{{Short description|Hypothesized new branch of Islam}} {{Distinguish|Islam in Europe}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}} {{Original research|date=November 2009}} [[File:Bosanska Krupa Churches.JPG|alt=Three religions at one place, the proof of great coexistence.|thumb|300x300px|A Roman Catholic church, Eastern Orthodox church, and Muslim mosque are located in the same square in Bosanska Krupa, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]

'''European Islam''', or '''Euro-Islam''', is a hypothesized new branch of Islam<ref name="AlSayyad 2002">{{cite book |last=AlSayyad |first=Nezar |chapter=Islam, Europe, and the Identity of the Changing Nation-State |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6AsbTBUy7cC&pg=PA18 |editor1-last=AlSayyad |editor1-first=Nezar |editor2-last=Castells |editor2-first=Manuel |year=2002 |title=Muslim Europe Or Euro-Islam: Politics, Culture, and Citizenship in the Age of Globalization |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield, co-published with the Center for Middle Eastern Studies (University of California, Berkeley) |pages=18–21 |isbn=978-0-7391-0338-8 |lccn=2001050240}}</ref> that historically originated and developed among the European peoples of the Balkans<ref name="Popović 1997">{{cite journal |last1=Popović |first1=Alexandre |last2=Rashid |first2=Asma |date=Summer–Autumn 1997 |title=The Muslim Culture In The Balkans (16th–18th Centuries) |journal=Islamic Studies |publisher=Islamic Research Institute (International Islamic University, Islamabad) |volume=36 |issue=2/3, Special Issue: ''Islam In The Balkans'' |pages=177–190 |eissn=2710-5326 |issn=0578-8072 |jstor=23076193}}</ref> (primarily Albania,<ref name="Jordan 2015">{{cite book |author-last=Jordan |author-first=Peter |year=2015 |chapter=An Exception in the Balkans: Albania's Multiconfessional Identity |editor-last=Brunn |editor-first=Stanley D. |title=The Changing World Religion Map: Sacred Places, Identities, Practices and Politics |location=Dordrecht and Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Nature |pages=1577–1597 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_83 |isbn=978-94-017-9376-6 |s2cid=176395834}}</ref> Bosnia and Herzegovina,<ref name="Raudvere 2019"/> Kosovo,<ref name="Ismaili 2013">{{cite book |author-last=Ismaili |author-first=Besa |chapter=Kosovo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia5AAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 |editor1-last=Nielsen |editor1-first=Jørgen S. |editor1-link=Jørgen S. Nielsen |editor2-last=Akgönül |editor2-first=Samim |editor3-last=Alibašić |editor3-first=Ahmet |editor4-last=Racius |editor4-first=Egdunas |year=2013 |title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |volume=5 |pages=369–381 |doi=10.1163/9789004255869_025 |isbn=978-90-04-25586-9 |issn=1877-1432}}</ref> and European Turkey,<ref name="Raudvere 2019">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Raudvere |author-first=Catharina |chapter=Between Religiosity, Cultural Heritage, and Politics: Sufi-Oriented Interests in Contemporary Bosnia and Herzegovina |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5MqiDwAAQBAJ |year=2019 |editor1-last=Malik |editor1-first=Jamal |editor2-last=Zarrabi-Zadeh |editor2-first=Saeed |title=Sufism East and West: Mystical Islam and Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Modern World |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Studies on Sufism |volume=2 |pages=233–258 |doi=10.1163/9789004393929_011 |isbn=978-90-04-39392-9 |s2cid=199364516 |lccn=2019004608}}</ref> but also in Bulgaria, Montenegro, and North Macedonia,<ref name="Macnamara 2013"/> countries with sizable Muslim minorities). These communities, alongside those in some republics of Russia, constitute a large population<ref name="Macnamara 2013">{{cite journal |last=Macnamara |first=Ronan |date=January 2013 |title=Slavic Muslims: The forgotten minority of Macedonia |journal=Security and Human Rights |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers on behalf of the Netherlands Helsinki Committee |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=347–355 |doi=10.1163/18750230-99900038 |eissn=1875-0230 |issn=1874-7337}}</ref><ref name="Cesari 2014">{{cite book |editor-last=Cesari |editor-first=Jocelyne |year=2014 |chapter=Part III: The Old European Land of Islam |title=The Oxford Handbook of European Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NW7DBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA427 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=427–616 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199607976.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-960797-6 |lccn=2014936672 |s2cid=153038977}}</ref><ref name="Clayer 2004">{{cite journal |last=Clayer |first=Nathalie |date=2004 |title=Les musulmans des Balkans Ou l'islam de "l'autre Europe"/The Balkans Muslims Or the Islam of the "Other Europe" |journal=Religions, pouvoir et société: Europe centrale, Balkans, CEI |publisher=La Documentation française |location=Paris |series=Le Courrier de Pays de l'Est |volume=5 |issue=1045 |pages=16–27 |doi=10.3917/cpe.045.0016 |doi-access= |issn=0590-0239 |language=fr |via=Cairn.info}}</ref><ref name="Bougarel-Clayer 2013">{{cite book |last1=Bougarel |first1=Xavier |last2=Clayer |first2=Nathalie |year=2013 |title=Les musulmans de l'Europe du Sud-Est: Des Empires aux États balkaniques |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caELEAAAQBAJ |location=Paris |publisher=IISMM – Karthala |series=Terres et gens d'islam |pages=1–20 |isbn=978-2-8111-0905-9 |language=fr |via=Cairn.info}}</ref> which constitute large populations of European Muslims.<ref name="Macnamara 2013"/><ref name="Cesari 2014"/><ref name="Clayer 2004"/><ref name="Bougarel-Clayer 2013"/> Historically significant Muslim populations in Europe include Azerbaijanis, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians,<ref name="Ismaili 2013"/> Balkan Turks, Bosniaks, Böszörmény, Chechens, Circassians, Cretan Turks, Crimean Tatars, Gajals,<ref name="Popović 1997"/> Gorani, Greek Muslims, Ingush, Khalyzians, Kazakhs, Lipka Tatars, Muslim Albanians,<ref name="Jordan 2015"/> Muslim Romani people, Pomaks, Torbeshi, Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Vallahades, Volga Tatars, Yörüks, and Megleno-Romanians from Notia today living in East Thrace,<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Kahl |author-first=Thede |author-link=Thede Kahl |year=2006 |title=The Islamization of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey |editor-last=Mylonas |editor-first=Harris |editor-link=Harris Mylonas |journal=Nationalities Papers |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=71–90 |doi=10.1080/00905990500504871 |s2cid=161615853 |issn=0090-5992}}</ref> although the majority are secular.<ref name="Ismaili 2013"/><ref name="Cesari 2014"/><ref name="Clayer 2004"/>

