ''Harry Potter'' book series.<ref>{{cite book |title=Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone |last=Rowling |first=J. K. |year=1997 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=0-7475-3269-9 }}</ref> The ''Redwall'' series also features the Badger Lords, who rule the extinct volcano fortress of Salamandastron and are renowned as fierce warriors.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tribes of Redwall: Badgers |last=Jacques |first=Brian |year=2001 |publisher=Red Fox |isbn=0-09-941714-6 }}</ref> The children's television series ''Bodger & Badger'' was popular on CBBC during the 1990s and was set around the mishaps of a mashed potato-loving badger and his human companion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/bodgerandbadger/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528072212/http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/bodgerandbadger/ |archive-date=May 28, 2008 |title=Comedy: Bodger and Badger |publisher=BBC |access-date=2013-06-20}}</ref>
The satirical theatre in Zagreb founded in 1964 by Fadil Hadžić was named "Jazavac" after the badger's reputation for cunning as well as Petar Kočić's 1904 satirical play {{ill|Badger before the Court|sr|Jazavac pred sudom}} ({{lang|sr|Jazavac pred sudom}}).<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.vecernji.hr/kultura/jazavac-se-rodio-prije-60-godina-a-kerempuh-cuva-satiru-u-hrvatskoj-1756862 | language = hr | newspaper = Večernji list | title = Jazavac se rodio prije 60 godina, a Kerempuh čuva satiru u Hrvatskoj | first = Bojana | last = Radović | date = 26 March 2024 }}</ref> In the play, an unnamed badger is sued by a local farmer for eating his crops. The play by the Bosnian Serb writer is highly critical towards Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the beginning of the 20th century. In honour of Kočić and his badger, the satirical theatre in Banja Luka founded in 2006 is named {{ill|City Theatre Jazavac|sr|Gradsko pozorište Jazavac}}.
===Heraldry=== [[File:Luhanka.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright=0.5|European badger in the coat of arms of Luhanka]] European badger appears on the coat of arms of the municipality of Luhanka in Central Finland, referring to the former importance of the fur trade in the locality.<ref>{{cite book |title= Suomen kunnallisvaakunat | publisher = Suomen Kunnallisliitto | year = 1982 | isbn = 951-773-085-3 | language = fi}}</ref> The badger is also the title animal of the Nurmijärvi municipality in Uusimaa, Finland, where it is a very common mammal.<ref>[https://www.nurmijarvi.fi/tule-nae-ja-koe-nurmijarvi/nae-ja-koe/tietoa-kunnasta/vaakunat-ja-tunnukset/ Vaakunat ja tunnukset – Nurmijärvi] (in Finnish)</ref>
===Hunting=== thumb|Illustration of a badger brought to bay by a Dachshund (''Dachshund'' is German for "badger-dog") European badgers are of little significance to the hunting economy, although they may be hunted locally. Methods used to hunt badgers include setting jaw traps, ambushing them at their setts with guns, smoking them out of their burrows, and using specially bred dogs such as Fox Terriers and Dachshunds to dig them out.<ref name="s1281">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2001|pp=1281–1282}}</ref> However, badgers are notoriously durable animals. Their thick, loose skin is covered in long hair for protection, and their heavily ossified skulls allow them to shrug off most blunt traumas and shotgun pellets.<ref name="p36">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|p=36}}</ref>
===Badger-baiting=== {{main|Badger-baiting}} Badger-baiting was once a popular blood sport,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} in which badgers were captured alive, placed in boxes, and attacked with dogs.{{sfnp|''EB''|1911}} In the UK, this was outlawed by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835{{sfnp|''EB''|1911}} and again by the Protection of Animals Act 1911.<ref name="law1911">{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/RevisedStatutes/Acts/ukpga/1911/cukpga_19110027_en_1 |title=Protection of Animals Act 1911 (revised) |work=OPSI website |access-date=2009-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501061749/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/RevisedStatutes/Acts/ukpga/1911/cukpga_19110027_en_1 |archive-date=2009-05-01 }}</ref> Moreover, the cruelty towards badgers and the killing of badgers constitute offences under the Protection of Badgers Act 1992 (c. 51).<ref name="1992act">{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1992/51/contents|title=Protection of Badgers Act 1992|access-date=October 7, 2015|author=UK Government}}</ref> Further offences under this Act are inevitably committed to facilitate badger-baiting, such as interfering with a sett or taking or possessing a badger for purposes other than nursing an injured animal back to health. If convicted, badger baiting offenders may face a prison sentence of up to six months, a fine of up to £5,000, and other punitive measures, such as community service or a ban on owning dogs.<ref name="law1992">{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1992/ukpga_19920051_en_1 |title=Protection of Badgers Act 1992 |work=OPSI website |access-date=2009-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814144628/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1992/ukpga_19920051_en_1 |archive-date=2009-08-14 }}</ref>
