{{Short description|Finnish lichenologist (1853–1929)}} {{redirect|Vain.|other uses|Vain (disambiguation){{!}}Vain}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}} {{Use British English|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Edvard August Vainio | image = Vainio 1924.jpg | caption = Vainio in 1924 at age 71 | alt = Head shot of Edvard August Vainio | birth_name = Edvard Lang | birth_date = {{Birth date|1853|08|5|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Pieksämäki]], Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian Empire | death_date = {{Death date and age|1929|5|14|1853|08|5|df=y}} | death_place = [[Turku]], Finland | resting_place = | fields = Lichenology | workplaces = [[University of Helsinki]]; [[University of Turku]] | alma_mater = University of Helsinki | author_abbrev_bot = Vain.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ipni.org/a/12959-1 |title=Vainio, Edvard (Edward) August (1853–1929) |publisher=[[International Plant Names Index]] |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716044407/https://www.ipni.org/a/12959-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> }}
'''Edvard August Vainio''' (born '''Edvard Lang''';{{#tag:ref|His family name was originally Lang; in 1877 he adopted the Finnish name Wainio, with an initial "W", which was a common practice at that time in the Finnish language. In 1919, he adopted the modern spelling Vainio (see [[Edvard August Vainio#Personal life and character|below]]).{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|p=16}}<ref name="Taxonomic literature"/>|group=note|name=Naming}} 5 August 1853{{spnd}}14 May 1929) was a Finnish [[lichenology|lichenologist]]. His early works on the [[lichen]]s of [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]], his three-volume [[monograph]] on the lichen genus ''[[Cladonia]]'', and, in particular, his study of the [[taxonomy (biology)|classification]] and [[morphology (biology)|form and structure]] of lichens in Brazil, made Vainio renowned internationally in the field of lichenology.
Young Vainio's friendship with university student [[Johan Petter Norrlin]], who was nearly eleven years older, helped him develop an impressive knowledge of the local [[cryptogam]]s (ferns, mosses, algae, and fungi, including lichens) and afforded him ample opportunity to hone his collection and [[identification (biology)|identification]] techniques at an early age. It was through this association that Vainio met Norrlin's teacher, the prominent lichenologist [[William Nylander (botanist)|William Nylander]], who supported his early botanical efforts. Vainio's earliest works dealt with [[phytogeography]]—elucidating and enumerating the local flora—and are considered the earliest publications on phytogeography in the [[Finnish language]]. In these early publications he demonstrated an attention to detail and thoroughness that would become characteristic of his later work.
After graduating from the [[University of Helsinki]] in 1880, Vainio became a [[docent]], meaning he was qualified to teach academically, but without a regular salary. Despite his scientific successes and the international recognition he gained through his research, he never obtained a permanent position in this university. This was a result, he said, of his intense [[Finnish nationalism]] and desire to promote the use of the Finnish language in academia during a time of [[Finland's language strife|language strife]], when [[Latin]] dominated the [[scientific literature]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] was the predominant language of administration and education. Disillusioned with his prospects for permanent academic employment, and faced with the reality of having to provide for his family, he was obliged to accept a position with the [[Censorship in the Russian Empire|Russian censorship]] authority, which led to his ostracism by the Finnish scientific community.
Vainio described about 1900 new species, and published more than 100 scientific works. He made significant [[scientific collection]]s of lichens, and, as a result of his many years of work as [[herbarium]] curator at both the University of Helsinki, and later the [[University of Turku]], he catalogued and processed other collections from all over the world, including the Arctic and Antarctica. Because of the significance of his works on lichens in the [[tropics]] and other locales, he has been called the Father of Brazilian lichenology and the Grand Old Man of lichenology.
==Early life== [[File:Johan Peter Norrlin.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|alt=Upper body image of a seated young distinguished-looking gentleman with moustache|[[Johan Petter Norrlin]] (shown here at 23 years old) was Edvard Lang's neighbour and early mentor, and later became his brother-in-law.]] Edvard Lang was born on 5 August 1853 in [[Pieksämäki]] in the eastern [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], part of the [[Russian Empire]]. Brought up in a poor home,{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=31}} he was one of several children of [[bailiff]] Carl Johan Lang and his wife Adolfina Polén.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|pp=3–4}} Edvard's early interest in [[natural history]] was manifested in his interest in flowers and his [[mineral collecting|mineral collection]];{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=5}} his favourite flower was the [[marsh willowherb]] (''Epilobium palustre''). His eldest brother, {{ill|Joel Napoleon Lang|fi}}, was also an avid naturalist, and would later become a well-known [[jurist|legal scholar]].{{sfn|Linkola|1929|p=155}} In the early 1860s, the family relocated to the [[municipalities of Finland|municipality]] of [[Hollola]] near [[Lake Vesijärvi]] in southern Finland due to his father's work, settling in a farm near the neighbouring municipality of [[Asikkala]]. Here Edvard met [[Johan Petter Norrlin]], the son of a neighbour. At the time, Norrlin, who was 11 years his senior, was a university student studying [[phytogeography]], or the geographical distribution of plant species. Norrlin would marry Lang's sister in 1873.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|p=16}}
Norrlin had become interested in [[cryptogam]]s after hearing university lectures given by the well-known lichenologist [[William Nylander (botanist)|William Nylander]] at the [[Imperial Alexander University]] (today known as the [[University of Helsinki]]), and he became Nylander's student. Norrlin developed an expertise in the local cryptogam flora, particularly the [[lichen]]s, which are quite diverse in Finland. Lang accompanied and assisted him during field trips in the summers of 1868 and 1869 in the vicinity of Lake Vesijärvi, eagerly absorbing and accumulating knowledge.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=4}}{{sfn|Alava|1998|page=1}} When Norrlin published ''Beiträge zur Flora des südöstlichen Tavastlands'' ("Writings on the flora of south-eastern [[Tavastia (historical province)|Tavastia Province]]") in 1870, he credited Lang—at the time still a schoolboy—for numerous and valuable contributions to his work.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=5}}
==Education== [[File:HU-main-building-1870.jpg|thumb|right|alt=White building with large columns in front of entrance|Imperial Alexander University around 1870]] Lang graduated from the {{ill|Jyväskylän Lyseon lukio|fi|lt=Jyväskylä Secondary School}} in [[Jyväskylä]] in 1870.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=154}} He began his studies at the Imperial Alexander University the same year, and under the guidance of Norrlin studied botany, phytogeography, and lichenology.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|pages=4–6}} As a young student, in 1871, Lang was granted membership in the [[Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica]] (Finnish Association for Science and Flora), which is the oldest [[scientific society]] in Finland.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|p=16}} Lang was particularly skilled at identifying and collecting specimens in the field. During the summers of 1873 and 1874 he collected 472 different lichen species from the [[Parish (administrative division)|parishes]] of [[Luhanka]] and [[Korpilahti]] in [[Central Finland]], and in spring of the following year, he recorded 324 species in the vicinity of [[Vyborg]].{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=5}} In one of Nylander's publications,<ref name="Nylander 1874"/> eleven new species were [[species description|described]] based on the collections of "E. Lang". A grateful Nylander ordered and sent Lang a microscope in the summer of 1874 to help him with his botanical studies.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|p=17}} In letters between Norrlin and Nylander, the latter praised Lang's collecting ability, writing "He is a sharp and fit collector of lichens. With a little work and the help of a decent microscope, he will probably soon surpass everyone else in the North, where no one is better than he in this respect."{{#tag:ref|"Hän on terävä ja kelpo jäkälien kerääjä. Hieman työskentelemällä ja kelvollisen mikroskoopin avulla hän varmaan pian ylittää kaikki muut Pohjolassa, jossa ei näy ketään häntä parempaa kykyä tässä suhteessa."<ref>{{harvnb|Tarmio|2000|page=159}}</ref>|group=note}} Lang received his [[Candidate of Philosophy]] in 1874 and began work on his [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate degree]].{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=2}}
During his time as a [[postgraduate education|graduate student]], Vainio, who had by now given up his original surname,<ref group="note" name="Naming"/> published two works on the cryptogams of Finland: ''Lichenes in viciniis Viburgi observati'' ("Lichens observed in the vicinity of Viburg") (1878)<ref name="Wainio 1878"/> and ''Florula Tavastiae orientalis'' ("Flora of east Tavastia") (1878),<ref name="Wainio 1878b"/> which dealt with the results of his collecting excursions.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=8}} In these publications, Vainio analysed and identified the lichen material he collected from the Vyborg region, including new species observations, without assistance from Norrlin or Nylander.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=159}} Another early publication, ''Adjumenta ad Lichenographiam Lapponiae fennicae atque Fenniae borealis'' ("Adjustments to the lichens of Finnish Lapland and northern Finland"; published in two parts in 1881 and 1883) was based on material he had collected in 1875 and 1877 in desolate locations near the [[Finland–Russia border|border]] of the Grand Duchy of Finland and Russia, including [[North Karelia]], [[Kainuu]], [[Koillismaa]], eastern [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]], and [[Russian Karelia]].{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=8}}<ref name="Vitikainen 1996"/> Vainio included 626 species in this publication, of which 70 were [[Species description|new to science]].{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=30}} He had botanical explorations in [[Kuusamo]] and along the [[Paatsjoki River]], but his time on the Russian side of the border was cut short because of lack of funding.{{sfn|Uotila|2013|page=85}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 200 | image1 = Cladonia sobolescens? (4504249827).jpg | alt1 = Bushy green lichen growing on ground amongst mosses | image2 = Cladonia subradiata - Flickr - pellaea.jpg | alt2 = Greenish lichen comprising erect podetia growing on ground with mosses | image3 = Cladonia transcendens 140458.jpg | alt3 = Greenish-grey lichen of erect podetia topped with bulbous red formations | footer = Vainio described many new ''[[Cladonia]]'' species, including ''[[Cladonia sobolescens|C. sobolescens]]'' (top), ''[[Cladonia subradiata|C. subradiata]]'' (middle), and ''[[Cladonia transcendens|C. transcendens]]'' (bottom). }} In these works—considered the earliest publications on phytogeography in the Finnish language—Vainio meticulously catalogued the moisture, light, and soil conditions of the places where he collected, and defined terms that would eventually become standard terminology in the field.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=6}}{{sfn|Haikurainen|1961|pages=6–7}} Vainio's work has been described as ahead of its time, because he not only described [[plant community|plant communities]] but also identified ecological factors that increased or decreased the dominance of different kinds of vegetation and [[Species distribution|distributional]] limits for different species.{{sfn|Kaila|Vasander|2010|p=66}} As noted by [[Adolf Hugo Magnusson]] in his 1930 obituary of Vainio, the characteristics that would represent his later work were evident already in these early publications: {{Quote|the keen observations, the detailed descriptions and the careful study of the specimens in question. He was never superficial in his work nor prone to hasty inferences however numerous and extensive were the collections submitted to him for examination and for determination. An extreme trustworthiness, thorough investigation and unyielding consistency distinguish the whole of his work.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=6}}}}
