Pinworm (parasite)

{{Short description|Species of worm}} {{About|the organism|the infection|Pinworm infection}} {{About|the nematode of the family Enterobius, known as pinworm in the US|the different nematode known as pinworm in the rest of the world|Strongyloides stercoralis}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Pinworm | image = Evermicularis SC posterior.jpg | image_alt = Pinworms (U.S.)/Threadworms (U.K.) ("Enterobius vermicularis") | image_caption = Pinworms (U.S.)/Threadworms (U.K.) (''Enterobius vermicularis'') | taxon = Enterobius | authority = Baird, 1853 | synonyms = | synonyms_ref = | type_species = | type_species_authority = | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = * ''Enterobius anthropopitheci'' (Gedoelst, 1916)<ref name="hasegawa2005" /> (chimpanzee pinworm)<ref name=NCBIEnterobius>{{cite web|author1=|title=''Enterobius''|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=51027&lvl=3&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock|website=NCBI taxonomy|publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information|access-date=28 February 2019|location=Bethesda, MD|language=en}}</ref> * ''Enterobius atelis'' Cameron, 1929<ref name="GBIF" >{{Cite web|title=GBIF Backbone Taxonomy|year=2022 |url=https://www.gbif.org/dataset/d7dddbf4-2cf0-4f39-9b2a-bb099caae36c|doi=10.15468/39omei |publisher=GBIF Secretariat |author1=Registry-Migration.Gbif.Org }}</ref> * ''Enterobius brevicauda'' Sandosham, 1950<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius buckleyi'' Sandosham, 1950<ref name="GBIF" /><ref name=NCBIEnterobius/> * ''Enterobius callithricis'' Solomon, 1932<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius duplicidens'' Buckley, 1931<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius emodensis'' <ref name=NCBIEnterobius/> * ''Enterobius foecunda'' (Linstow, 1879)<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius gregorii'' (Hugot, 1983) (disputed)<ref name="hasegawa2006" /><ref name="totkova2003"/><ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius inglisi'' <ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius interlabiata'' Sandosham, 1950<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius lagothricis'' Buckley, 1931<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius lemuris'' Baehr, 1935<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius lerouxi'' Sandosham, 1950<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius macaci'' <ref name=NCBIEnterobius/> * ''Enterobius magnispicula'' <ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius paraguerezae'' <ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius parallela'' (Linstow, 1908)<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius pesteri'' <ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius pitheci'' Cameron, 1929<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius polyoon'' (Linstow, 1909)<ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius pygatrichus'' <ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius schaefferae'' <ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius shriveri'' <ref name="GBIF" /><ref name=NCBIEnterobius/> * ''Enterobius vermicularis'' (Linnaeus, 1758)<ref name="hasegawa2005">Hasegawa et al. 2005.</ref> (human pinworm)<ref name=NCBIEnterobius/><ref name="GBIF" /> * ''Enterobius yagoi'' Sutton, 1979<ref name="GBIF" /> }}

The '''pinworm''' (species '''''Enterobius vermicularis'''''), also known as '''threadworm''' (in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand) or '''seatworm''', is a parasitic worm. It is a nematode (roundworm) and a common intestinal parasite or helminth, especially in humans.<ref name="britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> The medical condition associated with pinworm infestation is known as pinworm infection (enterobiasis)<ref name="mw_enterobiasis">Merriam-Webster: Enterobiasis</ref> (a type of helminthiasis) or less precisely as oxyuriasis in reference to the family Oxyuridae.<ref name="mw_oxyuriasis">Merriam-Webster: Oxyuriasis</ref>