===Culling=== {{see also|Badger culling in the United Kingdom}} Many badgers in Europe were gassed during the 1960s and 1970s to control rabies.<ref>[http://www.badger.org.uk/_Attachments/Resources/283_S4.pdf The European badger (''Meles meles'')] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901125204/http://www.badger.org.uk/_Attachments/Resources/283_S4.pdf |date=2012-09-01 }}. badger.org.uk</ref> Until the 1980s, badger culling in the United Kingdom was carried out by gassing to control the spread of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). Limited culling resumed in 1998 as part of a 10-year randomized trial cull which was considered by John Krebs and others to show that culling was ineffective. Some groups called for a selective cull,<ref name=Moody>{{cite news |title=Badger cull is necessary to stop them suffering, say vets |author=Moody, Oliver |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/badger-cull-is-necessary-to-stop-them-suffering-say-vets-2xdjrcqjxqg |newspaper=The Times: Wildlife |date=2013-04-27 |access-date=2013-08-30}}</ref> while others favoured a programme of vaccination. Some vets support the cull on compassionate grounds, as they say that the illness causes badgers much suffering.<ref name=Moody/> In 2012, the government authorized a limited cull<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/dec/14/badger-culling-2012|title=Badger culling will go ahead in 2012|author=Carrington, D.|work=The Guardian |date=2011-12-11|access-date= 2013-08-30}}</ref> led by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), however, this was later deferred with a wide range of reasons given.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/oct/23/badger-cull-postponed-2013|title=Badger cull postponed until 2013|author=Carrington, D.|work=The Guardian|year=2012|access-date=August 30, 2013}}</ref> In August 2013, a full culling programme began, during which around 5,000 badgers were killed over a period of six weeks in West Somerset and Gloucestershire. Marksmen used high-velocity rifles for the cull, employing a combination of controlled shooting and free shooting techniques (some badgers were first trapped in cages). The cull sparked widespread protests, with people citing emotional, economic and scientific reasons against it. Although the badger is not an endangered species, it is considered an iconic symbol of the British countryside. It was claimed by shadow ministers that "The government's own figures show it will cost more than it saves...", and Lord Krebs, who led the Randomised Badger Culling Trial in the 1990s, said the two pilots "will not yield any useful information".<ref name="BBC2013">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-23845851|title=Badger cull begins in Somerset in attempt to tackle TB|publisher=BBC|year=2013|access-date=August 30, 2013}}</ref> A scientific study of culling from 2013 to 2017 has shown a reduction of 36–55% incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle.<ref name="Downs"/>
===Tameability=== thumb|A tame orphan badger with keeper [[File:Tam grävling i Plantis 2298.jpg|thumb|A hand reared European badger shown at the celebration of the National Day of Sweden]] There are several accounts of European badgers being tamed. Tame badgers can make affectionate pets, and can be trained to come to their owners when their names are called. They are easy to feed as they are not fussy eaters, and will instinctively unearth rats, moles and young rabbits without training. However, they also have a fondness for pork. While there is one record of a tame badger befriending a fox, badgers do not generally tolerate the presence of cats and dogs and will chase them.<ref name="p58">{{Harvnb|Pease|1898|pp=58–61}}</ref>{{Dubious|Pet section|date=December 2023}}
===Uses=== [[File:Silverip-badger.jpg|thumb|alt=Refer to caption|A shaving brush using badger hair]] Badger meat is eaten in some districts of the former Soviet Union, though in most cases it is discarded.<ref name="s1281"/> Smoked hams made from badgers were once highly esteemed in England, Wales and Ireland.<ref name="n152"/>
Some badger products have been used for medical purposes; badger expert Ernest Neal, quoting from an 1810 edition of ''The Sporting Magazine'', wrote; <blockquote>The flesh, blood and grease of the badger are very useful for oils, ointments, salves and powders, for shortness of breath, the cough of the lungs, for the stone, sprained sinews, collachs etc. The skin being well dressed is very warm and comfortable for ancient people who are troubled with paralytic disorders.<ref name="n152">{{Harvnb|Neal|1976|pp=152–154}}</ref></blockquote>
The hair of the European badger has been used for centuries for making sporrans{{refn|name=n152}} and shaving brushes.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}<ref name="Griffiths & Thomas">{{cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=H.I.|last2=Thomas |first2=D.H. |title=The Conservation and Management of the European Badger (''Meles Meles'') |date=1997 |publisher=Council of Europe |location=Strasbourg |isbn=978-9-28-713447-9 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zVSd-y-czIkC&pg=PA53}}</ref> Sporrans are traditionally worn as part of male Scottish highland dress. They form a bag or pocket made from a pelt and a badger or other animal's mask may be used as a flap.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/6234290.stm |title=Sporran wearers may need licence |access-date=2013-07-11 | work=BBC News | date=2007-06-24}}</ref> The pelt was also formerly used for pistol furniture.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}