Nylander, however, disliked Vainio's use of Finnish as the language of his publications and this marked the start of a downward turn in their professional relationship.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=160}} In a letter to Norrlin (dated 20 March 1876), he wrote {{Quote|It is sad for the science as also for Mr Candidate Lang that he has written in Finnish the mentioned work. If he does not want to accommodate Latin he is lost for the intelligent world, and it really would be a great misfortune because he has an excellent talent. But it is true that among the characteristics of childhood and youth, often generously granted by nature, the most common is obstinacy, which has a damaging and destroying direction, destroying both for the individual and his neighborhood. To write special botany in Finnish goes out as if a Frenchman would deliver such a work in Breton or Basque or another of the dialects of the 12 tribes, which jointly constitute the French nation.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=18}}}}
In 1880, Vainio defended his [[doctoral dissertation|dissertation]] for his licentiate. According to the practice of the time, this qualified him as a [[Docent#Northern Europe|docent]] and gave him teaching rights at the University of Helsinki,{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=160}} although there was no guarantee of a regular salary.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=25}} His thesis was a study of the [[phylogeny]] (evolutionary relationships) of ''[[Cladonia]]'', a large and widespread [[genus]] of [[fruticose lichen]]s that includes the [[reindeer lichen]] and [[British soldiers lichen]] species. Titled ''Tutkimus Cladoniain phylogenetillisestä kehityksestä'' ("An Investigation on the Phylogenetic Development of the Cladoniae"), this work was the first dissertation on [[natural science]] that was published in the Finnish language.{{sfn|Kaila|Vasander|2010|p=65}} According to his colleague and biographer [[Kaarlo Linkola]], "this paper of 62 printed pages was sensational on account of its modern theme, as well as its youthful freshness and its originality".{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=7}} Vainio supported the [[theory of evolution]] in his work, and proposed that the science of [[systematics]] required an examination of phylogeny, rather than mechanical categorization based on sometimes superficial characters.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=3}} At the same time, Vainio's research contradicted some of Nylander's previous work by identifying flaws in the way he defined species in ''Cladonia''.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=161}} In this work, Vainio maintained that the theory of evolution had disrupted the foundations of [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] to such an extent that it essentially had to be rebuilt. Such a radical outlook was viewed with some reservation by [[Johan Reinhold Sahlberg]] (docent in [[entomology]]) and [[Sextus Otto Lindberg]] (Professor of Botany), who were charged with assessing Vainio's work. In the end, however, they noted Vainio's detailed valuable [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] investigations and recommended that the dissertation be approved.{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=30}}
==Career== During his undergraduate days, Vainio took on several temporary positions to support himself. These included work as a [[translation|translator]] of Swedish and Finnish for the [[Uusimaa]] Provincial Government in 1874; teaching natural history, physics, and gymnastics at a school (Viipurin Realikoulu) in Vyborg in 1875; and, from 1879 to 1881, teaching at the {{ill|Jyväskylä seminary|fi|Jyväskylän Lyseon lukio}}. In 1880, when Vainio qualified to become a docent at the University of Helsinki,<ref name="Botanisches Zentralblatt 1880"/> he started [[lecturer|lecturing]] on botany.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=8}} These were the first botany courses given in the Finnish language; Swedish continued to be the primary language for instruction at the university until 1918.{{sfn|Collander|1965|pp=90–91}} His courses consisted of lessons in [[microscopy]], which were mostly given in his home, or on [[field trip]]s to hunt for cryptogams.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=15}} Even during his docentship, Vainio continued to work additional modest jobs. He taught botany at the {{ill|Leppäsuo|fi}} horticultural school (1878–1882), and taught natural sciences at the Swedish Private Lyceum (1879–1882), the Swedish Real Lyceum (1881–1884), the Finnish Primary School (1882–1884), the Finnish Girls' School (1882–1884) and the Finnish Graduate School (1882–1884).{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=154}} He did not enjoy teaching, and is said to have had difficulties in maintaining discipline in his classrooms.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=14}}
===Work abroad=== Early in his career, with the help of [[grant (money)|grants]] from the university, Vainio made several scientific expeditions abroad.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=8}} In 1880, accompanying Swedish physician and explorer {{ill|Ernst Almquist|sv}}, he investigated the eastern slopes of the Middle Urals in western Siberia.{{sfn|Schulz-Korth|1930|page=1}} These included the [[Konda River]] area extending from the river [[Irtysh]] to Lake Satyga. The results of this botanical excursion were not published until almost 50 years later.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=3}} In 1882, he took trips to [[Berlin]] and [[Rostock]] to botanical museums and [[Herbarium|herbaria]] to study the ''Cladonia'' specimens located there; and in 1884–1885 to botanical museums in [[Moscow]], [[Vienna]], [[Geneva]], [[Paris]], and [[London]].{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=7}} It was during a second trip to Paris in 1889–1890 that he would meet his future wife.{{sfn|Schulz-Korth|1930|page=2}} [[File:Vista parcial da Serra do Caraça, Catas Altas MG.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Building with tall spire nestled at the foot of a mountain range in the background|During his time in the Caraça Mountains, Vainio stayed at the Santuário do Caraça, shown here. The Pico do Sol is the highest peak in the upper right.]] Vainio was one of the first European lichenologists to perform field work in the [[tropics]].<ref name="Buck 1994"/> After being granted a [[stipend]] from the university, in 1885 Vainio undertook a year-long expedition to Brazil, collecting primarily lichens in the vicinity of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and in [[Minas Gerais]]. He spent some time initially in Sítio (now known as [[Antônio Carlos, Minas Gerais|Antônio Carlos]]), and then in Lafayette (now [[Conselheiro Lafaiete]]). Many of his [[type (biology)|type]] specimens were collected from these locations.{{sfn|Ahti|1998|page=41}} He wrote favourably of the conditions there: "Sítio was a very convenient place for my work: it offered opportunities to study the plant life in the forests as well as in the grasslands. The dryness of the air was also favorable for getting my specimens properly (pressed) and dried."{{sfn|Galloway|1998|page=62}} In Rio de Janeiro, Vainio met the French botanist, and later [[landscape designer]] for Brazilian royalty, [[Auguste François Marie Glaziou]], who advised him on possible travel routes.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=414}} It was also during this initial part of the trip that he met a French naturalist named Germain, with whom he had several collecting excursions. Germain advised Vainio against travelling via his originally intended route, and convinced him instead to visit the biodiverse {{ill|Caraça Mountains|pt|Serra do Caraça}}, north of [[Ouro Branco, Minas Gerais|Ouro Branco]]. It was here that the {{ill|Caraça sanctuary|pt|Colégio do Caraça}} was located, a [[monastery]] where Germain himself had stayed, and which welcomed scientists as guests.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=5}} Some of the [[monk]]s residing there were interested in science and collected insects and plants.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=415}} The monastery had a large library, including works on the local flora, such as [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]]' influential work ''[[Flora Brasiliensis]]''. The French entomologist [[Pierre-Émile Gounelle]] stayed at the monastery while Vainio was there, and some of their collecting work was done together.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=5}}
Vainio's tools for fieldwork in Brazil included a knife, hammer, chisel, paper, and a bag. He also carried a shotgun for protection against [[jaguar]]s.{{sfn|Ahti|1998|page=41}} In one of his later collecting trips in the Caraça Mountains, Vainio ventured out alone to the highest peak of the eastern mountain ranges, the {{ill|Pico do Sol|pt}}—{{convert|2107|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=416}} Because of his relatively poor knowledge of the terrain, he misjudged the distances involved as well as the amount of available daylight. He ended up spending a night in a wet, [[sandfly]]-infested cave without food, water, or a way to make fire.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=5}} It was only the next morning he was able to find a stream to quench his extreme thirst, and not until the afternoon, when, exhausted, he eventually found his way back to the monastery. During his week-long recovery, one of the monks had to extract sandfly larvae from large bulges on the back of his neck.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=416}} By the end of his time in Caraça, he had collected a large volume of specimens.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=6}} Vainio went on to Rio de Janeiro, making excursions to coastal areas such as [[Niterói]], the [[Tijuca]] mountains, and the [[Sepetiba]] region. With the permission of museum director [[Ladislau de Souza Mello Netto]], Vainio studied at the [[National Museum of Brazil]].{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=6}} Vainio returned from Brazil with about 1600 samples packed in five large crates. He worked with this material in Helsinki for the next few years; the material he collected was so abundant that during a few months of study in Paris during 1889–1890, he issued the [[exsiccata]] "Lichenes brasilienses exsiccati", a set of 1593 dried herbarium specimen units distributed in eight copies.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=405}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Lichenes Brasilienses exsiccati: IndExs ExsiccataID=166987359 |website=IndExs – Index of Exsiccatae |publisher=Botanische Staatssammlung München |url=https://www.botanischestaatssammlung.de/DatabaseClients/IndExs/Exsiccatae_IndExs_Details.jsp?ExsiccataID=166987359 |access-date=20 May 2024}}</ref> [[File:Matkustus Brasiliassa. Kuvaus luonnostaja kansoista Brasiliassa 1888 cover.jpg|thumb|alt=Black and white drawing depicting a forest, a ship in the night, and Brazilian natives|Cover of Vainio's 1888 popular travel account ''Matkustus Brasiliassa. Kuvaus luonnosta ja kansoista Brasiliassa'']]