The terms "European Islam" and "Euro-Islam" were originally introduced at a conference that took place in Birmingham in 1988, presided by Carl E. Olivestam, senior lecturer at Umeå University, and subsequently published in the Swedish handbook ''Kyrkor och alternativa rörelser'' ("Churches and Alternative Movements"). "European Islam" defines the ongoing debate on the social integration of Muslim populations in Western European countries such as France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands.<ref name="Bougarel-Clayer 2013"/><ref name="Cesari 2010">{{cite book |author-last=Cesari |author-first=Jocelyne |year=2010 |chapter=Part 1, Overview: Muslims in Europe and the US – Securitization of Islam in Europe |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLuLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |editor-last=Cesari |editor-first=Jocelyne |title=Muslims in the West After 9/11: Religion, Politics, and Law |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |series=Routledge Studies in Liberty and Security |pages=9–27 |isbn=9780415776547}}</ref><ref name="Buturovic 2009">{{cite book |author-last=Buturović |author-first=Amila |year=2009 |orig-date=2006 |chapter=Part V: Islamic Cultural Region – European Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EsMVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA437 |editor-last=Juergensmeyer |editor-first=Mark |editor-link=Mark Juergensmeyer |title=The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=437–446 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0043 |isbn=978-0-19-513798-9 |lccn=2006004402 |s2cid=161373775}}</ref> There are three Islamic scholars who participate in the debate on "Euro-Islam": Enes Karić,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Karić |first=Enes |author-link=Enes Karić |date=2002 |title=Is 'Euro-Islam' a Myth, Challenge, or a Real Opportunity for Muslims and Europe? |journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs |location=London |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=435–442 |doi=10.1080/1360200022000027375 |s2cid=144393965 |issn=1360-2004}}</ref> Bassam Tibi,<ref name="Tibi 1995">{{cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |author-link=Bassam Tibi |year=1995 |chapter=Les conditions d'une "Euro-Islam" |editor1-last=Bistolfi |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Zabbal |editor2-first=François |title=Islams d'Europe: Intégration ou Insertion Communautaire? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=So1YDwAAQBAJ |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions de l'Aube |pages=230–234 |isbn=978-2876782013}}</ref><ref name="Meer 2014">{{cite book |last=Meer |first=Nasar |year=2014 |title=Key Concepts in Race and Ethnicity |chapter=Euro-Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Th2JCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 |location=London and Los Angeles |publisher=SAGE Publications |edition=3rd |pages=43–46 |isbn=978-0-85702-868-6 |lccn=2013955942}}</ref> and Tariq Ramadan,<ref name="Bougarel-Clayer 2013"/><ref name="Meer 2014"/> who adopted the term in the second half of the 1990s but use it with different meanings.<ref name="Meer 2014"/> The foremost Western, Non-Muslim scholars of political science and/or Islamic studies involved in the debate on "Euro-Islam" are Jocelyne Cesari, Jørgen S. Nielsen, and Olivier Roy.<ref name="Bougarel-Clayer 2013"/><ref name="Cesari 2010"/>