Other than human, ''Enterobius vermicularis'' were reported from bonnet macaque.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zoosprint.org/showMagazineBackIssue.asp?hidMId=284|title=A Study of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata) of Pookode, Wayanad, Kerala|last=C.P.|first=Arjun|date=October 2015|website=Zoos' Print Journal|publisher=Zoo Outreach Organization|access-date=20 October 2015|archive-date=1 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401091736/http://zoosprint.org/showMagazineBackIssue.asp?hidMId=284|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other species seen in primates include ''Enterobius buckleyi'' in Orangutan<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Foitová|first1=Ivona|last2=Civáňová|first2=Kristína|last3=Baruš|first3=Vlastimil|last4=Nurcahyo|first4=Wisnu|date=2014-07-01|title=Phylogenetic relationships between pinworms (Nematoda: Enterobiinae) parasitising the critically endangered orang-utan, according to the characterisation of molecular genomic and mitochondrial markers|journal=Parasitology Research|volume=113|issue=7|pages=2455–2466|doi=10.1007/s00436-014-3892-y|issn=1432-1955|pmid=24880237|s2cid=15076891}}</ref> and ''Enterobius anthropopitheci'' in chimpanzee. ''Enterobius vermicularis'' is common in human children and transmitted via the faecal-oral route. Humans are the only natural host of ''Enterobius vermicularis''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panidis|first1=Stavros|last2=Paramythiotis|first2=Daniel|last3=Panagiotou|first3=Dimitris|last4=Batsis|first4=Georgios|last5=Salonikidis|first5=Spyridon|last6=Kaloutsi|first6=Vassiliki|last7=Michalopoulos|first7=Antonios|date=2011-01-01|title=Acute appendicitis secondary to Enterobius vermicularis infection in a middle-aged man: a case report|journal=Journal of Medical Case Reports|volume=5|article-number=559|doi=10.1186/1752-1947-5-559|issn=1752-1947|pmc=3245485|pmid=22128765 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ''Enterobius gregorii'', another human species is morphologically indistinguishable from ''Enterobius vermicularis'' except the spicule size.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=CP|first=Arjun|date=October 2015|title=A Study of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata) of Pookode, Wayanad, Kerala.|url=http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintMagazine/2015/October/7-8.pdf|journal=Zoos' Print Journal|volume=10|archive-date=21 August 2016|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821090357/http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintMagazine/2015/October/7-8.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Throughout this article, the word "pinworm" refers to ''Enterobius''. In British usage, however, pinworm refers to ''Strongyloides'', while ''Enterobius'' is called threadworm.<ref>Vanderkooi 2000, p. B-152 & B-225</ref>

== Classification == The pinworm (genus ''Enterobius'') is a type of roundworm (nematode), and three species of pinworm have been identified with certainty.<ref name="NCBI">NCBI taxonomy database 2009</ref> Humans are hosts only to ''Enterobius vermicularis'' (formerly ''Oxyurias vermicularis'').<ref name="dpdx">dpdx 2009</ref> Chimpanzees are host to ''Enterobius anthropopitheci'', which is morphologically distinguishable from the human pinworm.<ref name="hasegawa2006">Hasegawa et al. 2006</ref> Hugot (1983) claims another species affects humans, ''Enterobius gregorii'', which is supposedly a sister species of ''E. vermicularis'', and has a slightly smaller spicule (i.e., sexual organ).<ref name="Hugot 1983">Hugot 1983</ref> Its existence is controversial, however; Totkova et al. (2003) consider the evidence to be insufficient,<ref name="totkova2003">Totkova et al. 2003</ref> and Hasegawa et al. (2006) contend that ''E. gregorii'' is a younger stage of ''E. vermicularis''.<ref name="hasegawa1998">Hasegawa et al. 1998</ref><ref name="hasegawa2006" /> Regardless of its status as a distinct species, ''E. gregorii'' is considered clinically identical to ''E. vermicularis''.<ref name="dpdx"/>

== Morphology == thumb|Two female pinworms next to a ruler: The markings are 1 mm apart. The adult female has a sharply pointed posterior end, is 8 to 13 mm long, and 0.5 mm thick.<ref name="gutierrez2000p354">Gutiérrez 2005, p. 354.</ref> The adult male is considerably smaller, measuring 2 to 5 mm long and 0.2 mm thick, and has a curved posterior end.<ref name="gutierrez2000p354" /> The eggs are translucent<ref name="gutierrez2000p354" /> and have a surface that adheres to objects.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> The eggs measure 50 to 60 μm by 20 to 30 μm, and have a thick shell flattened on one side.<ref name="gutierrez2000p354" /> The small size and colourlessness of the eggs make them invisible to the naked eye, except in barely visible clumps of thousands of eggs. Eggs may contain a developing embryo or a fully developed pinworm larva.<ref name="gutierrez2000p354" /> The larvae grow to 140–150 μm in length.<ref name="cook1994p1159">Cook 1994, p. 1159</ref>

<gallery> Image:Pinworms in the Appendix (1).jpg|Pinworms are sometimes diagnosed incidentally by pathology. Micrograph of pinworms in the appendix, H&E stain Image:Pinworms in the Appendix (3).jpg|High magnification micrograph of a pinworm in cross section in the appendix, H&E stain File:Enterobius vermicularis - intermediate magnification.jpg|Partially longitudinal cross-section of ''Enterobius vermicularis'', H&E stain File:Enterobius vermicularis egg.jpg|Cross-section of early ''E. vermicularis'' egg, H&E stain File:Histopathology of enterobius vermicularis eggs, HE stain.jpg|Later ''E. vermicularis'' eggs, of the same size as early eggs but having undergone more mitoses. H&E stain Image:Evermicularis worm4 HB.jpg|Pinworms are sometimes diagnosed incidentally by pathology: Micrograph of male pinworm in cross section, alae (blue arrow), intestine (red arrow) and testis (black arrow), H&E stain Image:Enterobius vermicularis (01).tif|Pinworm eggs are easily seen under a microscope. Image:Head of Enterobius vermicularis human pinworm 5230 lores.jpg|This micrograph reveals the cephalic alae in the head region of'' E. vermicularis''. Image:Enterobius vermicularis-1.jpg|''E. vermicularis'' </gallery>