===Work in Finland=== As well as his scholarly work published later, Vainio published in Finnish a popular account of his travels in Brazil, ''Matkustus Brasiliassa. Kuvaus luonnosta ja kansoista Brasiliassa'' ("Travels in Brazil. A Description of Nature and Travels in Brazil") (1888).<ref name="Buck 1994"/> This book combines a description of his travel adventures with a [[Brazilian mythology|folkloric]] account of Brazil, its [[Wildlife of Brazil|flora and fauna]], and its inhabitants.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=413}} Vainio does not indicate in this book nor in his later scholarly work the reason for visiting Brazil in the first place. German botanist [[Fritz Mattick]] suggests that the idea may have originated from the fact that several botanists from the [[Nordic countries]] had lived in the interior of Minas Gerais, including Danish naturalist [[Peter Wilhelm Lund]], who lived in [[Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais|Lagoa Santa]] and made [[paleontology|palaeontological]] discoveries in the [[Gruta de Maquiné|nearby limestone caves]]; and Danish botanist [[Peter Clausen (naturalist)|Peter Clausen]] and his assistant [[Eugenius Warming]]. ''Cladonia'' specimens that were collected by Warming are mentioned in Vainio's monograph.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=413}}
In 1887, Vainio published the first of his three-volume [[monograph]] on ''Cladonia'', titled ''Monographia Cladoniarum universalis'' ("Universal Monograph on Cladonia"); the final volume was published in 1897.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=6}} This was an extensive work written in Latin, totalling 1277 pages, on all aspects of this group of lichens. It included descriptions of species old and new, analysis of species [[synonym (biology)|synonymy]], distribution records, and detailed analysis of the structure and [[ontogeny|development]] of the Cladoniae. The publication of just the first volume had already secured Vainio's reputation as a prominent lichenologist.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=9}} This major work was later judged to be the best work during this era in the field of lichen research.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=164}} As an indication of the accuracy and reliability of Vainio's work, a 1998 study showed that of the 18 new ''Cladonia'' species he described from Brazil a century before, 16 were still considered valid species.{{sfn|Ahti|1998|page=43}}
Vainio also published several works based on analysis of collections made by others. For example, Vainio processed and identified lichens collected from [[tropical Africa]] by explorers and botanists [[Friedrich Welwitsch]] and [[Hans Schinz]].{{sfn|Doidge|1950|p=38}} He assumed responsibility for the European collections of Hungarian lichenologist [[Hugó Lojka]] after he died at a relatively young age.<ref name="Gyelnik 1930"/> In 1899, after the death of William Nylander, his collections were transferred from Paris to the University of Helsinki, where it was Vainio's responsibility to arrange and catalogue them: they contained a total of 51,066 specimens.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=9}} Although his relationship with the university was strained at the time, there was no-one else qualified for the job.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=167}} Vainio published works based on collections he was sent from locations such as Puerto Rico,<ref name="Vainio 1929"/> Japan,<ref name="Vainio 1918"/><ref name="Vainio 1921"/> Thailand,<ref name="Vainio 1921b"/> Tahiti,<ref name="Vainio 1924"/> and Trinidad.<ref name="Vainio 1923"/>
In some instances, his studies of material sent to him by other scientists greatly advanced the knowledge of the local flora from where they were sent. For example, Vainio was sent for identification the collections of Portuguese botanist and army doctor {{ill|Américo Pires de Lima|pt}}, who made them as part of a [[East African campaign (World War I)|military campaign]] in [[Mozambique]] during 1916–1917. Vainio's results were published posthumously;<ref name="Vainio 1929b"/> of the 138 [[taxon|taxa]] he identified, about half were previously unknown to science.<ref name="Paz-Bermúdez 2004"/> In another instance, Vainio identified the lichens collected by Ernst Almquist from the [[Vega expedition|''Vega'' Expedition of 1878–1880]] through the Arctic coast of Eurasia; about 100 species were previously unknown.{{sfn|Väre|2017|p=538}} As a result of scientific investigations initiated by the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]] of 1902, American and Filipino botanists surveyed the flora of the Philippines, gathering a large amount of lichens in the process. This material was organised by [[Elmer Drew Merrill]] who sent it to Vainio for identification. This collaboration ultimately resulted in almost 500 pages of text over four publications from 1909 to 1923. Vainio described 92 genera and 680 species; almost two-thirds of the species were previously unknown. Before these publications, only about 30 lichen species had been documented in the country.<ref name="Herre 1946"/>
===Application for professorship=== As the culmination of his studies in Brazil, in 1890 Vainio published ''Étude sur la classification naturelle et la morphologie des lichens du Brésil'' ("Study on the natural classification and the morphology of the lichens of Brazil") in Latin with an introduction in French. This 526-page work dealt with 516 species, of which 240 were new to science.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=9}} The Brazilian taxa were distributed amongst 78 genera (12 of which were described as new), the most well-represented of which included ''[[Lecidea]]'' (68 species), ''[[Graphis (lichen)|Graphis]]'' (43), ''[[Parmelia (fungus)|Parmelia]]'' (39), ''[[Lecanora]]'' (33), ''[[Arthonia]]'' (25), and ''[[Buellia]]'' (19). The genus ''Cladonia'' was not included, as he reserved it for his monograph on the subject.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=406}} Vainio discussed the general theory of lichens in the introduction of his work, supporting [[Simon Schwendener]]'s then-controversial theory that lichens were the result of a [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] union between [[fungus]] and [[alga]].{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=9}} Vainio advocated including the lichens in the general classification of the fungi. He argued that lichens are a [[polyphyletic]] group, with only one uniting characteristic—the symbiosis—distinguishing them from the [[ascomycetes]] and other fungi.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=21}}
Vainio's work was intended to be a thesis submission for the post of [[associate professor]] at the University of Helsinki, a position he applied for in writing in the autumn of 1888.{{sfn|Collander|1965|p=31}} His early mentor Norrlin had obtained a similar position in 1878, which perhaps inspired Vainio to make the application.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=165}} Because the department Chair, Sextus Otto Lindberg, did not trust his Finnish-language skills sufficiently to be able to judge the merits of Vainio's work, other opinions were sought, and so in addition to William Nylander, [[Theodor Magnus Fries]] and [[Johann Müller Argoviensis|Johann Müller]] were recruited.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=20}}
Most prominent contemporary lichenologists, including Müller and Nylander, disagreed with the so-called "Schwendenerian hypothesis" and the dual nature of lichens.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=407}} Since they still subscribed to the belief that lichens were a plant group—rather than the fungus/alga symbiosis they are now known to be—they thought that Vainio's proposal to classify lichens with fungi was ridiculous.<ref name="University of Turku"/> Müller in particular published two articles that were highly critical of Vainio's conclusions in ''Études Brésil''.<ref name="Müller 1891"/><ref name="Müller 1892"/> Vainio's relationship with Nylander had become strained since their successful collaborations years before. Nylander, in previous correspondence with Norrlin, expressed doubts about Vainio's decision to publish his early scientific works in Finnish instead of Latin, which was the norm in the international scientific community. He also questioned Lang's decision to change his name, writing "A most curious matter is also the disappearance of Mr Lang and the birth of Mr Wainio instead. This is a matter that may be possible and explainable in Finland (and unfortunate is that such is the situation) but in the common practical world, here in the logical humanity, such a thing is impossible even to mention without incurably injuring the person concerned."{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=18}} Vainio, in correspondence with Johann Müller in 1889, wrote "it is perhaps necessary that the knowledge of my thesis remains between us, because there are people who lay very peculiar intrigues to prevent me from the professorship. Nylander has taken a stand as a very unscrupulous enemy against me and has taken up a very scandalous intrigue".{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=20}} {{multiple image | total_width = 300 | align = left | direction = | image1 = Johannes Müller Argoviensis.png | alt1 = Head shot of man with bowtie | image2 = William Nylander-2.jpg | alt2 = Head shot of man with bowtie | image3 = Theodor Magnus Fries.jpg | alt3 = Head shot of elderly man with white beard | footer = Johann Müller, William Nylander, and Theodor Magnus Fries were prominent botanists invited to comment on the merits of Vainio's research for his dissertation. }} Nylander criticised and dismissed Vainio's thesis submission, arguing it had little scientific value. In contrast, Fries praised Vainio's work, and described him as one of the most competent contemporary lichenologists.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=20}} Johann Müller disagreed with most of Vainio's general conclusions, and thought that [[lichen spot test|chemical reactions]], a characteristic that Vainio emphasised, have only a [[physiology|physiological]], not taxonomical, value.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=22}} Although Müller was public about his criticisms of Vainio's work, he did acknowledge his careful working method and anticipated that Vainio, "after return from wrong paths", would use his excellent observational skills in a systematically correct way in future research.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=22}} German lichenologist [[Ferdinand Christian Gustav Arnold]], who was present at Vainio's public thesis defence, introduced himself as a supporter of Schwendener's theory, and indicated that Vainio's work was the first to create a consistent system for classification.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=22}}
Vainio did not receive the associate professorship for which he applied; the Department of Natural Sciences voted 4 to 3 against his application.{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=31}} Before an official announcement could even be drafted, Sextus Otto Lindberg died, leaving vacant the position of Professor of Botany. This gave Vainio the opportunity to apply for this job, for which he competed with the two other docents: [[Fredrik Elfving]] and [[Oswald Kairamo]].{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=21}} The Department ranked him third in order of merit.{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=31}} Elfving was given the position; he later became known for his erroneous views on the nature of [[photobiont]]s.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=23}} Vainio's failure may have been because of his narrow, mainly lichen-focused field of expertise, his lack of teaching skills, and the personal resentments developed between Vainio and Nylander, as well as issues of language policy. Vainio championed Finnish interests and was a strong supporter of the Finnish language, but at that time Finland was still part of the Russian Empire and the position of the Finnish language in teaching was weak.<ref name="University of Turku"/> Suspecting that he had been discriminated against in the selection of a professor, Vainio appealed the decision, arguing that the expert opinions came from representatives of an "openly hostile" school that was prejudiced towards him, and further, that he was the only one of the applicants with the ability to lecture fluently in both Finnish and Swedish. He concluded that he had been rejected on political rather than scientific grounds, writing that the university "had sunk from the level of a learned establishment to that of an institution governed more by political than by academic considerations".{{sfn|Collander|1965|pages=31–32}} The university's position was that successful management of the professorship was more likely to be achieved by an applicant with a more general scientific background.