Electric bicycle

{{Short description|Motorized bicycle with an integrated electric motor}} {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Redirect2|Electric bike|eBike|electrically powered motorcycles|Electric motorcycles and scooters}} {{More citations needed|date=December 2023}} {{AI-generated|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} [[File:Electric Wheels in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A bay of electric hire bikes in Fort Lauderdale, Florida]] {{Sustainable energy}} An '''electric bicycle''', '''e-bike''', '''electrically assisted pedal cycle''', or '''electrically power assisted cycle'''<ref>[https://www.cycleassociation.uk/e-bikes/ "Guide to e-bikes"]. Association of Cycle Traders. Accessed 1 May 2022.</ref> is a type of a motorized bicycle with an integrated electric motor used to assist propulsion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=Nguyen Ba |last2=Lim |first2=Ocktaeck |title=A review of history, development, design and research of electric bicycles |journal=Applied Energy |date=2020 |volume=260 |article-number=114323 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114323|bibcode=2020ApEn..26014323H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stilo |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Segura-Velandia |first2=Diana |last3=Lugo |first3=Heinz |last4=Conway |first4=Paul P. |last5=West |first5=Andrew A. |title=Electric bicycles, next generation low carbon transport systems: A survey |journal=Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives |date=2021 |volume=10 |article-number=100347 |doi=10.1016/j.trip.2021.100347 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021TrRIP..1000347S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salmeron-Manzano |first1=Esther |last2=Manzano-Agugliaro |first2=Francisco |title=The Electric Bicycle: Worldwide Research Trends |journal=Energies |date=2018 |volume=11 |issue=7 |page=1894 |doi=10.3390/en11071894 |doi-access=free|hdl=10835/7361 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fishman |first1=Elliot |last2=Cherry |first2=Christopher |title=E-bikes in the Mainstream: Reviewing a Decade of Research |journal=Transport Reviews |date=2016 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=72–91 |doi=10.1080/01441647.2015.1069907}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rérat |first1=Patrick |title=The rise of the e-bike: Towards an extension of the practice of cycling? |journal=Mobilities |date=2021 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=423–439 |doi=10.1080/17450101.2021.1897236 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Many kinds of e-bikes are available worldwide, but they generally fall into two broad categories: bikes that require the rider's pedal-power (i.e. pedelecs) and bikes that control the motor with buttons or a twistgrip, integrating moped-style functionality. Both retain the ability to be pedaled by the rider and are therefore not electric motorcycles. E-bikes use rechargeable batteries and typically are motor-powered up to {{Convert|25|to|32|km/h|abbr=on}}, some to {{Convert|45|km/h|abbr=on}}.

Depending on local laws, many e-bikes (especially ''pedelecs'') are legally classified as bicycles rather than mopeds or motorcycles. This exempts them from the more stringent laws regarding the certification and operation of more powerful two-wheelers which are often classed as electric motorcycles, such as licensing and mandatory safety equipment. E-bikes can also be defined separately and treated under distinct electric bicycle laws.

Bicycles, e-bikes, and e-scooters, alongside e-cargo bikes, are commonly classified as micro-mobility vehicles. When comparing bicycles, e-bikes, and e-scooters from active and inclusiveness perspectives, traditional bicycles can be range and speed-limited for weaker, older, or unused persons, or very fast and long-range for athletic persons. E-scooters, however, cannot be categorized as an active transport mode and offer no health benefits. E-bikes and especially pedelecs stand out as the only option that combines the benefits of active transport with inclusivity, as their electric-motor helps riders cover greater distances and inclines without the need for high physical effort, making them suitable for a wide variety of users. However, legal and technical issues limit speeds and distances, making them more suitable for shopping and commuting than long-distance touring and sport.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hosseini |first1=Keyvan |last2=Pramod Choudhari |first2=Tushar |last3=Stefaniec |first3=Agnieszka |last4=O'Mahony |first4=Margaret |last5=Caulfield |first5=Brian |date=2024-08-01 |title=E-bike to the future: Scalability, emission-saving, and eco-efficiency assessment of shared electric mobility hubs |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=133 |article-number=104275 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2024.104275 |issn=1361-9209|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024TRPD..13304275H |hdl=2262/109012 |hdl-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