==Life cycle== thumb|Life cycle of ''E. vermicularis'' showing the stages inside and outside of the human body The entire life cycle, from egg to adult, takes place in the human gastrointestinal tract of a single host,<ref name="gutierrez2000p354" /><ref name="cook1994p1159"/> from about 2–4 weeks<ref name="cook2009p1516">Cook et al. 2009, p. 1516</ref> or about 4–8 weeks.<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> ''E. vermicularis'' molts four times; the first two within the egg before hatching and two before becoming an adult worm.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rett|first=Doug|title=Enterobius vermicularis|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Enterobius_vermicularis/|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Animal Diversity Web|language=en}}</ref>

Although infection often occurs via ingestion of embryonated eggs by inadequate hand washing or nail biting, inhalation followed by swallowing of airborne eggs may occur rarely.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /><ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> The eggs hatch in the duodenum (i.e., first part of the small intestine).<ref name="garcia1999p246" /> The emerging pinworm larvae grow rapidly to a size of 140 to 150 μm,<ref name="cook2009p1516" /> and migrate through the small intestine towards the colon.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> During this migration, they moult twice and become adults.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /><ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> Females survive for 5 to 13 weeks, and males about 7 weeks.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> The male and female pinworms mate in the ileum (i.e., last part of the small intestine),<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> whereafter the male pinworms usually die,<ref name="garcia1999p246">Garcia 1999, p. 246</ref> and are passed out with stool.<ref name="caldwell1982p307">Caldwell 1982, p. 307.</ref> The gravid female pinworms settle in the ileum, caecum (i.e., beginning of the large intestine), appendix and ascending colon,<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> where they attach themselves to the mucosa<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> and ingest colonic contents.<ref name="gutierrez2000p355" />

Almost the entire body of a gravid female becomes filled with eggs.<ref name="garcia1999p246" /> The estimations of the number of eggs in a gravid female pinworm range from about 11,000<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> to 16,000.<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> The egg-laying process begins about five weeks after initial ingestion of pinworm eggs by the human host.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> The gravid female pinworms migrate through the colon towards the rectum at a rate of 12 to 14 cm per hour.<ref name="cook1994p1159" /> They emerge from the anus, and while moving on the skin near the anus, the female pinworms deposit eggs either through (1) contracting and expelling the eggs, (2) dying and then disintegrating, or (3) bodily rupture due to the host scratching the worm.<ref name="garcia1999p246" /> After depositing the eggs, the female becomes opaque and dies.<ref name="caldwell1982p307" /> The female emerges from the anus to obtain the oxygen necessary for the maturation of the eggs.<ref name="caldwell1982p307" />

==Infection== {{Main|Pinworm infection}} ''E. vermicularis'' causes the medical condition pinworm infection also known as ''enterobiasis'', whose primary symptom is itching in the anal area.<ref> {{cite web |title= Enterobiasis leads to itching |url= http://www.patient.info/health/Threadworms.htm |access-date=20 August 2011}} </ref> Extraintestinal disease is rare and most commonly involves the female reproductive tract,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Graves |first1=B. |last2=Leder |first2=K. |last3=Sinickas |first3=V. |last4=Sheorey |first4=H. |date=February 2018 |title=Extraintestinal Enterobius vermicularis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031302517310449 |journal=Pathology |language=en |volume=50 |pages=S113–S114 |doi=10.1016/j.pathol.2017.12.322|url-access=subscription }}</ref> but spleen abscess has also been reported.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agostinis |first1=Paolo |last2=Cappello |first2=Dario |last3=Riccardi |first3=Niccolò |last4=Michelutti |first4=Teresa |last5=Orsaria |first5=Maria |last6=Zerbato |first6=Verena |last7=Di Bella |first7=Stefano |date=2023-09-11 |editor-last=Amoroso |editor-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Nori |editor2-first=Priya |editor3-last=Riedel |editor3-first=David J |title=A 25-Year-Old Woman With Long-Lasting Abdominal Pain and Spleen Abscess |url=https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/77/5/795/7269087 |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |language=en |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=795–798 |doi=10.1093/cid/ciad047 |pmid=37696671 |issn=1058-4838|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In conditions of rural poverty, ''Enterobius vermicularis'' infections are reported to be correlated with stunting and lower mean I.Q. among prepubescent children.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=6719348 | date=2019 | last1=Guan | first1=M. | last2=Han | first2=B. | title=Association between intestinal worm infection and malnutrition among rural children aged 9–11 years old in Guizhou Province, China | journal=BMC Public Health | volume=19 | issue=1 | page=1204 | doi=10.1186/s12889-019-7538-y | doi-access=free | pmid=31477069 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid=7602161 | date=1995 | last1=Bahader | first1=S. M. | last2=Ali | first2=G. S. | last3=Shaalan | first3=A. H. | last4=Khalil | first4=H. M. | last5=Khalil | first5=N. M. | title="Effects of Enterobius vermicularis infection on intelligence quotient (I.Q) and anthropometric measurements of Egyptian rural children" | journal=Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology | volume=25 | issue=1 | pages=183–194 }}</ref>

