{{short description|Ethical belief that actions are morally good only if they benefit others}}
In [[ethical philosophy]], '''altruism''' (also called the '''ethic of altruism''', '''moralistic altruism''', and '''ethical altruism''') is an ethical doctrine that holds that the [[morality|moral]] value of an individual's actions depends solely on the impact of those actions on other individuals, regardless of the consequences for the actor. [[James Fieser]] states the altruist dictum as:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/|title=Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|website=www.iep.utm.edu}}</ref> <blockquote>"An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent."</blockquote> [[Auguste Comte]]'s version of altruism calls for living for the sake of others. One who holds to either of these ethics is known as an "altruist".
==Overview== The word "altruism" ({{langx|fr|altruisme}}, from {{langx|fr|autrui|lit=other people|label=none}}, derived {{ety|la|alter|other}}) was coined by [[Auguste Comte]], the French founder of [[positivism]], in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a [[moral obligation]] to renounce self-interest and live for others. Comte says, in his {{lang|fr|Catéchisme Positiviste}},<ref name="comte">{{cite book|author-link=Auguste Comte|last=Comte|first=August|title=Catéchisme positiviste|date=1852|lang=fr}} or {{cite book|author-link=Auguste Comte|last=Comte|first=August|title=Catechism of Positivism|translator-first=R.|translator-last=Congreve|location=London|publisher=Kegan Paul|date=1891}}</ref> that:
<blockquote>[The] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of obligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This ["to live for others"], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely.</blockquote>
The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' says that for Comte's altruism, "The first principle of morality... is the regulative supremacy of social sympathy over the self-regarding instincts."<ref name="catholicencyclopedia">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01369a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Altruism|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Author [[Gabriel Moran]], (professor in the department of Humanities and the Social Sciences, New York University) says "The law and duty of life in altruism [for Comte] was summed up in the phrase: Live for others."<ref name="moran">Gabriel Moran ''Christian Religion and National Interests''</ref>
Various [[philosophers]] define the doctrine in various ways, but all definitions generally revolve around a moral obligation to benefit others or the pronouncement of moral value in serving others rather than oneself. Philosopher [[C. D. Broad]] defines altruism as "the doctrine that each of us has a special obligation to benefit others."<ref name="cheney">Cheney, D. R. (Editor), ''Broad's critical essays in moral philosophy'' (pp. 283–301). London: Allen & Unwin.</ref> Philosopher W. G. Maclagan defines it as "a duty to relieve the distress and promote the happiness of our fellows... Altruism is to... maintain quite simply that a man may and should discount altogether his own pleasure or happiness as such when he is deciding what course of action to pursue."<ref name="maclagan">''Self and Others: A Defense of Altruism'' Philosophical Quarterly 4 (1954): pp 109–110.</ref>
==As consequentialist ethics== Altruism is often seen as a form of [[consequentialism]], as it indicates that an action is ethically right if it brings good consequences to others.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Altruism|url=https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/altruism|website=Ethics Unwrapped|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> Altruism may be seen as similar to [[utilitarianism]], however an essential difference is that the latter prescribes acts that maximize good consequences for all of society, while altruism prescribes maximizing good consequences for everyone except the actor. [[Herbert Spencer]] argued that since the rest of society will almost always outnumber the utilitarian, a genuine utilitarian will inevitably end up practicing altruism or a form of altruism.<ref>Spencer, Herbert ''Principles of Ethics'' (1887) §85ff</ref> [[Effective altruism]] is a philosophy and social movement that maintains that the consequences of our actions — for ourselves and others — are important, and seeks to maximise the overall quality of these consequences.
In his book ''I am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics'', [[Daniel Kolak]] argues that [[open individualism]] provides a rational basis for altruism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kolak |first=Daniel |url=https://digitalphysics.ru/pdf/Kaminskii_A_V/Kolak_I_Am_You.pdf |title=I Am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics |date=2007-11-03 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-3014-7 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906163443/https://digitalphysics.ru/pdf/Kaminskii_A_V/Kolak_I_Am_You.pdf |archive-date=2024-09-06 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Rp|page=552}} According to Kolak, egoism is incoherent because the concept of a [[future self]] is incoherent, similar to the idea of [[anattā]] in Buddhist philosophy, and everyone is in reality the same being. [[Derek Parfit]] made similar arguments in the book ''[[Reasons and Persons]]'', using thought experiments such as the [[teletransportation paradox]] to illustrate the philosophical problems with [[personal identity]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parfit |first=Derek |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116300637661/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Reasons and persons |date=1984 |isbn=0-19-824615-3 |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |oclc=9827659}}</ref>
==Criticisms== [[David Kelley (philosopher)|David Kelley]], discussing [[Ayn Rand]]'s views, says that "there is no rational ground for asserting that sacrificing yourself in order to serve others is morally superior to pursuing your own (long-term, rational) self-interest. Altruism ultimately depends on non-rational 'rationales,' on mysticism in some form..." Furthermore, he holds that there is a danger of the state enforcing that moral ideal: "If self-sacrifice is an ideal — if service to others is the highest, most honorable course of action — why not force people to act accordingly?" He believes this can ultimately result in the state forcing everyone into a [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivist]] political system.<ref name="kelley">{{Cite web|title=Epistemology and Politics: Ayn Rand's Cultural Commentary | publisher=The Atlas Society | last = Kelley | first = David | date = 11 June 2010 |url=https://www.atlassociety.org//post/epistemology-and-politics-ayn-rands-cultural-commentary|access-date=2023-01-08|website=www.atlassociety.org|language=en}}</ref>
Norwegian eco-philosopher [[Arne Næss]] argues that environmental action based upon altruism — or service of the other — stems from a shrunken "egoic" concept of the self. Self-actualization will result, he argues, in the recovery of an "[[ecological self]]", in which actions formerly seen as altruistic are in reality a form of [[enlightened self-interest]].<ref name="seed">Seed, John, Macy, Joanna, Naess, Arne, & Fleming, Pat (1988). "Thinking Like a Mountain: Towards a Council of All Beings" (New Society Press)</ref>
German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two different ways in which the strong can help the weak, one which is an expression of love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence"<ref>{{cite book | last = Scheler | first = Max | title = Ressentiment | year = 1961 | pages = 88–89 }}</ref> and another which is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business."<ref>{{cite book | last = Scheler | first = Max | title = Ressentiment | year = 1961 | pages = 95–96 }}</ref> At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."<ref>{{cite book | last = Scheler | first = Max | title = Ressentiment | year = 1961 | pages = 96–97 }}</ref>
==See also== * [[Agape]] * [[Altruism]] * [[Egalitarianism]] * [[Ethical egoism]] * [[Mettā]] * [[Solidarity]] * [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]]
==References== {{Reflist}}
==External links== * [http://www.aynrandlexicon.com/lexicon/altruism.html Ayn Rand's quotes on Altruism] * [https://equityatlas.org/charitable-giving-and-philanthropy-making-an-impact-with-your-money/ Charitable Giving and Philanthropy]
[[Category:Altruism]] [[Category:Concepts in ethics]] [[Category:Virtue]]