==History== {{expand section|date=March 2023}}

=== 1890s to 1980s === [[File:Op de hoek van Sluisdijkstraat en Keizerstraat (later Beatrixstraat) poseert een man met een Gazelle - RAA003012874 - RAA DenHelder.jpg|left|thumb|A man with a Gazelle bicycle with an electrically powered motor, 1935.]] In the 1890s, electric bicycles were documented within various U.S. patents. For example, on 31 December 1895, Ogden Bolton Jr. was granted a patent for a battery-powered bicycle with "6-pole brush-and-commutator direct current (DC) hub motor mounted in the rear wheel" ({{US Patent|552271}}). There were no gears and the motor could draw up to 100 amperes from a 10-volt battery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US552271A/en|title=Electrical bicycle|access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>

Two years later, in 1897, Hosea W. Libbey of Boston invented an electric bicycle ({{US Patent|596272}}) that was propelled by a "double electric motor". The motor was designed within the hub of the crankset axle, and use of the battery could be split depending on flat or inclined road use.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US596272A/en|title=Electric bicycle|access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref> (This model was later re-invented and imitated in the late 1990s by Giant Lafree e-bikes.){{fact|date=April 2025}}

By 1898, a rear-wheel drive electric bicycle, which used a driving belt along the outside edge of the wheel, was patented by Mathew J. Steffens. An 1899 patent by John Schnepf ({{US Patent|627066}}) depicted an electric bicycle with a rear-wheel friction, "roller-wheel"-style drive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US627066A/en|title=schnepf|access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref> In 1969, Schnepf's invention was expanded by G.A. Wood Jr. ({{US Patent|3,431,994}}). Wood's device used four fractional horsepower motors connected through a series of gears.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3431994A/en|title=Electric drive for bicycles|access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>

Hub motors fell out of favor until the latter part of the first decade of the 2000s when they made a resurgence on inexpensive electric bicycles.<ref name="hub2017">{{cite web |url=https://www.cyclist.co.uk/in-depth/introduction-to-electric-bikes-everything-you-need-to-know |title=Introduction to electric bikes: Everything you need to know |date=18 April 2017 |website=Cyclist.co.uk}}</ref>

===1990s to present day=== From 1992, Vector Services Limited offered the Zike e-bike.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zikebike.com/about.htm |title=Electric Bikes |publisher=Zike Bike Spares & Sales |access-date=2009-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424081452/http://www.zikebike.com/about.htm |archive-date=2009-04-24 }}</ref> The bicycle included nickel–cadmium battery ('''NiCad)''' batteries that were built into a frame member and included an {{cvt|850|g|oz}} permanent-magnet motor.

Torque sensors and power controls were developed during the late 1990s. For example, a Japanese patent (''6163148'') was granted in 1997 to a team led by Yutaka Takada,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://patents.justia.com/patent/6163148 | title=US Patent for Sensor, drive force auxiliary device using the sensor, and torque sensor zero point adjusting mechanism of the drive force auxiliary device Patent (Patent # 6,163,148 issued December 19, 2000) - Justia Patents Search }}</ref> for a "Sensor, drive force auxiliary device ... and torque sensor zero point adjusting mechanism".

American car executive Lee Iacocca founded EV Global Motors in 1997, a company that produced an electric bicycle model named E-bike SX, and it was one of the early efforts to popularize e-bikes in the US.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/21/business/investing-it-a-bet-on-electric-bikes-or-at-least-on-lee-iacocca.html |title = INVESTING IT; A Bet on Electric Bikes, or at Least on Lee Iacocca|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 1997-09-21|last1 = Tergesen|first1 = Anne}}</ref>

By 2007, e-bikes were thought to make up 10 to 20 percent of all two-wheeled vehicles on the streets of many major Chinese cities.<ref name=tim-johnson/> A typical unit requires eight hours to charge the battery, which provides the range of {{convert|25|to|30|mi|km|order=flip}},<ref name=tim-johnson/> at the speed of around {{cvt|20|km/h|mph}}.<ref name=fairley/>