==References== {{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} {{Reflist}}
===Works cited=== *{{cite EB9 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Badger |volume=3 |ref={{harvid|EB|1878}} |page=227}} *{{cite EB1911 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Badger |volume=3 |ref={{harvid|''EB''|1911}} |page=188}} *{{Cite book |last1=Harris |first1=S. |last2=Yalden|first2=D. |author-link2=Derek Yalden |title=Mammals of the British Isles |publisher=Mammal Society |edition=Fourth Revised |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-906282-65-6 }} *{{Cite book |last=Kurtén |first=B. |author-link=Björn Kurtén |year=1968 |title=Pleistocene mammals of Europe |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |chapter=The Badger ''Meles meles'' Linné |pages=104–105 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEMrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |isbn=978-1-351-49948-4|edition=Reprint 2017 }} *{{Cite book |last1=Heptner |first1=V. G. |last2=Sludskii |first2=A. A. |title=Mammals of the Soviet Union |volume=II, Part 1b, Carnivores (Mustelidae and Procyonidae) |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation |year=2001 |chapter=Badger ''Meles meles'' Linnaeus, 1758 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov212001gept/page/1232 |pages=1232–1282 |isbn=90-04-08876-8 }} *{{cite book |title=Mammals |last=König |first=C. |year=1973 |location=London |publisher=William Collins |isbn=0-00-212080-1}} *{{Cite book |last=Macdonald |first=D. |author-link=David Macdonald (biologist)|title=The New Encyclopedia of Mammals |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850823-9 }} *{{Cite book |last=Neal |first=E. |title=The Badger |publisher=Collins |year=1976 |edition=Fifth |series=New Naturalist |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-219399-3 }} *{{Cite book |last=Pease |first=A. E. |author-link=Alfred Edward Pease |year=1898 |url=https://archive.org/details/badgermonograph00peasiala |title=The badger; a monograph |location=London |publisher=Lawrence and Bullen }} *{{Cite journal |last1=Spagnesi |first1=M. |last2=De Marinis |first2=M. |url=https://www.mase.gov.it/sites/default/files/archivio/biblioteca/qcn_14.pdf |title=Mammiferi d'Italia |journal=Quaderni di Conservazione della Natura |year=2002 |issn=1592-2901 |language=it}}
==External links== * [https://www.badgertrust.org.uk/ The Badger Trust – representing over 80 British badger groups] * [https://www.scottishbadgers.org.uk Scottish Badgers] * [https://www.badgerland.co.uk/ Badgerland – The Definitive On-Line Guide to Badgers (Meles meles) in the UK] * [https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/animals/species/european-badger Wildlife Online – Natural History of the European Badger] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20021030013602/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/189.shtml Science & Nature: Animals], BBC. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20050306095446/http://www.censusnature.nl/en_index.htm Badger Survey in the Netherlands 2000–2001], The Census Foundation. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080917124100/http://waarneming.nl/soort.php?id=383&wno_datum_van=&wno_datum_tm=&tab=info Waarneming.nl] Originally a Dutch site, but you can change language at the top of the page. Sightings, pictures and distribution maps of European badgers in the Netherlands.
===Badgers and TB in the UK=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070807063236/http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/tb/culling/index.htm DEFRA (UK government department) position on badgers and TB] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050903221413/http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/tb/publications/krebs.htm Executive summary of the Krebs Report ''Bovine Tuberculosis in Cattle and Badgers'' 1997] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070807063236/http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/tb/culling/index.htm The Randomised Badger Culling Trial] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041205044107/http://www.defra.gov.uk/science/publications/2004/GodfreyReport_BovineTBEpidemiology.pdf Godfray Report, ''Independent Scientific Review of the Randomised Badger Culling Trial and Associated Epidemiological Research'', March 2004. PDF format]
{{Carnivora|M.}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q27066}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Mammals described in 1758 Category:Badgers Category:Carnivorans of Europe Category:Mammals of Asia Category:Mammals of Azerbaijan Category:Mammals of Europe Category:Mammals of the Middle East Category:Fauna of Turkey Category:Fauna of Syria Category:Fauna of Lebanon Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Extant Middle Pleistocene first appearances Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Fauna of Albania