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|pages=165–166}} Norwegian botanist [[Per Magnus Jørgensen]] suggests that not only did Vainio's support of Schwendener's theory cost him a position as professor, but probably also influenced the choice of author for the lichen section of [[Adolf Engler]] and [[Karl Anton Eugen Prantl]]'s influential monograph series ''Das Pflanzenreich''—a job awarded to the then relatively unknown Austrian lichenologist [[Alexander Zahlbruckner]].{{sfn|Jørgensen|2017|p=43}} [[File:Evard August Vainio.jpg|thumb|right|Vainio in his private study at the Plant Museum of the [[University of Turku|Turku University]], 1925 |alt=Distinguished-looking man sitting in an office, surrounded by books]] Finnish historian Timo Tarmio suggests that Vainio's failure to secure a professorship must have been a further blow to him personally because, like Norrlin, his older brother Joel Napoleon Lang had successfully pursued a university career as a professor in the Faculty of Law.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=166}} Unsuccessful in his bid for professorship, Vainio was convinced that a supporter of an independent Finland like him would never be elected to university duties.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=7}} Faced with the reality of securing stable employment to provide for his wife and four children,{{sfn|Ahti|1998|page=39}} Vainio accepted a job as a [[Censorship in Finland|censor]] in the press service of Helsinki in 1891, a position in which he was appointed superintendent in 1901.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=7}} It was during this time that the Russian Empire pursued the policy of [[Russification]] (a process in which non-Russian communities involuntarily or voluntarily give up their culture and language in favour of [[Russian culture]]), a mandate carried out by the polarising figure [[Governor-General of Finland|Governor-General]] [[Nikolay Bobrikov]].{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=166}} His decision to work for the loathed Board of Press Censorship led to him becoming a [[Outcast (person)|pariah]] amongst his colleagues and compatriots.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=15}} For example, despite their innovativeness and importance, Vainio's early publications on phytogeography in the border regions of northeast Finland and Russian Karelia were rarely cited by his Finnish colleagues, largely for political reasons.{{sfn|Kaila|Vasander|2010|p=66}} Another source suggests that resentment amongst his colleagues was stoked by his publication of the first Finnish-language dissertation.<ref name="University of Turku"/> Although Vainio agonised over the social disapproval caused by his employment, he defiantly hid his distress.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=162}}
Vainio lost the subsidy associated with his docentship in 1894.{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=32}} Shortly after the turn of the century, when [[Constitution of Finland|Finland's constitutional struggle]] dominated the political landscape, students refused to enrol in his course as a form of protest against his chosen profession.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=24}} Vainio was subsequently obliged to suspend his teaching position.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=15}} With this background, [[Runar Collander]] has suggested that Vainio showed poor judgement in applying once more, in the spring of 1901, for the position of Associate Professor.{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=32}} The Department's response was unequivocal: {{Quote|"An indispensable necessity for the successful progress of the work of the University is that it should be carried on in a spirit of free and independent inquiry. The system of preventative censorship, particularly in the form it has been taken lately, is completely contrary to this spirit. The University must accordingly avoid having any dealing with those concerned in applying it. So firm is the public conscience of the country on this point, that any compromise on the part of the University would have a damaging effect on its own reputation. Further proof of these feelings can be found in the fact that Dr. Wainio has been without pupils during the present term. The reply to Dr. Wainio's ... application can therefore only be that the Department's concern for the reputation of the University, and its conception of the ideals for which the University should stand, are in themselves sufficient grounds for asserting that the qualifications of Dr. Wainio, notwithstanding the value of his scientific writings, are not such as to justify the Department recommending him for the post of Associate Professor."{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=32}}}}
After Finland gained [[independence of Finland|independence]] in 1917 and press censorship was terminated, Vainio was left without work and without a [[pension]] at the age of 64. Forced to live on modest savings, he continued his lichenological studies. Vainio transferred his microscope and part of his library to the botanical institution of the university, where he spent much of his time for the next couple of years.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=15}}
===University of Turku (1919–1928)=== Vainio's fortunes improved in 1918, as the Turku Finnish University Society bought his herbarium collection of about 22,000 specimens for 60,000 [[Finnish markka|FIM]] (equivalent to about [[euro|€]]22,800 in 2020).{{#tag:ref|Calculated using the [[currency converter]] on the [[Statistics Finland]] website,<ref name="Tilastokeskus"/> with a starting year of 1918, a comparison year of 2020, and a conversion amount of 60,000 FIM.|group=note}} The society was organising a new university at [[Turku]], which was then the second-largest city in Finland after Helsinki. Teaching and [[Academic administration|administration]] were to be wholly in the Finnish language, in contrast with the University of Helsinki, which taught both in Swedish and Finnish and used Swedish as the language of administration.{{sfn|Stenroos|1998|page=29}} The transaction was subject to the condition that Vainio himself would be responsible for organising and increasing the collection in museum condition, and would participate in teaching if necessary.{{sfn|Stenroos|1998|page=29}}{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=158}} As an ardent Finnish nationalist, Vainio was pleased with the arrangement and joined the payroll of the Turku University Society under the title of custodian of the collections of the Department of Botany in 1920, two years before the start of the university's teaching activities and the transfer of his collection to Turku.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=168}} He moved to Turku and the university's main building on the edge of the market square in the former [[Phoenix Hotel (Turku, Finland)|Phoenix Hotel]] when teaching began in 1922.{{sfn|Tarmio|2000|page=158}} Although only offered a modest yearly salary to organise the specimens, he carried out this task with great devotion.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=16}} He obtained this job—his only permanent teaching position—at 69 years of age, and held it until his death.{{sfn|Ahti|1998|page=39}} His living conditions, however, remained so modest that his wife and family were unable to visit him in Turku, and their visits were limited to his vacations in Helsinki.{{sfn|Mattick|1956|page=405}} To optimize the productivity of his holiday time, he would take the evening train from Turku to Helsinki, and could be found the next morning in the lichen department of the Helsinki Plant Museum.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=164}} [[File:Hotelli Phoenix 1908.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Street view of building|The Hotel Phoenix building, shown here in 1908, became the administrative centre for the University as well as Vainio's residence in Turku.]] In 1921, he edited and distributed the [[exsiccata]] ''Nylander and Norrlin, herbarium lichenum Fenniae continuatio'' with [[Kaarlo Linkola]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nylander and Norrlin, herbarium lichenum Fenniae continuatio: IndExs ExsiccataID=979070484 |website=IndExs – Index of Exsiccatae |publisher=Botanische Staatssammlung München |url=https://www.botanischestaatssammlung.de/DatabaseClients/IndExs/Exsiccatae_IndExs_Details.jsp?ExsiccataID=979070484 |access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref> The same year, at the instigation of [[Alvar Palmgren]],{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=11}} Vainio was commissioned by the Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica to continue work on ''Lichenographia Fennica'', a seven-part book series about Finnish lichens. Vainio had already published the first volume dealing with "Pyrenolichens" in 1921.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=25}} Knowing that because of his age he had only limited time left to complete a multi-volume series, he started work on the harder groups, confident that in the event of his death the easier groups could be handled by other researchers.<ref name="University of Turku"/> This book series became an important resource for the study of the lichen flora of all [[Northern Europe]].{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=10}}
Starting in 1922, Vainio taught as an assistant professor at the University of Turku, and headed the cryptogamic herbarium at the university.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=16}} His teaching consisted of courses in [[plant systematics]], and organised field trips with students.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=10}} This field work he continued until 1927, leading a class expedition to a small island in [[Lake Ladoga]].{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=26}} During his time at the University of Turku, the collections expanded to 35,000 samples, a result of additions from local excursions, and collections sent from abroad.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=16}} Vainio also advised Kaarlo Linkola and [[Veli Räsänen]], two of his younger colleagues.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=26}} He was granted a state pension in recognition of his services to science (on the recommendation of the University of Turku and the Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica) while on his deathbed.{{sfn|Collander|1965|page=33}}
Vainio's final work, the fourth volume of the ''Lichenographia Fennica'', was left uncompleted on his worktable because of his death. His last entry was to name and describe ''[[Lecidea keimioeënsis]]'' (collected by Linkola in {{ill|Keimiötunturi|fi}}) as a new species, when his illness suddenly forced him to stop work and hurry to the hospital.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=160}} Started by Vainio in 1924, the fourth volume was completed posthumously by Norwegian lichenologist [[Bernt Lynge]] in 1934.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=3}}
==Personal life and character== Vainio married Marie Louise Scolastique Pérottin,{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=18}} the daughter of a French official, in 1891. They had five children together.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|p=24}} His eldest son, with whom he had a close relationship, was the [[Scout leader]] and painter {{ill|Charles Edouard Ilmari|fi|Ilmari Vainio}} (1892–1955).{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=167}} The walls of the elder Vainio's Turku University office were adorned with portraits of prominent lichenologists that were painted by his son.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=165}} His other children were Marie Marcienne Alice (1894–1979); Louise (born and died in 1896); Irja Louise Mercedes (1899–1976); and Ahti Victor August (1902–1958).<ref name="U of Helsinki"/> Magnusson described him as "a person of retiring habits contented with the bare necessities of life" in his obituary.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=8}} He recalled the occasion of Vainio's 70th birthday party, where he was visited in his home by a group of colleagues from the University of Turku. Although Vainio seemed to be uncomfortable with the attention, he was always willing to draw on his extensive knowledge and impressive memory to give advice and information to inquiring lichenologists.<ref name="Magnusson 1929"/> [[File:Edvard Vainio.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Head shot of Edvard Vainio with beard|Edvard Vainio]] Regarding his character, his colleague Kaarlo Linkola noted that "he appeared an extremely friendly and helpful, though reserved old man, and also a very [[Eccentricity (behavior)|eccentric]] personality, with many peculiar features, some of which greatly contributed to his difficult, even tragic life",{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=18}} further noting that "he was extremely obstinate, and he was absolutely unwilling to withdraw from a step which he had once taken".{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=14}} Vainio was dedicated to his research, and could be found working at all hours, even on public holidays.<ref name="Hawksworth 2007"/> Linkola indicates that he had not taken a day of rest for decades, even when sick.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=165}} Other biologists in Turku referred to "Vainio's lighthouse", as lamplight would often be seen emerging, often well past midnight, from the windows of his small room in the old university building in Turku.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=26}}