==Proponents== ===Bassam Tibi=== German-Syrian Bassam Tibi is considered the original coiner of the term "Euro-Islam",<ref name="Meer 2014"/> which he used for the first time in his 1992 paper ''Les conditions d'une "Euro-Islam"'', published in 1995,<ref name="Tibi 1995"/> to describe a type of Islam that embraces Western political values, such as liberal democracy, religious pluralism, secularism, tolerance, and the separation between religion and state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/slot1_071405.html|title = Q&A: Islam and Europe – New York Times}}</ref> He argues that Muslims in Europe must create a specific form of Islam that can coexist with European values.<ref name="Tibi 2010">{{cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |author-link=Bassam Tibi |year=2010 |chapter=Euro-Islam: An Alternative to Islamization and Ethnicity of Fear |editor-last=Baran |editor-first=Zeyno |title=The Other Muslims: Moderate and Secular |location=New York City |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages=157–174 |doi=10.1057/9780230106031_10 |isbn=978-0-230-62188-6 |s2cid=148008368}}</ref> The term reflects a concept for the integration of Muslims as European citizens, often assuming a liberal and progressive interpretation based on the idea of Europeanizing Islam.<ref name="Tibi 2010"/> Tibi dissociates himself from the Islamists, who reject Euro-Islam; he estimates that they amount to 3–5% of the Muslims currently living in Europe. He says they are nevertheless a dangerous minority since they want to "hijack" the Muslim community and other values of civil society. More precisely, Tibi seeks to dissociate his reasoning on Euro-Islam from that of Tariq Ramadan, whom he considers a rival within Islam in Europe.<ref name="Meer 2014"/>

Tibi speaks of the need of Muslims to become "European citizens of the heart".<ref>See Tibi's article "A Migration Story: From Muslim Immigrants to European "Citizens of the Heart?"" in: The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs Vol. 31 (Winter 2007) 1: 191–210.</ref> Tibi insists that Euro-Islam means secularity, the acceptance of separation between religion and state, as well as that Muslims living in Europe should embrace European values.<ref name="AlSayyad 2002"/> As contrast he sees the ghettoization of the Muslims with potential for conflict.<ref name="Tibi 2010"/> Therefore, Euro-Islam is for Tibi a way out from the issue of the ethnicization of Muslim migration in Europe and a democratic alternative to the so-called "ethnicity of fear".<ref name="Tibi 2010"/><ref>On the ethnicization of Islam in Europe see Tibi's chapter in Roland Hsu (Ed.), Ethnic Europe: Mobility, Identity, and Conflict in a Globalized World, Stanford University Press, 2010, pp. 127–156; also Bassam Tibi, "Ethnicity of Fear? Islamic Migration and the Ethnicization of Islam in Europe," in: Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010, pp. 126–157.</ref> Despite his efforts for the establishment of European Islam, after 25 years of leadership towards promoting it as a driving force of reform among Muslims living in Europe, Bassam Tibi in 2016 announced "I capitulate" in the German political magazine ''Cicero'', stating that the "headscarf Islam" has triumphed over the "Euro-Islam".<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=26 May 2016 |title=Islamologe Bassam Tibi: "Ich kapituliere" |url=https://www.cicero.de/kultur/islamologe-bassam-tibi-ich-kapituliere |magazine=Cicero |location=Berlin |language=de |issn=1613-4826 |access-date=21 January 2021 |quote=Der Islamologe und gebürtige Syrer Bassam Tibi sieht keine Chancen mehr für einen europäischen Islam. Im Magazin Cicero (Juni-Ausgabe) schreibt er, dass der „Kopftuch-Islam" über den „Euro-Islam" gesiegt habe: „Den Euro-Islam wird es nicht geben. Ich kapituliere." Sein Essay ist der erste Teil einer neuen Cicero-Serie mit dem Titel: „Gehört der Islam zu Deutschland?"}}</ref>