In the 2010s electric bicycles attracted considerable traction in Europe<ref>{{Cite web |title=e-bikes |url=https://ecf.com/topics/e-bikes |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=ECF |language=en}}</ref> led by government policies and environmental awareness encouraging sustainable technologies. Some countries such as Germany and Netherlands turned into significant e-bikes markets with the aim to reduce urban congestion and carbon emissions. Moreover, the evolution of ''lithium-ion battery'' ('''Li-ion)''' technology<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tritek |date=2023-05-16 |title=Custom Lithium Ion Batteries Revolution the Electric Bike Industry |url=https://tritekbattery.com/how-custom-lithium-ion-batteries-are-revolutionizing-the-electric-bike-industry/ |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=ebike battery manufacturer |language=en-US}}</ref> contributed to e-bikes adoption. They provided faster charging times, lighter weight and longer range in order to make e-bikes more efficient and practical for daily use.

== Definition and classes == {{As of|2025}} many countries do not have quality standards for ebikes, rules about who can ride them and where, or even a clear legal definition of what they are.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tam |first=Alphonse |date=2025-03-04 |title=As E-Bikes Surge, We Need to Address Both the Opportunities and Challenges |url=https://itdp.org/2025/03/04/e-bikes-surge-we-need-to-address-both-opportunities-and-challenges-stmagazine-36/ |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=Institute for Transportation and Development Policy - Promoting sustainable and equitable transportation worldwide |language=en-US |quote=Despite their potential, many city and national governments have yet to define e-bikes clearly, require quality standards, or state where and how riders should safely use them.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Toll |first=Micah |date=2025-10-22 |title=E-bikes are the best thing to happen to cities in decades |url=https://electrek.co/2025/10/22/e-bikes-are-the-best-thing-to-happen-to-cities-in-decades/ |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=Electrek |language=en-US |quote=policymakers scrambling to define what qualifies as an e-bike in the first place.}}</ref>

E-bikes are classed according to the power that their electric motor can deliver and the control system, i.e., when and how the power from the motor is applied. Also the classification of e-bikes is complicated as much of the definition is due to the legality of what constitutes a bicycle and what constitutes a moped or motorcycle. As such, the classification of these e-bikes varies greatly across countries and local jurisdictions.

Despite these legal complications, the classification of e-bikes is mainly decided by whether the e-bike's motor assists the rider using a ''pedal-assist'' system or by a ''power-on-demand'' one. Definitions of these are as follows: *With '''pedal-assist''', the electric motor is regulated by pedaling. The pedal-assist augments the efforts of the rider when they are pedaling. These e-bikes – called pedelecs – have a sensor to detect the pedaling speed, the pedaling force, or both. Brake activation is sensed to disable the motor as well. *With '''power-on-demand''', the motor is activated by a throttle, usually handlebar-mounted more closely resembling most motorcycles or scooters than the original pedal based bicycle.

Therefore, very broadly, e-bikes can be classed as: * ''E-bikes with partially mandatory pedal-assist'': either ''pedelecs'' (legally classed as bicycles) or ''S-Pedelecs''<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2012 |title=Characteristics of Pedelecs and S-Pedelecs |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Characteristics-of-Pedelecs-and-S-Pedelecs-E-bikes-in-Germany_tbl1_273452469 }}</ref> (often legally classed as mopeds) ** ''Pedelecs'': the motor assists only up to a limited speed (usually 24 or 25 km/h (15 or 15.5 mph)), motor power up to {{cvt|250|W|hp|lk=in}}, often legally classed as bicycles ** ''S-Pedelecs'': the motor power can be greater than {{cvt|250|W|hp}}, can attain a higher speed (e.g., {{cvt|45|km/h|mph|disp=or}})) before motor stops assisting, sometimes legally classed as a moped or motorcycle. * ''E-bikes with power-on-demand'' have a manually operated power controller (usually via a twist-grip) instead of or in addition to a pedal-operated controller.