Vainio was a [[patriotism|patriot]] and proponent of [[Finnish nationalism]]. He supported [[Fennoman movement|Finnish interests]], [[Finnish language|language]], and [[Culture of Finland|culture]] against both the long [[Swedish-speaking population of Finland#Historical predominance of the Swedish language among the gentry|traditional Swedishness]] or the attempted [[Russification of Finland|Russification]] of his country by Russian rulers.{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=9}} In the 1870s he was involved with pro-Finnish [[student activism]].{{sfn|Linkola|1934|page=18}} He was one of the first to [[Finnicization|replace his non-Finnish name]] with a Finnish one,{{sfn|Hertel|Gärtner|Lőkös|Farkas|2017|pages=156–157}} Wainio. The name—which means "field"{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=18}}—was taken from a village in Hollola of the same name.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=166}} He later changed this to the modern Finnish spelling ''Vainio'' in 1921,{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=7}} in accordance with contemporary changes in [[Finnish orthography]].<ref name="Buck 1994"/>
Vainio was generally healthy for most of his life, but near the end he suffered from severe [[nephralgia]] (pain in the kidney) and spent his final three weeks in the [[Turku University Hospital|hospital of Turku]]. He died on 14 May 1929, at age 75.{{sfn|Linkola|1934|p=17}} He is said to have expressed two great regrets before his death: his uncompleted ''Lichenographia Fennica'' manuscript, and the infrequency with which he saw his children after his move to Turku.{{sfn|Linkola|1929|page=167}}
==Legacy== Vainio formally described more than 1900 species,<ref name="Lücking 2020"/> [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] several new genera, and [[Emendation (Zoology)|emended]] several existing ones.{{sfn|Magnusson|1930|p=7}} He published 102 scientific works in his career, comprising a total of about 5500 pages.{{sfn| Kärnefelt|2009|page=343}} Although most of his work dealt with lichens, he occasionally published on related topics. Examples include a discussion of [[willow]] hybrids, a listing of [[spermatophyte|seed plants]] in [[Finnish Lapland]], a list of the cryptogams and [[moss]]es from the area of the [[Konda (river)|Konda river]] in [[Western Siberia]], and the plant and cryptogam [[flora]]s of [[Hämeenlinna]] and the northern Finland and Russian Karelia border area.{{sfn|Schulz-Korth|1930|page=2}} In this latter work, Vainio distinguished in his study area ten regions on the basis of floristic characteristics and phytogeographical features. In discussing the eastern boundary of the Finnish flora area bordering Russian Karelia, he concluded that the county of [[Paanajärvi]] floristically resembled Russian Karelia so much that it should be combined with Russian Karelia. Later floristic researchers of this region have used Vainio's pioneering work for the biogeographical division of Eastern [[Fennoscandia]] with few revisions.<ref name="Vasari 2003"/> Finnish-speaking experts had admired Vainio's dissertation, but his international reputation as a prominent lichenologist was first established by his floristic treatment of the lichens collected during these trips documented in the ''Adjumenta'', published in Latin in 1881 and 1883.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=19}}
Vainio described and catalogued lichen collections from all over the world, including the Arctic ([[Greenland]]) and Antarctica.{{sfn|Schulz-Korth|1930|page=2}} Finnish botanist Reino Alava, who was a [[curator]] of the University of Turku herbarium, compiled a comprehensive listing of the location of all of Vainio's type specimens in a 1988 publication,<ref name="Book review 1990"/> and, twenty years later, a list of all collectors whose collections are represented in Vainio's lichen herbarium in Turku.<ref name="Book review 2009"/> As a consequence of Vainio's pioneering works on Brazilian lichenology and his extensive collecting in Caraça, this location, now part of the protected {{ill|Parque Natural do Caraça|pt|Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário Caraça}}, has since become an international hub for lichenology and a destination for pilgrimages by lichenologists.{{sfn|Ahti|1998|page=44}} His 1890 ''Étude'' earned him the reputation of an expert in tropical lichens, which was later bolstered by his publications about lichens in the Philippines, the Caribbean, and [[Tropical Africa]] and [[Tropical Asia|Asia]].{{sfn|Alava|1998|page=7}} Vainio is generally considered to have made the most important contributions to the study of [[foliose lichen]]s in the [[neotropic]]s before the work of [[Rolf Santesson]] in the 1940s.{{sfn|Lücking|1997|page=89}}
Vainio's idea of integrating the classification of lichens and fungi represented a criticism of the prevailing ideas of 19th-century lichenology. These ideas would persist into the first half of the 20th century, largely due to the publication of Zahlbruckner's influential ''Catalogus'' series, issued in ten volumes from 1922 up until 1940, which was based on these old views.{{sfn|Tibell|1998|page=96}} Although the ideal classification scheme would place lichen genera near their closest non-lichenized fungal relatives, with the limited information Vainio had available the solution he devised was to designate lichens and ascomycetes to one group and place the lichens in separate [[class (biology)|classes]], the Discolichenes and Pyrenolichenes.{{sfn|Mitchell|2015|page=90}} It was at the [[International Botanical Congress]] in [[Stockholm]] in 1950 that Rolf Santesson advocated for Vainio's ideas and presented an integrated classification for fungi and lichens based on an updated system developed by [[John Axel Nannfeldt]].<ref name="Santesson 1950"/> This initiated discussions and an eventual consensus for an integrated classification system.{{sfn|Tibell|1998|page=97}} By 1981, lichens were no longer recognised as a "group" distinct from fungi in the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]].<ref name="Hawksworth 1984"/> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = Graphis leptospora 722703.jpg | alt1 = White tree bark with many thick black lines and squiggles embedded in it | image2 = Graphis crebra 722711.jpg | alt2 = White tree bark with many black lines and squiggles embedded in it | image3 = Graphis plumierae 722683.jpg | alt3 = White tree bark with many black lines and squiggles embedded in it | footer = Some of the [[script lichen]] species Vainio described as new to science include ''[[Allographa leptospora]]'' (top), ''[[Graphis crebra]]'' (middle) and ''[[Graphis plumierae]]'' (bottom). }} Vainio made several important contributions to the understanding of the lichen family Parmeliaceae. He provided the taxonomical foundation for the northern European species of the difficult genus ''[[Usnea]]''.{{sfn|Halonen|Myllys|Ahti|Petrova|1999|p=235}} His subdivision of the genus ''Parmelia'' laid the [[nomenclature|nomenclatural]] cornerstone for two later recognised genera, ''[[Hypotrachyna]]'' and ''[[Xanthoparmelia]]'' (raised to generic status by [[Mason Hale]]<ref name="Hale 1974"/>), as well as for ''[[Allantoparmelia]]'', which was promoted to a genus by Theodore Esslinger.<ref name="Esslinger 1978"/> By describing the [[section (botany)|section]] ''Amphigymnia'' of the genus ''Parmelia'', Vainio, in his treatment of Brazilian lichens (1890), had an essential role in the separation of species that are now part of the genus ''[[Parmotrema]]''.{{sfn|Feuerer|1998|page=47}} In the family [[Lobariaceae]], Vainio segregated the genus ''[[Pseudocyphellaria]]'' for species having [[pseudocyphella]]e and not true [[cyphella]]e on the lower surface of the [[thallus]]. This was a radical idea at the time, as the presence or absence of cyphellae and pseudocyphellae were not considered to be suitable as taxonomic and generic characters. Although some other influential lichenologists took a conservative view and [[Lumpers and splitters#Usage in various fields|lumped]] ''Pseudocyphellaria'' with ''Sticta'' (such as Zahlbruckner in his ''Catalogus Lichenum Universalis''), Vainio's concept of the genus prevailed and has been used extensively for over a century. Later work has shown the presence of pseudocyphellae to correlate strongly with a diverse [[secondary metabolite|secondary chemistry]] consisting of [[orcinol]] derivatives, beta-orcinol derivatives, [[triterpenoid]]s, [[terphenylquinones]] and [[4-ylidenetetronic acid]]s; the genus ''Sticta'', in contrast, does not produce these compounds.{{sfn|Galloway|1998|page=75}} Vainio also introduced in this same work the current concept for the genus ''[[Lobaria]]'', which at the time was broadly used for foliose lichens.{{sfn|Yoshimura|1998|page=86}}
==Recognition== In his 1931 memorial address, Alvar Palmgren, then President of the Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, recalled that many of Vainio's scientific papers appeared in the Society's publications and were among the best of them.{{sfn|Vitikainen|1998|page=26}} Vainio's travels in Brazil were recounted in Reinio Alava's 1986 book ''Edvard August Vainio's Journey to Brazil in 1885 and his Lichenes Brasilienses Exsiccati''. Based on Vainio's diaries, it describes the difficulties he experienced in collecting in a tropical foreign country.<ref name="The Lichenologist 1989"/> Alava, along with his coauthors Unto Laine and Seppo Huhtinen, published a book in 2004 describing Vainio's collecting trips to Finnish and Russian Karelia and to Finnish Lapland.<ref name="Alava et al. 2004"/>
Vainio's three-volume ''Cladonia'' monograph was reprinted in 1978.<ref name="Kirk et al. 2008"/> Although at the time of reprinting some parts of the book were quite outdated, a review noted "[I]t is no ordinary monograph, but one which has a long-standing value as a taxonomic, floristic, and bibliographic source. One of its outstanding features is its almost infallible reliability as a nomenclatural source", and that "For many significant details on the world's ''Cladonia''s, Vainio still gives the freshest information!"<ref name="Ahti 2007"/>