=== Tariq Ramadan === Tariq Ramadan is erroneously considered to be one of the coiners of the term "European Islam".<ref name="Meer 2014"/> Ramadan calls for creating a new European-Muslim identity in his book ''To Be a European Muslim'' (1999).<ref name="Bougarel-Clayer 2013"/><ref>The origin of the term predates Ramadan's book. Bassam Tibi coined the term in his 1992 paper ''Les conditions d'une "Euro-Islam"'', published in {{cite book |editor1-last=Bistolfi |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Zabbal |editor2-first=François |year=1995 |title=Islams d'Europe: Intégration ou Insertion Communautaire? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=So1YDwAAQBAJ |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions de l'Aube |pages=230–234 |isbn=978-2876782013}}</ref> He demands participation of Muslims in social and cultural life in conformation with European culture and Muslim ethics and says Muslims should disassociate themselves from Saudi Arabia<ref>{{cite web|first=Tariq |last=Ramadan|author-link=Tariq Ramadan|url= http://mondediplo.com/2000/06/12muslim |title=Who speaks for Europe's Muslims?|date= June 2000|publisher=mondediplo.com}}</ref> and Islamic terrorism. He also thinks that European Muslims "need to separate Islamic principles from their cultures of origin and anchor them in the cultural reality of Western Europe."<ref>N. Le Quesne, "Trying to Bridge A Great Divide" in ''Time''</ref> However, Ramadan says that "Europeans also must start considering Islam as a European religion."<ref name="Ahram" />

===Maria Luisa Maniscalco=== Maria Luisa Maniscalco, professor of Sociology at the University of Roma Tre, in her book "European Islam. Sociology of an encounter", considers that in a process of "Europeanisation" of Muslims and "Islamization" of Europe, directions of change are diverse.<ref>Maria Luisa Maniscalco, Islam Europeo. Sociologia di un incontro, Milano, FrancoAngeli, 2014.</ref> While family law, the status of women, religious freedom, social justice and criminal laws are still areas of high controversy within Islam, in Europe and elsewhere, and in comparison with European societies, attempts to Islamize modernity performed in European territory and in dialogue with Europe express creativity and innovation capacity. According to Maniscalco, when different segments of the Muslim world in Europe propose themselves and act as "active minorities", being able to take leadership and provide new impetus towards a dynamic and positive meeting, this will be significant for the future of Europe.<ref>{{cite web|first=Francesco |last=Antonelli|title= La fede trovata nella cittadinanza in Il Manifesto, 20 febbraio 2015|date=19 February 2015|url=http://ilmanifesto.info/la-fede-trovata-nella-cittadinanza/|publisher=ilmanifesto.info}}</ref>