=== Pedelecs === {{main|Pedelec}} The term "pedelec" (from pedal electric cycle) refers to an e-bike with mandatory pedalling, a relatively low-powered electric motor and a limited top speed using the motor. Pedelecs are legally classed as bicycles rather than low-powered motorcycles or mopeds.

The most influential definition of pedelecs comes from the EU. EU directive (EN15194 standard) for motor vehicles considers a bicycle to be a pedelec if: # The motorized assistance over a speed of {{cvt|6|km/h|mph}} only engages when the rider is pedalling, # The motor cuts out once 25 km/h (15.5 mph) is reached, and # The motor produces ''maximum continuous rated power'' of not more than {{cvt|250|W|hp}} (the motor can produce more power for short periods, such as when accelerating or climbing a steep hill). An e-bike conforming to these conditions is considered to be a pedelec in the EU and is legally classed as a bicycle. The EN15194 standard is valid across the whole of the EU and has been adopted by some non-EU European nations including the UK,<ref>{{cite news| last=Seddon | first=Sean | title=E-bikes: What is the law and is there an age limit? | website=BBC News | date=9 June 2023 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-65855198}}</ref> and also some non-European jurisdictions (such as the state of Victoria in Australia).<ref>{{cite web|title=Power assisted bicycles |url=http://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/Home/SafetyAndRules/SaferRiders/BikeRiders/PowerAssistedBicycles.htm |work=VicRoads website |publisher=VicRoads |access-date=25 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328200435/http://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/Home/SafetyAndRules/SaferRiders/BikeRiders/PowerAssistedBicycles.htm |archive-date=28 March 2013 }}</ref>

Pedelecs are much like conventional bicycles in use and function yet increase average speeds especially when the rider is climbing or struggling against a headwind. Pedelecs are therefore especially useful for people in hilly areas where riding a bike would prove too strenuous for many to consider taking up cycling as a daily means of transport, and also useful for riders who more generally need some assistance because of age or health problems.

==== S-Pedelecs ==== More powerful pedelecs which are not legally classed as bicycles are dubbed '''S-Pedelecs''' (short for Speed-Pedelecs). These have a motor more powerful than {{cvt|250|W|hp}} and less limited, or unlimited, pedal-assist, i.e. the motor does not stop assisting the rider once {{cvt|25|km/h|mph}} has been reached. S-Pedelec class e-bikes are therefore usually classified as mopeds or motorcycles rather than as bicycles and therefore may (depending on the jurisdiction) need to be registered and insured, the rider may need some sort of driver's license (either car or motorcycle) and helmets may have to be worn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Was Sie über den Versicherungsschutz von pedelecs wissen sollten|url=http://www.gdv.de/2012/08/was-sie-ueber-den-versicherungsschutz-von-pedelecs-wissen-sollten/|publisher=Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft (German Insurance Association)|language=de|access-date=21 March 2013|archive-date=23 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823121016/http://www.gdv.de/2012/08/was-sie-ueber-den-versicherungsschutz-von-pedelecs-wissen-sollten/}}</ref> In Switzerland the motor power is limited to {{cvt|1000|W|hp}}, the speed without pedalling to {{cvt|30|km/h}} (most models do not provide this) and under motor to {{cvt|45|km/h}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Understanding S‑Pedelecs: The Fast Lane of E‑Biking in Switzerland |url=https://speed-e.ch/understanding-s%E2%80%91pedelecs-the-fast-lane-of-e%E2%80%91biking-in-switzerland/ |website=speed-e.ch |date=2025-07-21}}</ref> In the United States, many states have adopted S-Pedelecs into the Class 3 category, limited to {{cvt|750|W|hp}} of power and {{cvt|28|mph|km/h|order=flip}} speed.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2024 |title=Electric Bike Classes: Class 1 Vs 2 Vs 3 Comparison |url=https://fucarebike.com/blogs/news/electric-bike-classes-comparison}}</ref> In Europe they are likely to be classed as mopeds requiring a registration plate and a licensed driver.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stromerbike.com/en/moments-did-you-already-know|title=Moments: Did you already know?|website=stromerbike.com|access-date=25 February 2024}}</ref> In Australia, they can only be used on private property.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NSW |first=Transport for |date=2023-04-26 |title=E-bikes |url=https://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/bicycle-riders/ebikes |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=www.transport.nsw.gov.au |language=en-AU}}</ref>

=== Power-on-demand === Some e-bikes have an electric motor that operates on a '''power-on-demand''' basis; the motor is engaged and operated manually using a throttle, with control usually on the handgrip as on a motorbike or scooter.