In 1997, a [[Academic conference|symposium]] on Vainio and his work was organised in Brazil by the Grupo Latino-Americano de Liquenólogos (Latin-American Group of Lichenologists) and the [[International Association for Lichenology]].{{sfn|Marcelli|Ahti|1998|loc=preface}} One of the major aims of the conference was to collect topotypes{{#tag:ref|A topotype is a specimen from the [[type locality (biology)|type locality]], and whose [[phenotype|phenotypic]] characteristics are the same as those of the [[type (biology)|type]].<ref name="Ulloa 2014"/>|group=note}} for species that Vainio described.<ref name="Aptroot 1999"/> The conference was held at the Caraça Monastery (by that time a hotel) that Vainio had stayed at during his collecting trip there more than a century earlier. At the conference, Vainio was declared the "Father of Brazilian lichenology" by the participants. A portrait of Vainio, donated by the University of Turku, was mounted in one of the main corridors.{{sfn|Marcelli|Ahti|1998|loc=preface}} A book containing the [[conference proceeding|proceedings]] of the symposium was issued in 1998, ''Recollecting Edvard August Vainio''. Written by several specialists on various lichen groups, it reviews his contributions to tropical lichenography, and gives biographic details about him and his travels, publications, and [[scientific collection|collections]].<ref name="Hawksworth 2007"/> He is known as the "Grand Old Man of lichenology",<ref name="Kirk et al. 2008"/> a [[sobriquet]] originally given to him by Bernt Lynge: "Through all of his papers Dr. Vainio has acquired an uncontested position as the Grand Old Man of Lichenology. He is an ornament to his science and an honour to his country."{{sfn|Alava|1998|p=11}}{{#tag:ref|Finnish: "Kaikilla näillä teoksillaan on toht. Vainio hankkinut itselleen jäkälätieteen Grand old man'in riidattoman aseman. Hän on tieteensä kaunistus ja kunniaksi maallensa."<ref>{{harvnb|Linkola|1929|page=161}}</ref>|group=note}} Because of his significant contributions to the knowledge of the family [[Graphidaceae]] in the Philippines, he has also been called the "Father of Philippine lichenology".<ref name="Fajardo & Bawingan 2019"/> Vainio has been used as an example of a "universal lichen taxonomist", defined as "characterised by a broad knowledge in lichen taxonomy, prolificacy and efficiency in publishing their studies, usually in sole authorship, and distribution of knowledge via exsiccata rather than teaching or having students."{{sfn|Farkas|Lücking|Wirth|2010|page=13}} In his survey of influential lichenologists, [[Ingvar Kärnefelt]] called him "one of the most outstanding lichen taxonomists ever".{{sfn|Kärnefelt|2009|page=341}}
===Eponymy=== Five genera are named after Vainio, although most of these [[eponym]]s are now obsolete:<ref name="Taxonomic literature"/> * ''Vainiona'' {{small|Werner (1943)}} (= ''[[Cercidospora]]''<ref name="Index Fungorum: Vainiona"/>) * ''Vainionia'' {{small|Räsänen (1943)}} (= ''[[Calicium]]''<ref name="Index Fungorum: Vainionia"/>) * ''[[Vainionora]]'' {{small|Kalb (1991)}}<ref name="Kalb 1991"/> * ''Wainioa'' {{small|Nieuwl. (1916)}} (= ''[[Byssoloma]]''<ref name="Index Fungorum: Wainioa"/>) * ''Wainiocora'' {{small|Tomas. (1950)}} (= ''[[Cora (fungus)|Cora]]''<ref name="Index Fungorum: Wainiocora"/>)
Many species have also been named to honour Vainio. These include:{{sfn|Hertel|Gärtner|Lőkös|Farkas|2017|pages=156–157}} ''Teichospora wainioi'' {{small|P.Karst. (1884)}}; ''Nectriella vainioi'' {{small|P.Karst. (1889)}}; ''[[Meliola wainioi]]'' {{small|Pat. (1890)}}; ''Filaspora wainionis'' {{small|Kuntze (1898)}}; ''[[Clathroporina wainiana]]'' {{small|Zahlbr. (1902)}}; ''[[Cladonia wainioi]]'' {{small|Savicz (1914)}}; ''[[Physcia wainioi]]'' {{small|Räsänen (1921)}}; ''[[Opegrapha wainioi]]'' {{small|Zahlbr. (1923)}}; ''[[Pannaria wainioi]]'' {{small|Zahlbr. (1925)}}; ''[[Rhizocarpon vainioense]]'' {{small|Lynge (1926)}}; ''[[Peltigera vainioi]]'' {{small|Gyeln. (1929)}}; ''Pannaria vainioi'' {{small|C.W.Dodge (1933)}}; ''[[Usnea vainioi]]'' {{small|Motyka (1936)}}; ''Nesolechia vainioana'' {{small|Räsänen (1939)}}; ''[[Calicium vainioanum]]'' {{small|Nádv. (1940)}}; ''Melanotheca vainioensis'' {{small|Werner (1944)}}; ''[[Lecidea vainioi]]'' {{small|H.Magn. (1949)}}; ''[[Tricharia vainioi]]'' {{small|R.Sant. (1952)}};<ref name="Santesson 1952"/> ''[[Candelariella vainioana]]'' {{small|Hakul. (1954)}}; ''[[Caloplaca vainioi]]'' {{small|Hafellner & Poelt (1979)}}; ''[[Lecanora vainioi]]'' {{small|Vänskä (1986)}}; ''[[Gyalideopsis vainioi]]'' {{small|Kalb & Vězda (1988)}};<ref name="Kalb & Vězda 1988"/> ''[[Bulbothrix vainioi]]'' {{small|Jungbluth, Marcelli & Elix (2008)}};{{sfn|Jungbluth|Marcelli|Elix|2008|page=62}} ''[[Hypotrachyna vainioi]]'' {{small|Sipman, Elix & T.H.Nash (2009)}}; ''[[Coppinsidea vainioana]]'' {{small|S.Y.Kondr., E.Farkas & L.Lőkös (2019)}};{{sfn|Kondratyuk|Lőkös|Farkas|Jang|2019|page=302}} and ''[[Verrucaria vainioi]]'' {{small|Pykälä & Myllys (2024)}}.<ref name="Pykälä et al. 2024"/>
==Selected publications== A complete listing of Vainio's scientific publications is given in Schulz-Korth's 1930 ''Hedwigia'' obituary,{{sfn|Schulz-Korth|1930|pages=5–9}} and on the University of Turku's Museum of Natural Science webpage.<ref name="University of Turku: Vainio publications"/> Vainio's major works include: * {{cite book |last1=Wainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1887 |title=Monographia Cladoniarum universalis: I. |series=Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=4 |pages=1–509 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5587642}} * {{cite book |author-mask=10 |last1=Wainio |first1=Edvard August |title=Étude sur la classification naturelle et la morphologie des Lichens du Brésil, I–II |year=1890 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=1–247; 1–256 |location=Helsinki |publisher=J. Simelius |series=Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4458421 |language=fr, la}} * {{cite book |author-mask=10 |last1=Wainio |first1=Edvard August |title=Monographia Cladoniarum universalis: II |year=1894 |series=Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=10 |pages=1–499 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5583213}} * {{cite book |author-mask=10 |last1=Wainio |first1=Edvard August |title=Monographia Cladoniarum universalis: III |year=1897 |series=Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=14 |pages=1–268 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5634825}} * {{cite journal |last1=Vainio |first1=E. |year=1909 |title=Lichenes in viciniis stationis hibernae expeditionis Vegae prope pagum Pitlekai in Sibiria septentrionali a D:re E. Almquist collecti |journal=Arkiv för Botanik |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=11–175 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/29155446 |language=la}} * {{cite journal |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |title=Lichenes insularum Philippinarum. I. |journal=The Philippine Journal of Science |year=1909 |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=651–662 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/699093}} * {{cite journal |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |title=Lichenes insularum Philippinarum. II. |journal=The Philippine Journal of Science |year=1913 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=99–137 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/51382087}} * {{cite journal |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1921 |title=Lichenes insularum Philippinarum. III. |journal=Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae Series A |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=1–368}} * {{cite book |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1921 |title=Lichenographia Fennica I. Pyrenolichenes iisque proximi Pyrenomycetes et Lichenes imperfecti |series=Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=1–274 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5595130}} * {{cite book |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1922 |title=Lichenographia Fennica II. |series=Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=1–340 }} * {{cite journal |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1923 |title=Lichenes insularum Philippinarum. IV. |journal=Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae Series A |volume=19 |issue=15 |pages=1–84}} * {{cite journal |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1927 |title=Lichenographia Fennica III. Coniocarpaceae |journal=Acta Societatis Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=1–138 |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/15818/1927ActasocFFF571.pdf?sequence=1}} * {{cite journal |author-mask=10 |last1=Vainio |first1=Edvard August |year=1934 |title=Lichenographia Fennica IV. Lecideales 2 |journal=Acta Societatis Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=1–531 |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/15819/1934ActasocFFF572.pdf?sequence=1}} {{see also|:Category:Taxa named by Edvard August Vainio}}
==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}}
==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Ahti 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Ahti |first1=T. |title=Books Reviews. ''Monographia Cladoniarum Universalis I–III'' |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=12 |issue=1 |year=2007 |pages=155–156 |doi=10.1017/S0024282980000102}}</ref>
<ref name="Alava et al. 2004">{{cite book |last1=Alava |first1=Reino |last2=Laine |first2=Unto |last3=Huhtinen |first3=Seppo |title=Edvard August Vainio's travels to Finnish and Russian Karelia and to Finnish Lapland |series=Publications from the Herbarium, University of Turku |volume=9 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Turku |location=Turku |isbn=978-9512927128 |oclc=183151026}}</ref>
<ref name="Aptroot 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=A. |author-link=André Aptroot |title=[Review] M. P. Marcelli & T. Ahti (eds.) 1998. ''Recollecting Edvard August Vainio'' |journal=Tropical Bryology |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=213–214 |year=1999 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/14530049.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="Book review 1990">{{cite journal |title=Briefly noted – ''Edvard August Vainio's Types in TUR-V and other herbaria''. By Alava Reino. [Publications from the Hervarium, University of Turku No.2.] Turku: University of Turku. 1988. Pp513, 1 map ISBN 951 880 200 9. |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=22 |issue=2 |year=1990 |pages=200–201 |doi=10.1017/S0024282990000184}}</ref>
<ref name="Book review 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Scholz |first1=P. |year=2009 |title=New literature: Alava, R. (2008). Index of collectors whose specimens are part of Edv. Aug. Vainio's Lichen Herbarium (TUR-V). |journal=International Lichenological Newsletter |volume=41 |issue=2 |page=14 |url=http://www.lichenology.org/Publications/ILN/ILN41_2.pdf |access-date=20 January 2021 |archive-date=23 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823092723/http://www.lichenology.org/Publications/ILN/ILN41_2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="Botanisches Zentralblatt 1880">{{cite journal |last1=Anonymous |title=Personalnachtrichten |trans-title=Personal news |journal=Botanisches Zentralblatt |year=1880 |issue=1 |volume=12 |page=384 |language=de |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5223203 |issn=2629-3102}}</ref>
<ref name="Buck 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Buck |first1=William R. |title=Vainio's Brazilian bryophytes at TUR |journal=The Bryologist |volume=97 |issue=4 |year=1994 |pages=420–423 |doi=10.2307/3243910|jstor=3243910 }}</ref>
<ref name="Esslinger 1978">{{cite journal |last1=Esslinger |first1=Theodore L. |year=1978 |title=A new status for brown Parmeliae |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0007/001/0045.htm}}</ref>
<ref name="Fajardo & Bawingan 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Fajardo |first1=Weenalei T. |last2=Bawingan |first2=Paulina A. |title=Taxonomy and new records of Graphidaceae lichens in Western Pangasinan, Northern Philippines |journal=Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology |year=2019 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=40–54 |url=http://asbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/PJSB_S01-2019-006.pdf |doi=10.26757/pjsb2019b13006|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Gyelnik 1930">{{cite journal |author-link=Vilmos Kőfaragó-Gyelnik |last1=Gyelnik |first1=Vilmos |title=Meghalt. – Gestorben. E.A. Vainio |trans-title=Died. E.A. Vainio |journal=Magyar Botanikai Lapok |year=1930 |volume=28 |pages=176–178 |url=http://real-j.mtak.hu/9912/1/MTA_MagyarBotanikaiLapok_28.pdf#page=180&zoom=auto,-125,292 |language=hu |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="Hale 1974">{{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=Mason E. |year=1974 |title=New combinations in the lichen genus ''Parmotrema'' Massalongo. |journal=Phytologia |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=334–339 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13046332#page/348/mode/1up}}</ref>
<ref name="Hawksworth 1984">{{cite book |last=Hawksworth |first=David L. |title=The Lichen-forming Fungi |series=Tertiary Level Biology |publisher=Chapman and Hall |location=Glasgow New York |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-412-00641-8 |oclc=10949858 |pages=14–15}}</ref>
<ref name="Hawksworth 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Hawksworth |first1=David L. |title=Book Reviews. ''Recollecting Edvard August Vainio'' |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=31 |issue=4 |year=2007 |pages=405–406 |doi=10.1017/S0024282999000535}}</ref>