===Xavier Bougarel=== Xavier Bougarel, research fellow at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique in the Ottoman and Turkish Studies unit, thinks that Balkan Muslims are playing an important role in shaping Islam in Europe towards a European Islam. With the possible EU enlargement towards the Balkans, about eight million Muslims would become EU citizens, doubling the number of Muslims in the EU-27 bloc.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.epc.eu/en/er.asp?AI=559&LV=293&PG=ER%2FEN%2Fdetail&TYP=ER&see=y&t=2 |title=European Policy Centre Website<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=13 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929204709/http://www.epc.eu/en/er.asp?AI=559&LV=293&PG=ER%2FEN%2Fdetail&TYP=ER&see=y&t=2 |archive-date=29 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bougarel explores Balkan Islam which is often called "European Islam" because it resulted from indigenous and largely secularized in opposition to "a non-European Islam" that embody not only the predominantly Muslim countries but also the Muslim populations newly settled in Western Europe. Xavier Bougarel proposes replacing these culturalist visions with an accurate comparison that takes into account the nuances of Islam in Western Europe and the Balkans.<ref>Xavier Bougarel, Balkans. Les différentes facettes de l'islam, in P@ges Europe, La Documentation française DILA, 1° aprile 2014</ref>

===Jocelyne Cesari=== Jocelyne Cesari, Professor of Religion and Politics and Director of Research at Edward Cadbury Centre at University of Birmingham, as well as President of European Academy of Religion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/staff/profiles/tr/cesari-jocelyne.aspx|title=Professor Jocelyne Cesari – Department of Theology and Religion – University of Birmingham|website=www.birmingham.ac.uk|language=en-gb|access-date=3 March 2019}}</ref> says that while Islam is perceived as colliding with European secular values "Islam is simply a religion."<ref name="Ahram">{{cite web|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/751/fo2.htm|title=Enemy within|publisher= Al Ahram Weekly|year=2005|access-date=11 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709074504/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/751/fo2.htm|archive-date=9 July 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to Cesari, Muslims need to reveal the "genuine tolerant face of Islam, to show its diversity and reveal to the world that an intellectual such as Muhammad Abduh is the best example for a modern thinker."<ref name="Ahram" />

Cesari talks of the secularization of individual Islamic practices and of Islamic institutions, as well as the efforts Muslims are making to maintain the relevancy of Islamic legal systems and what she calls the "gender jihad".<ref>{{cite book|isbn=1403971463|title= When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States |first=J. |last=Cesari|date= 21 February 2006 |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan US }}</ref> She thinks that Islam should be merged into European culture and that Islamic culture should be added to Europe's educational curricula.<ref name="Ahram" /> She has also held post as research associate at the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Harvard University and director of Islamopedia Online.

===Jørgen S. Nielsen=== Jørgen S. Nielsen, professor of Islamic studies at the University of Copenhagen, says that "Europeanizing" Islam "requires changes in relations between the sexes, in relations between parents and children, significant changes in attitudes to people of other religions, and in attitudes toward the State."<ref>Peter Ford, "[https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0224/p10s01-woeu.html Europe's rising class of believers: Muslims]", ''The Christian Science Monitor'', 24 February 2005</ref> Nielsen believes that this is happening. While only a minority of Muslims are assimilating completely with secular European culture, "the majority are sticking to their religion but divorcing it from the cultural tradition and redressing it in a new culture." Nielsen also argues that the emergence of a European Islam is not only linked to the Muslim communities in Europe, but also to structures inherited from European society and the State.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nielsen |first=Jørgen S. |author-link=Jørgen S. Nielsen |year=1999 |title=Towards a European Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSiGDAAAQBAJ |location=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |series=Migration, Minorities, and Citizenship |doi=10.1057/9780230379626 |isbn=978-0-333-72374-6}}</ref>

===Other approaches to integration=== ====Robert S. Leiken==== Robert S. Leiken says that both multiculturalism and assimilation have failed, and that an integration policy still needs to be developed, something that will not happen overnight.<ref name="Ahram" />

==European Commission proposal== Following the failed car bomb attacks in London and the failed Glasgow airport attack in June 2007, the European Commission started pooling ideas on how to tackle radical Islam and create a "European Islam", i.e. an Islam which is a more tolerant "European" branch of the faith.<ref name=EUobserver>Renata Goldirova, "[http://euobserver.com/9/24436 Brussels questions EU capitals over approach to Islam]" in ''the EUobserver'', 6 July 2007</ref> EU home affairs commissioner Franco Frattini also sent out an 18-question survey asking EU member states how they address violent radicalisation, mainly related to an abusive interpretation of Islam.{{clarify|date=January 2016}} In addition, Mr Frattini wants to pursue and further the idea of establishing a so-called "European Islam" or "Islam de l'Europe" – something floated by France's then interior minister Nicolas Sarkozy in 2006.<ref name=EUobserver/>