With ''power-on-demand'' e-bikes the rider can: # ride by pedal power alone, i.e. fully human-powered. # ride by electric motor alone by operating the throttle manually. # ride using both together at the same time. # use instead a pedelec controller, if this is fitted.

Some power-on-demand only e-bikes are very different from, and cannot be classified as, bicycles. For example, the ''Noped'' is a term used by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario for e-bikes which are not fitted with pedals.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}

== Popularity == thumb|Another reason ebikes are popular is the low cost to charge, such as these e-bikes which cost 10 cents to charge and able to provide {{cvt|30|mi|km|order=flip}} of range at {{cvt|20|mph|kph|order=flip}}. E-bike usage worldwide has experienced rapid growth since 1998.<ref name=NYT0110>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/01/business/global/01ebike.html| title = An Electric Boost for Bicyclists|newspaper =The New York Times|author=J. David Goodman|date =2010-01-31|access-date=2010-05-31}}</ref> China is the world's leading producer of e-bikes. According to the data of the China Bicycle Association, a government-chartered industry group, in 2004 China's manufacturers sold 7.5 million e-bikes nationwide, which was almost twice the year 2003 sales;<ref name="fairley">[https://spectrum.ieee.org/chinas-cyclists-take-charge "China's Cyclists Take Charge", By Peter Fairley]. IEEE Spectrum, June 2005</ref> domestic sales reached 10 million in 2005, and 16 to 18 million in 2006.<ref name="tim-johnson">[http://postcarboncities.net/cheap-and-green-electric-bikes-are-rage-china "Cheap and green, electric bikes are the rage in China"] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130112030444/http://postcarboncities.net/cheap-and-green-electric-bikes-are-rage-china |date=2013-01-12 }}, by Tim Johnson. Originally published 23 May 2007 by McClatchy Newspapers.</ref> In 2016, approximately 210 million electric bikes were used daily in China.<ref name="BikeReport2016" />

According to trade umbrella body CONEBI, electric bike sales in the EU were over 5 million in 2021,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cyclingindustry.news/european-electric-bike-sales-pass-5-million-all-bikes-22-million/ | title=European electric bike sales pass 5 million, all bikes 22 million | date=7 July 2022 }}</ref> up from 2 million e-bikes in 2016,<ref name="BikeReport2016">Black, Forbes. [https://electricbikereport.com/the-state-of-the-electric-bicycle-market "The State of the Electric Bicycle Market"], Electricbikereport.com, 19 September 2016</ref> up from 700,000 in 2010 and 200,000 in 2007.<ref name="EU_ebikes10">{{cite web |date=2013-08-05 |title=Europe's E-Bike Imports Indicate Market Size |url=https://www.bike-eu.com/10166/europes-e-bike-imports-indicate-market-size |publisher=Bike Europe}}</ref> In 2019, the EU implemented a 79.3% protective tariff on imported Chinese e-bikes to protect EU producers.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 Jan 2019 |title=European Commission imposes up to 79.3% combined anti-dumping and anti-subsidy duties on e-bike imports from China |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/18/eu-to-hit-chinese-e-bikes-imports-with-tariffs.html |website=CNBC}}</ref> In 2022, electric bikes continued to grow market share in the EU, rising to 57% of bike sales in the Netherlands, 49% in Austria, 48% in Germany and 47% in Belgium.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-28 |title=E-bike sales thrives, amidst market slowdown in Europe |url=https://www.bike-eu.com/45171/e-bike |url-access=registration |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=Bike Europe |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626141701/https://www.bike-eu.com/45171/e-bike |archive-date= 2023-06-26 }}</ref>