<ref name="Herre 1946">{{cite journal |last=Herre |first=Albert W. |author-link=Albert William Herre |title=The lichen flora of the Philippines |journal=Journal of the Arnold Arboretum |year=1946 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=408–412 |doi=10.5962/p.185557 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8443271|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Index Fungorum: Vainiona">{{cite web |title=Record details: ''Vainiona'' Werner |publisher=[[Index Fungorum]] |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=5697 |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715222637/http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=5697 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Index Fungorum: Vainionia">{{cite web |title=Record details: ''Vainionia'' Räsänen |publisher=[[Index Fungorum]] |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=5698 |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716025014/http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=5698 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Index Fungorum: Wainioa">{{cite web |title=Record details: ''Wainioa'' Nieuwl. |publisher=[[Index Fungorum]] |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=5757 |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716031439/http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=5757 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Index Fungorum: Wainiocora">{{cite web |title=Record details: ''Wainiocora'' Tomas. |publisher=[[Index Fungorum]] |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=18744 |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716024941/http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=18744 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Kalb & Vězda 1988">{{cite journal |last1=Kalb |first1=Klaus |last2=Vězda |first2=Antonin |year=1988 |title=Neue oder bemerkenswerte Arten der Flechten-familie Gomphillaceae in der Neotropis |journal=Bibliotheca Lichenologica |trans-title=New or notable species of the lichen family Gomphillaceae in the Neotropics |publisher=Lubrecht & Cramer |location=Berlin |volume=29 |page=51 |language=de |isbn=978-3-443-58008-7}}</ref>
<ref name="Kalb 1991">{{cite book |last1=Kalb |first1=Klaus |year=1991 |title=Lichenes Neotropici ausgegeben von Klaus Kalb. Fascikel XII (No. 476–525) |trans-title=Neotropical lichens issued by Klaus Kalb. Fascicle XII (No. 476–525) |location=Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz |publisher=Self-published |oclc=163537210 |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Kirk et al. 2008">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Kirk |editor-first1=Paul M. |editor-last2=Cannon |editor-first2=Paul F. |editor-last3=Minter |editor-first3=David W. |editor-last4=Stalpers |editor-first4=Joost A. |encyclopedia=Dictionary of the Fungi |title=Vainio ['Wainio'] |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryfungit00kirk |url-access=limited |edition=10th |publisher=CAB International |location=Wallingford, UK |year=2008 |page=719 |isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}}</ref>
<ref name="Lücking 2020">{{cite journal |last=Lücking |first=Robert |title=Three challenges to contemporaneous taxonomy from a licheno-mycological perspective |journal=Megataxa |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2020 |doi=10.11646/megataxa.1.1.16 |pages=78–103|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Magnusson 1929">{{cite journal |last1=Magnusson |first1=A.H. |title=In memoriam. E. Vainio |trans-title=In memory of E. Vainio |journal=Botaniska Notiser |volume=4 |year=1929 |pages=278–280 |language=sv |url=https://journals.lub.lu.se/bn/article/view/11043/9846}}</ref>
<ref name="Müller 1891">{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=J. |year=1891 |title=Kritik über Dr. Wainio's Étude |journal=Flora |volume=74 |pages=383–389 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/58054897 |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Müller 1892">{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=J. |year=1892 |title=Critique de "l'Étude" du Docteur Wainio |journal=Revue de Mycologie |volume=13 |pages=33–38 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11342839 |language=fr}}</ref>
<ref name="Nylander 1874">{{cite journal |last1=Nylander |first1=W. |year=1874 |title=Addenda nova ad lichenographiam europaeam. Contin. XVIII |journal=Flora (Regensburg) |volume=57 |pages=305–318 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/62230 |language=la}}</ref>
<ref name="Paz-Bermúdez 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Paz-Bermúdez |first1=Graciela |title=The new taxa of lichens and other ascomycetes from Mozambique collected by Pires de Lima and described by E. A. Vainio |journal=Taxon |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=511–519 |doi=10.2307/4135630 |jstor=4135630 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Pykälä et al. 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Pykälä |first1=Juha |last2=Kantelinen |first2=Annina |last3=Myllys |first3=Leena |title=Seven new species of ''Verrucaria'' from calcareous and siliceous rocks of Finland |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=56 |issue=5 |year=2024 |doi=10.1017/S002428292400029X |doi-access=free |pages=259–272}}</ref>
<ref name="Santesson 1950">{{cite book |last1=Santesson |first1=R. |author-link=Rolf Santesson |year=1950 |chapter=The new systematics of lichenized fungi |editor-last1=Osvald |editor-first1=H. |editor-last2=Åberg |editor-first2=E. |title=Proceedings of the Seventh International Botanical Congress |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |location=Stockholm |pages=809–810 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.351670/page/n825/mode/2up}}</ref>
<ref name="Santesson 1952">{{cite book |last1=Santesson |first1=Rolf |year=1952 |title=Foliicolous Lichens. I. A Revision of the Taxonomy of the Obligately Foliicolous, Lichenized Fungi |series=Symbolae Botanicae Upsalienses |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=382 |location=Uppsala |publisher=Lundequistska bokhandeln |oclc=604293887}}</ref>
<ref name="Taxonomic literature">{{cite book |last1=Stafleu |first1=Frans A. |last2=Cowan |first2=Richard S. |title=Taxonomic literature: A selective guide to botanical publications and collections with dates, commentaries and types. Volume VI: Sti–Vuy |volume=6 |edition=2nd |year=1986 |location=Utrecht |publisher=Bohn, Scheltema & Holkema |pages=636–637 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/33212678 |isbn=978-90-313-0224-6}}</ref>
<ref name="The Lichenologist 1989">{{cite journal |title=Briefly Noted – ''Edvard August Vainio's Journey to Brazil in 1885 and his Lichenes Brasilienses Exsiccati''. By Reino Alava. [Publications from the Herbarium, University of Turku, no. 1.] Turku: University of Turku. 1986. Pp. 174, 5 figures. ISBN 951 642 878 9 |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=21 |issue=1 |year=2007 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1017/S0024282989000198}}</ref>
<ref name="Tilastokeskus">{{cite web |publisher=[[Statistics Finland]] |title=Value of money converter |website=Tilastokeskus |url=https://www.stat.fi/tup/laskurit/rahanarvonmuunnin_en.html |access-date=2 August 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="U of Helsinki">{{cite web |title=Helsingin yliopiston dosenttiyhdistys: WAINIO (→1872 Lang), Edvard August |trans-title=Docents' Association of the University of Helsinki: WAINIO (→1872 Lang), Edvard August |publisher=University of Helsinki |url=https://www.helsinki.fi/sites/default/files/atoms/files/p-o.pdf |language=fi |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="Ulloa 2014">{{cite book |last1=Ulloa |first1=Miguel |last2=Halin |first2=Richard T. |title=Illustrated Dictionary of Mycology |edition=2nd |year=2012 |publisher=The American Phytopathological Society |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |isbn=978-0-89054-400-6 |page=653}}</ref>
<ref name="University of Turku">{{cite web |title=Edvard August Vainio (1853–1929) |date=24 September 2019 |url=https://collections.utu.fi/kasvimuseo-tur-2/tur-v/edvard-august-vainio-1853-1929/ |publisher=University of Turku, Museum of Natural Sciences |language=fi |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716175337/https://collections.utu.fi/kasvimuseo-tur-2/tur-v/edvard-august-vainio-1853-1929/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="University of Turku: Vainio publications">{{cite web |title=Vainion julkaisut |date=24 September 2019 |trans-title=Vainio's publications |publisher=University of Turku, Museum of Natural Sciences |url=https://collections.utu.fi/kasvimuseo-tur-2/tur-v/vainion-julkaisuja/ |language=fi |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716043437/https://collections.utu.fi/kasvimuseo-tur-2/tur-v/vainion-julkaisuja/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Wainio 1878">{{cite journal |last1=Wainio |first1=E.A. |year=1878 |title=Lichenes in viciniis Viburgi observati |trans-title=Lichens observed in the vicinity of Vyborg |journal=Meddelanden af Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=2 |pages=35–72 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3735417 |language=fi}}</ref>
<ref name="Wainio 1878b">{{cite journal |last1=Wainio |first1=E.A. |year=1878 |title=Florula Tavastiae orientalis |journal=Meddelanden af Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=3 |pages=1–121 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3844596 |language=fi}}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1918">{{cite journal |last1=Wainio |first1=Dr. Edv. A. |year=1918 |title=Lichenes ab A. Yasuda in Japonia collecti |trans-title=Lichens in Japan collected by A. Yasuda |journal=Botanical Magazine, Tokyo |volume=32 |issue=379 |pages=154–163 |doi=10.15281/jplantres1887.32.379_154 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41605467 |language=la |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1921">{{cite journal |last1=Wainio |first1=Dr. Edv. A. |year=1921 |title=Lichenes ab A. Yasuda in Japonia collecti. Continuatio 1. |trans-title=Lichens in Japan collected by A. Yasuda. Continuation 1. |journal=Botanical Magazine Tokyo |volume=35 |issue=411 |pages=45–79 |doi=10.15281/jplantres1887.35.45 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5431838 |language=la |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1921b">{{cite journal |last1=Vainio |first1=E.A. |year=1921 |title=Lichenes Siamenses |trans-title=Siamese lichens |journal=Annales Zoologici Societatis Zoologicae Botanicae Fennicae |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=33–55 |issn=0365-8627}}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1923">{{cite journal |last1=Vainio |first1=Edward A. |year=1923 |title=Lichenes in insula Trinidad a Professore R. Thaxter collecti |trans-title=Lichens in the island of Trinidad collected by R. Thaxter |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=131–147 |doi=10.2307/20025979 |jstor=20025979 |language=la}}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1924">{{cite journal |last1=Vainio |first1=E.A. |year=1924 |title=Lichenes a W.A. Setcheli and K.E. Parks in insula Tahiti a 1922 collecti |trans-title=Lichens collected by W.A. Setcheli and K.E. Parks in 1922 from the islands of Tahiti |journal=University of California Publications in Botany |volume=12 |pages=1–16 |language=la |issn=0068-6395}}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1929">{{cite journal |last1=Vainio |first1=E.A. |title=New species of lichens from Porto Rico. II |journal=Mycologia |year=1929 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1080/00275514.1929.12016930 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0021/001/0033.htm|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
<ref name="Vainio 1929b">{{cite journal |last1=Vainio |first1=E.A. |title=Lichens Mozambici |trans-title=Lichens of Mozambique |journal=Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana |series=Série II |year=1929 |volume=6 |pages=144–179 |url=https://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/viewer/10658/?offset=#page=163&viewer=picture&o=bookmark&n=0&q= |language=la}}</ref>
<ref name="Vasari 2003">{{cite book |last1=Vasari |first1=Y. |chapter=Edward Wainio—a pioneer of floristic research on the borderland between Northern Finland and Russian Karelia |title=Biodiversity and Conservation of Boreal Nature. Proceedings of the 10 Years Anniversary Symposium of the Nature Reserve Friendship |editor-last1=Heikkilä |editor-first1=Raimo |editor-last2=Lindholm |editor-first2=Tapio |volume=485 |pages=141–144 |series=The Finnish Environment |year=2003 |publisher=[[Finnish Environment Institute]] |location=Vantaa |isbn=978-952-11-1484-7}}</ref>