== Diagnosis and treatment == A parasitic pinworm infection can be diagnosed by examining the anal area for visible eggs or worms, ideally at night due to the nocturnal nature of ''E. vermicularis''. Another common at-home test is referred to as the “tape test”, during which tape is applied to the skin around the anus, preferably in the morning before showering or using the toilet. If any eggs are present, they will stick to the tape, which can then be taken to be examined by a medical professional. Once diagnosed, pinworm infections can be treated with an anti-parasite medication that will kill the worms.

The medications that are most commonly prescribed for pinworms are albendazole and mebendazole. Initially, a single dose will be given, then followed by a repeat dose two weeks later in order to eliminate any newly-hatched worms that may be present.{{citation needed|date=March 2026}}

==Distribution== The pinworm has a worldwide distribution,<ref name="gutierrez2000p355">Gutiérrez 2005, p. 355.</ref> and is the cause of the most common helminthiasis (parasitic worm infection) in the United States, western Europe, and Oceania.<ref name="burkhart2005p837">Burkhart & burkhart 2005, p. 837</ref> In the United States, a study by the Center of Disease Control reported an overall incidence rate of 11.4% among children.<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> Pinworms are particularly common in children, with prevalence rates in this age group having been reported as high as 61% in India, 50% in England, 39% in Thailand, 37% in Sweden, and 29% in Denmark.<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> Finger sucking has been shown to increase both incidence and relapse rates,<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> and nail biting has been similarly associated.<ref name="cook1994p1160">Cook 1994, p. 1160</ref> Because it spreads from host to host through contamination, pinworms are common among people living in close contact, and tends to occur in all people within a household.<ref name="gutierrez2000p355" /> The prevalence of pinworms is not associated with gender,<ref name="gutierrez2000p355" /> nor with any particular social class, race, or culture, but tends to have a higher rate of prevelance in those with learning difficulties.<ref name="burkhart2005p837" /> Pinworms are an exception to the tenet that intestinal parasites are uncommon in affluent communities.<ref name="burkhart2005p837" />

A fossilized nematode egg was detected in 240 million-year-old fossil dung,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mitrica|first=Dragos|date=2014-12-02|title=Scientists find 240 million-year-old parasite that infected mammals' ancestor|url=https://www.zmescience.com/science/geology/pinworm-parasite-cynodont-02122014/|access-date=2023-02-14|website=ZME Science|language=en-US}}</ref> showing that parasitic pinworms already infested pre-mammalian cynodonts. The earliest known instance of the pinworms associated with humans is evidenced by pinworm eggs found in human coprolites carbon dated to 7837 BC found in western Utah.<ref name="cook1994p1159"/>

==See also== * Roundworm, hookworm, ringworm (similarly named parasites and fungi)