==See also== {{Portal|Europe|Islam}} * American Islam (term) * Islam and democracy * Islam and feminism * Islam and secularism * Islam in Europe * Islam in Russia * LGBTQ people and Islam * Liberal and progressive movements within Islam * Muslim world * Political aspects of Islam * Religion in the European Union

==References== ===Citations=== {{reflist}}

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Nielsen |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Muslim Minorities |volume=27 |pages=35–49 |doi=10.1163/9789004362529_004 |isbn=978-90-04-36249-9 |issn=1570-7571 |lccn=2017058914}} *{{cite book |last=Hashas |first=Mohammed |year=2018 |title=The Idea of European Islam: Religion, Ethics, Politics and Perpetual Modernity |location=London |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315106397 |isbn=9780367509743 |s2cid=158337114}} *{{cite journal |last=Karić |first=Enes |author-link=Enes Karić |date=2002 |title=Is 'Euro-Islam' a Myth, Challenge, or a Real Opportunity for Muslims and Europe? |journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs |location=London |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=435–442 |doi=10.1080/1360200022000027375 |s2cid=144393965 |issn=1360-2004}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Martikainen |editor1-first=Tuomas |editor2-last=Mapril |editor2-first=José |editor3-last=Khan |editor3-first=Adil Hussain |year=2019 |title=Muslims at the Margins of Europe: Finland, Greece, Ireland and Portugal |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Muslim Minorities |volume=32 |isbn=978-90-04-40455-7 |issn=1570-7571 |lccn=2019023090}} *{{cite web |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/euro-islam-v-eurabia-defining-the-muslim-presence-europe |title=Euro-Islam v. "Eurabia": Defining the Muslim Presence in Europe |last=Merdjanova |first=Ina |date=30 April 2008 |website=www.wilsoncenter.org |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars |access-date=21 January 2021}} *{{cite book |last=Nielsen |first=Jørgen S. |author-link=Jørgen S. Nielsen |year=1999 |title=Towards a European Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSiGDAAAQBAJ |location=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |series=Migration, Minorities, and Citizenship |doi=10.1057/9780230379626 |isbn=978-0-333-72374-6}} *{{cite book |last=Nielsen |first=Jørgen S. |year=2012 |orig-date=2007 |chapter=The Question of Euro-Islam: Restriction or Opportunity? |editor1-last=al-Azmeh |editor1-first=Aziz |editor2-last=Fokas |editor2-first=Effie |title=Islam in Europe: Diversity, Identity, and Influence |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=34–48 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511809309.004 |isbn=9780511809309 |s2cid=143052880}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Račius |editor-first=Egdūnas |year=2020 |title=Islam in Post-communist Eastern Europe: Between Churchification and Securitization |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Muslim Minorities |volume=35 |isbn=978-90-04-42534-7 |issn=1570-7571 |lccn=2020907634}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Šuško |editor-first=Dževada |year=2019 |title=Both Muslim and European: Diasporic and Migrant Identities of Bosniaks |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Muslim Minorities |volume=30 |isbn=978-90-04-39402-5 |issn=1570-7571 |lccn=2018061684}} *{{cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |author-link=Bassam Tibi |year=2010 |chapter=Euro-Islam: An Alternative to Islamization and Ethnicity of Fear |editor-last=Baran |editor-first=Zeyno |title=The Other Muslims: Moderate and Secular |location=New York City |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages=157–174 |doi=10.1057/9780230106031_10 |isbn=978-0-230-62188-6 |s2cid=148008368}}