<ref name="Vitikainen 1996">{{cite journal |last1=Vitikainen |first1=Orvo |year=1996 |title=Lichen floristics in Finland |journal=Memoranda Societatis Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=72 |pages=213–218 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291850769}}</ref>
}}
===Cited literature=== {{Refbegin|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |last1=Collander |first1=Runar |author-link=Runar Collander |title=The History of Botany in Finland, 1828–1918 |series=The History of Learning and Science in Finland, 1828–1918 |publisher=Societas Scientiarum Fennica ([[Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters]]) |location=Helsinki |oclc=14475414 |year=1965 |pages=1–159 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Doidge |first1=Ethel M. |author-link=Ethel Doidge |title=History of observations on the fungi and lichens of South Africa |journal=Bothalia |year=1950 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=18–44 |doi=10.4102/abc.v5i1.1868 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Farkas |first1=E. |last2=Lücking |first2=R. |last3=Wirth |first3=V. |title=In memoriam Antonín Vězda (1920–2008) |journal=Acta Botanica Hungarica |volume=52 |issue=1–2 |year=2010 |pages=9–21 |doi=10.1556/ABot.52.2010.1-2.2}} * {{cite journal |last1=Haikurainen |first1=Leo |title=Swamp forestry research in Finland |journal=Silva Fennica |year=1961 |volume=108 |issue=108 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.14214/sf.a9135 |url=https://silvafennica.fi/pdf/article4696.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210224202/https://silvafennica.fi/pdf/article4696.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal |first1=Pekka |last1=Halonen |first2=Leena |last2=Myllys |first3=Teuvo |last3=Ahti |first4=Olga V. |last4=Petrova |year=1999 |title=The lichen genus ''Usnea'' in East Fennoscandia. III. The shrubby species |journal=Annales Botanici Fennici |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=235–256 |jstor=23726581}} * {{cite journal |first1=Hannes |last1=Hertel |first2=Georg |last2=Gärtner |first3=László |last3=Lőkös |last4=Farkas |first4=Edit |title=Forscher an Österreichs Flechtenflora |trans-title=Investigators of Austria's lichen flora |journal=Stapfia |year=2017 |volume=104 |issue=2 |pages=1–211 |language=de |issn=0252-192X |url=https://www.zobodat.at/biografien/Flechtenforschung_Austria_STAPFIA_0104_2_0001-0211.pdf }} * {{cite journal |author-link=Per Magnus Jørgensen |last1=Jørgensen |first1=Per M. |title=The development of lichenology in the history of botany |journal=The Bryologist |volume=120 |issue=1 |year=2017 |pages=37–44 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-120.1.037}} * {{cite journal |last1=Jungbluth |first1=Patricia |last2=Marcelli |first2=Marcelo Pinto |author-link3=John Alan Elix |last3=Elix |first3=John A. |year=2008 |title=Five new species of ''Bulbothrix'' (Parmeliaceae) from cerrado vegetation in São Paulo State, Brazil |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=104 |pages=51–63 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0104/0062.htm }} * {{cite journal |last1=Kaila |first1=Annu |last2=Vasander |first2=Harri |title=Vegetation relations in the border regions of NE Finland and Russian Karelia: a review of Wainio (1878) |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research |volume=26 |issue=S10 |year=2010 |pages=65–71 |doi=10.1080/02827581.2011.517949}} * {{cite book |last1=Kärnefelt |first1=Ingvar |author-link=Ingvar Kärnefelt |chapter=Fifty influential lichenologists |pages=283–368 |title=Diversity of Lichenology – Anniversary Volume |editor-last1=Thell |editor-first1=Arne |editor-last2=Seaward |editor-first2=Mark R. D. |editor-last3=Feuerer |editor-first3=Tassilo |year=2009 |series=Bibliotheca Lichenologica |publisher=J. Kramer |volume=100 |location=Stuttgart |isbn=978-3-443-58079-7}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kondratyuk |first1=S.Y. |last2=Lőkös |first2=L. |last3=Farkas |first3=E. |last4=Jang |first4=S.-H. |last5=Liu |first5=D. |last6=Halda |first6=J. |last7=Persson |first7=P.-E. |last8=Hansson |first8=M. |last9=Kärnefelt |first9=I. |last10=Thell |first10=A. |last11=Hur |first11=J.-S. |title=Three new genera of the Ramalinaceae (lichen-forming Ascomycota) and the phenomenon of presence of 'extraneous mycobiont DNA' in lichen associations |journal=Acta Botanica Hungarica |volume=61 |year=2019 |issue=3–4 |pages=275–323 |doi=10.1556/034.61.2019.3-4.5 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336562131 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Linkola |first1=K. |author-link=Kaarlo Linkola |year=1929 |title=Edvard August Vainio |journal=Luonnon Ystävä |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=1–16 |language=fi |issn=0788-6926}} * {{cite journal |last1=Linkola |first1=K. |year=1934 |title=Edvard August Vainio 1853–1929 |journal=Acta Societas Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=1–26 |oclc=17741847 |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/15820/1934ActasocFFF573.pdf?sequence=1 }} * {{cite journal |authorlink=Robert Lücking |last1=Lücking |first1=Robert |title=Estado actual de las investigaciones sobre líquenes foliícolas en la región Neotrópica, con un análisis biogeográfico preliminar |trans-title=Current status of research on foliicolous lichens in the Neotropic region, with a preliminary biogeographic analysis |journal=Bryophyte Diversity and Evolution |volume=13 |issue=1 |year=1997 |pages=87–114 |doi=10.11646/bde.13.1.10 |language=es |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cf44/f06592bf3d9abf6f777fb017a6947e41a5e9.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212155745/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cf44/f06592bf3d9abf6f777fb017a6947e41a5e9.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 December 2020 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Magnusson |first1=A.H. |author-link=Adolf Hugo Magnusson |title=Edvard August Vainio (1853–1929) |journal=Annales de Cryptogamie exotique |year=1930 |volume=3 |pages=5–12 |issn=0365-1177 |url=https://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/viewer/11227/?offset=#page=6&viewer=picture&o=bookmark&n=0&q= }} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=Marcelo Pinto |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=Teuvo |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |publisher=CETESB – Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo |location=São Paulo |pages=1–188 |isbn=951-642-878-9 |oclc=42766193 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=Edvard August Vainio (1853–1929) |last1=Alava |first1=Reino |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=1–14 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=E. A. Vainio – life and lichenological significance |author-link=Orvo Vitikainen|last1=Vitikainen |first1=Orvo |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=15–28}} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=Vainio collections – TUR-V |last1=Stenroos |first1=Soili |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=29–31 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=The Caraça history and importance |last1= Marcelli |first1=M. P. |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=33–36 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=E. A. Vainio and his journey to Brazil, with notes on the Cladoniaceae |last1=Ahti |first1=Teuvo |author-link=Teuvo Ahti |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=37–46 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=E.A. Vainio's contribution to the knowledge of the Parmeliaceae |last1=Feuerer |first1=Tassilo |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=47–60 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=Edvard Vainio and the family Lobariaceae, with special reference to the taxonomic history of ''Sticta'' |author-link=David John Galloway |last1=Galloway |first1=David J. |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=61–84 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=Vainio and ''Lobaria'', old and modern concepts |last1=Yoshimura |first1=Isao |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=85–94 }} ::{{cite book |editor-last1=Marcelli |editor-first1=M. P. |editor-last2=Ahti |editor-first2=T. |chapter=Vainio's ideas on the classification of calicioid lichens |author-link=Leif Tibell |last1=Tibell |first1=Leif |title=Recollecting Edvard August Vainio |year=1998 |pages=95–112 }} * {{cite journal |author-link=Fritz Mattick |last1=Mattick |first1=Fritz |title=Auf den Spuren des Lichenologen Wainio in Brasilien: Das Carassa-Gebirge |trans-title=In the footsteps of the lichenologist Wainio in Brazil: The Carassa Mountains |journal=Willdenowia |year=1956 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=404–432 |jstor=3995199 |language=de }} * {{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=M.E. |title=Autonomy's long shadow: A report on issues concerning lichen classification, 1870 to 1981 |journal=Huntia |year=2015 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=87–104 |issn=0073-4071 |url=https://www.huntbotanical.org/admin/uploads/03hibd-huntia-15-2-pp87-104.pdf }} * {{cite journal |last1=Schulz-Korth |first1=Karl |title=Nachruf auf E. A. Vainio |trans-title=Obituary for E. A. Vainio |journal=Hedwigia |year=1930 |volume=70 |pages=1–9 |oclc=1751936 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Hedwigia_70_1930_0001-0009.pdf |language=de }} {{OA}} * {{cite book |last1=Tarmio |first1=Timo |title=Päin nousevan Suomen rantaa. Tutkijaprofiileja Turun yliopistosta |trans-title=Towards the shores of rising Finland. Researcher profiles from the University of Turku |year=2000 |chapter=Edvard Vainio – Kohtalona Jäkälät |pages=155–177 |publisher=Kirja-Aurora; University of Turku |location=Turku |language=fi |isbn=951-29-1664-9}} * {{cite journal |last1=Uotila |first1=Pertti |title=Finnish botanists on the Kola Peninsula (Russia) up to 1918 |journal=Memoranda Societatis Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica |year=2013 |volume=89 |pages=75–104 |issn=0373-6873 |url=https://journal.fi/msff/article/view/40889/10209 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Väre |first1=Henry |title=Finnish botanists and mycologists in the Arctic |journal=Arctic Science |volume=3 |issue=3 |year=2017 |pages=525–552 |doi=10.1139/as-2016-0051 |doi-access=free|hdl=10138/231777 |hdl-access=free }} {{Refend}}
==Further reading== * {{cite journal |last1=Ulvinen |first1=Tauno |title=Edvard August Vainio, jäkälätieteen suurmiehemme |trans-title=Edvard August Vainio, one of our great lichenologists |journal=Molekyyli |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=96–98 |year=1956 |language=fi}} * {{cite book |last1=Alava |first1=Reino |year=1988 |title=Edvard August Vainio's Types in TUR-V and Other Herbaria |series=Publications from the Herbarium of the University of Turku |publisher=University of Turku |location=Turku |volume=2 |pages=1–513 |isbn=978-951-88-0200-9}} * {{cite journal |last1=Vitikainen |first1=Orvo |title=William Nylander ja Edvard August Vainio – Suomen jäkälätutkimuksen vaiheita |trans-title=William Nylander and Edvard August Vainio – The stages of Finnish lichen research |journal=Luonnon Tutkija |year=1999 |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=135–137 |language=fi |issn=0024-7383}} * {{cite book |last1=Alava |first1=Reino |year=2008 |title=Index of Collectors whose Specimens are part of Edv. Aug. Vainio's Lichen Herbarium |publisher=University of Turku |location=Turku |series=Publications from the Herbarium of the University of Turku |volume=12 |pages=1–123 |isbn=978-951-29-3369-3}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Vainio, Edvard August}} [[Category:1853 births]] [[Category:1929 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century Finnish scientists]] [[Category:20th-century Finnish scientists]] [[Category:People from the Grand Duchy of Finland]] [[Category:Finnish lichenologists]] [[Category:People from Pieksämäki]] [[Category:Finnish taxonomists]] [[Category:University of Helsinki alumni]] [[Category:Academic staff of the University of Helsinki]] [[Category:Academic staff of the University of Turku]] [[Category:19th-century explorers]] [[Category:Explorers of South America]] [[Category:Finnish expatriates in Brazil]] [[Category:Finnish explorers]]