==Notes== {{Reflist|32em}}

==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Hasegawa H, Ikeda Y, Fujisaki A, etal |title=Morphology of chimpanzee pinworms, Enterobius (Enterobius) anthropopitheci (Gedoelst, 1916) (Nematoda: Oxyuridae), collected from chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, on Rubondo Island, Tanzania |journal=The Journal of Parasitology |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=1314–7 |date=December 2005 |pmid=16539010 |doi=10.1645/GE-569R.1|s2cid=32110983 |ref=hasegawa2005}} * {{cite web | title = Pinworm | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/461262/pinworm | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date =8 April 2009 |ref=britannica}} * {{cite web | title = Enterobiasis | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/enterobiasis | work = Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary | publisher = Merriam-Webster | access-date =8 April 2009 |ref=mw_enterobiasis}} * {{cite web | title = Oxyuriasis | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/oxyuriasis | work = Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary | publisher = Merriam-Webster | access-date =8 April 2009 |ref=mw_oxyuriasis}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Totkova A, Klobusicky M, Holkova R, Valent M |title=Enterobius gregorii—reality or fiction? |journal=Bratislavské Lekárske Listy |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=130–3 |year=2003 |pmid=12940699 |url=http://www.bmj.sk/2003/10403-06.pdf |ref=totkova2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910222633/http://www.bmj.sk/2003/10403-06.pdf |archive-date=10 September 2011 }} * {{cite web | title = Enterobius | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=51027&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock | work = NCBI taxonomy database | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine | year = 2009 | access-date =8 April 2009 |ref=ncbi}} * {{cite web |title = Enterobiasis |url = http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/DPDx/html/Enterobiasis.htm |work = DPDx |publisher = Division of Parasitic Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date = 8 April 2009 |ref = dpdx |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131127094803/http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Enterobiasis.htm |archive-date = 27 November 2013 |url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Nakano T, Okamoto M, Ikeda Y, Hasegawa H |title=Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene and nuclear rDNA regions of Enterobius vermicularis parasitic in captive chimpanzees with special reference to its relationship with pinworms in humans |journal=Parasitology Research |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=51–7 |date=December 2006 |pmid=16788831 |doi=10.1007/s00436-006-0238-4|s2cid=32762371 |ref=hasegawa2006}} * {{cite journal |author=Hugot JP |title=[Enterobius gregorii (Oxyuridae, Nematoda), a new human parasite] |language=fr |journal=Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=403–4 |year=1983 |pmid=6416131|ref=hugot1983 |doi=10.1051/parasite/1983584403|doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Hasegawa H, Takao Y, Nakao M, Fukuma T, Tsuruta O, Ide K |title=Is Enterobius gregorii Hugot, 1983 (Nematoda: Oxyuridae) a distinct species? |journal=The Journal of Parasitology |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=131–4 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9488350 |doi=10.2307/3284542|ref=hasegawa1998|jstor=3284542 |doi-access=free }} * {{cite book | first = Yezid | last = Gutiérrez | title = Diagnostic pathology of parasitic infections with clinical correlations | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oKSEhVMVrJ4C&q=Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C%20Yezid&pg=PA354 | edition = Second | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = 354–366 | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-19-512143-8 |ref=gutierrez2000}} * {{cite book | author = Cook, Gordon C | author2 = Zumla, Alimuddin I | author-link2 = Alimuddin Zumla | title = Manson's tropical diseases | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CF2INI0O6l0C&q=Cook%20Enterobius%20vermicularis&pg=PA1515 | edition = 22nd | publisher = Saunders Elsevier | pages = 1515–1519 | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1-4160-4470-3 |ref=cook2009}} * {{cite web | title = B80: Enterobiasis | url = http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gb65.htm+b80 | work = International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) 10th Revision | publisher = World Health Organization | year = 2007 | access-date =5 December 2009 |ref=icd}} * {{cite journal |author=Cook GC |title=Enterobius vermicularis infection |journal=Gut |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=1159–62 |date=September 1994 |pmid=7959218 |pmc=1375686 |doi=10.1136/gut.35.9.1159|ref=cook1994}} * {{cite book | last = Garcia | first = Lynne Shore | title = Practical guide to diagnostic parasitology | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8AWz0cS6e9kC&q=%22scotch%20tape%20anal%20swab%22&pg=PA246 | publisher = American Society for Microbiology | pages = 246–247 | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1-55581-154-9 |ref=garcia1999}} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG |title=Assessment of frequency, transmission, and genitourinary complications of enterobiasis (pinworms) |journal=International Journal of Dermatology |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=837–40 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16207185 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02332.x|s2cid=3193432 |ref=burkhart2005}} * {{cite journal |author=Caldwell JP |date=February 1982 |title=Pinworms (Enterobius Vermicularis) |journal=Canadian Family Physician |volume=28 |pages=306–9 |pmc=2306321 |pmid=21286054|ref=caldwell1982}} * {{cite book |author=Vanderkooi M |year=2000 |title=Village Medical Manual |edition=5th|ref=vanderkooi2000}} {{Refend}}

== External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131212173519/http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/ImageLibrary/Enterobiasis_il.htm Enterobius vermicularis image library at DPD]

Category:Oxyuridomorpha Category:Parasitic nematodes of humans Category:Parasitic nematodes of mammals Category:Parasites of equines Category:Parasites of primates Category:Colorectal surgery