===Further reading=== *{{cite magazine |last=Akyol |first=Riada Asimovic |date=13 January 2019 |title=Bosnia Offers a Model of Liberal European Islam |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/01/bosnia-offers-model-liberal-european-islam/579529/ |url-status=live |magazine=The Atlantic |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113153354/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/01/bosnia-offers-model-liberal-european-islam/579529/ |archive-date=13 January 2019 |access-date=18 April 2021}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Allievi |editor1-first=Stefano |editor2-last=Maréchal |editor2-first=Brigitte |editor3-last=Dassetto |editor3-first=Felice |editor4-last=Nielsen |editor4-first=Jørgen S. |editor4-link=Jørgen S. Nielsen |year=2003 |title=Muslims in the Enlarged Europe: Religion and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sVAEAAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Muslim Minorities |isbn=978-90-04-13201-6 |issn=1570-7571 |lccn=2003049569 |s2cid=142974009}} *{{cite book |last=Aščerić-Todd |first=Ines |year=2015 |title=Dervishes and Islam in Bosnia: Sufi Dimensions to the Formation of Bosnian Muslim Society |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=The Ottoman Empire and its Heritage |volume=58 |doi=10.1163/9789004288447 |isbn=978-90-04-27821-9 |issn=1380-6076 |s2cid=127053309}} *{{cite web |url=https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/questions-dislam/lislam-dans-le-sud-est-europeen |title=L'Islam dans le Sud-Est Européen |last1=Bencheikh |first1=Ghaleb |last2=Brahimi-Semper |first2=Adam |date=19 May 2019 |website=www.franceculture.fr |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=France Culture |access-date=25 March 2021}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Bougarel |editor1-first=Xavier |editor2-last=Clayer |editor2-first=Nathalie |year=2001 |title=Le Nouvel Islam Balkanique. Les Musulmans, acteurs du post-communisme, 1990–2000 |location=Paris |publisher=Maisonneuve et Larose |language=fr |isbn=2-7068-1493-4}} *{{cite book |last=Ghodsee |first=Kristen |year=2010 |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9068.html |title=Muslim Lives in Eastern Europe: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Transformation of Islam in Postsocialist Bulgaria |location=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press |series=Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics |isbn=978-0-691-13955-5 |jstor=j.ctt7sk20 |oclc=677987523}} *{{cite journal |last1=Isani |first1=Mujtaba |last2=Schlipphak |first2=Bernd |date=August 2017 |title=In the European Union we trust: European Muslim attitudes toward the European Union |editor-last=Schneider |editor-first=Gerald |journal=European Union Politics |publisher=SAGE Publications |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=658–677 |doi=10.1177/1465116517725831 |eissn=1741-2757 |issn=1465-1165 |lccn=00234202 |oclc=43598989 |s2cid=158771481}} *{{EI3|last=Nielsen|first=Jørgen S.|title=European Islam (as a concept)|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/european-islam-as-a-concept-COM_27822?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=albanians|year=2021}} *{{cite book |last=Popović |first=Alexandre |year=1986 |title=L'Islam balkanique: les musulmans du sud-est européen dans la période post-ottomane |location=Berlin |publisher=Osteuropa-Institut an der Freien Universität Berlin |series=Balkanologische Veröffentlichungen |volume=11 |language=fr |isbn=9783447025980 |oclc=15614864}} *{{cite news |last=Stieger |first=Cyrill |date=5 October 2017 |title=Die Flexibilität der slawischen Muslime |url=https://www.nzz.ch/international/die-flexibilitaet-der-slawischen-muslime-ld.1320149 |work=Neue Zürcher Zeitung |location=Zürich |language=de |access-date=25 March 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005125116/https://www.nzz.ch/international/die-flexibilitaet-der-slawischen-muslime-ld.1320149 |archive-date=5 October 2017}} *{{cite journal |last=Zheliazkova |first=Antonina |date=July 1994 |title=The Penetration and Adaptation of Islam in Bosnia from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=5 |issue=2: ''Islam in The Balkans'' |pages=187–208 |doi=10.1093/jis/5.2.187 |eissn=1471-6917 |issn=0955-2340 |jstor=26195615 |s2cid=144333779}}

==External links== *[https://www.rferl.org/a/1067446.html Islam: The Challenges Of European Integration And Muslim Identity], Radio Free Europe *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131207194634/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12812201/ Islam à la française? MSNBC Article] *[http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-878/i.html Muslims in Germany: Vanguards of "Euro-Islam"?]

{{Islam in Europe}} {{European Muslims}}

Category:Islam in Europe Category:Islamic branches Category:Neologisms Category:Liberal and progressive movements within Islam