== Motors and drivetrains == thumb|Electric bike with motor mounted in the front wheel DC motors are commonly used in electric bicycles, either brushed or brushless. Many configurations are available, varying in cost and complexity; direct-drive and geared motor units are both used. An electric power-assist system may be added to almost any pedal cycle using chain drive, belt drive, hub motors or friction drive.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Brushless hub motors are the most common in modern designs. The motor is built into the wheel hub itself, while the stator is fixed solidly to the axle, and the magnets are attached to and rotating with the wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the motor. The power levels of motors used are influenced by available legal categories and are often, but not always limited to under 750 watts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-28 |title=What Is the Difference Between a 750 Watt and a 1000 Watt E-bike? |url=https://newurtopia.com/blogs/blog/750w-1000w-ebike-guide |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Urtopia (US) |language=en}}</ref> With a '''front-drive''' the motor sits in the front hub, and with a '''rear-drive''' the motor sits in the rear hub.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} Hub motors were common in 19th century electric bicycle designs but fell out of favor until their resurgence in the 2000s.<ref name="hub2017" />

Another type of electric assist motor is the mid-drive system, where the electric motor is not built into the wheel but is usually mounted beside or under the bottom bracket shell. The propulsion is provided at the pedals rather than at the wheel, being eventually applied to the wheel via the bicycle's standard drive train. Freewheel crank, that is a freewheel in the bottom bracket, is a necessary part in mid-drive systems to allow the electric motor to work inside its optimal rotational speed range (r/min).{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Because the power is applied through the chain and sprocket, power is typically limited to around 250–500 watts to protect against fast wear on the drivetrain.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} An electric mid-drive combined with an internal gear hub at the back hub may require care due to the lack of a clutch mechanism to soften the shock to the gears at the moment of re-engagement. A continuously variable transmission or a fully automatic internal gear hub may reduce the shocks due to the viscosity of oils used for liquid coupling instead of the mechanical couplings of the conventional internal gear hubs.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The main advantage mid-drive motors have over hub motors is that power is applied through the chain (or belt) and thus it uses the existing rear gears (either external or internal). This allows for the motor to operate more efficiently at a wider range of vehicle speeds. Without using the bicycle's gears, equivalent hub motors tend to be less effective propelling the ebike slowly up steep hills and also propelling the ebike fast on the flat.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

==Batteries== [[File:E-bike charging station.JPG|thumb|E-bike charging station, Germany]] E-bikes use rechargeable batteries in addition to electric motors and some form of control. Battery systems in use include sealed lead–acid (SLA), nickel–cadmium (NiCad), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) or lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion). Batteries vary according to the voltage, total charge capacity (amp hours), weight, the number of charging cycles before performance degrades, and ability to handle over-voltage charging conditions. The energy costs of operating e-bikes are small, but there can be considerable battery replacement costs in particular in the case of premature failure. The lifespan of a battery pack varies depending on the type of usage including charging temperature. Room-temperature charging and shallow discharge/recharge cycles help extend the overall battery life. In the case of the most-used Li-ion batteries, there is no memory effect and thus no penalty in shallow charge cycles apart from the reduced range per charge.

Some experiments have also been undertaken with super capacitors to supplement or replace batteries for cars and some SUVS. E-bikes developed in Switzerland in the late 1980s for the Tour de Sol solar vehicle race used solar charging stations initially on-vehicle and later fixed on roofs and connected so as to feed into the electric mains.<ref>Technisches "Reglement der Tour de Sol 1989/1990", published by Tour de Sol, Bern, Switzerland</ref> The bicycles were then charged from the mains, as is common today.

Lithium ion batteries used in e-bikes and related vehicles such as electric scooters have been under scrutiny since 2019 due to their susceptibility to overheating and catching fire. The more expensive Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries have safer thermal characteristics and are non-toxic. A rise in incidents where e-bike batteries were implicated in fires has been attributed to increases in popularity and lack of regulations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Becky |date=11 March 2023 |title=What's driving the battery fires with e-bikes and scooters? |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/11/1162732820/e-bike-scooter-lithium-ion-battery-fires |website=National Public Radio}}</ref> Lower-quality batteries are more likely to be manufactured with defects that can cause bulging or bursting, however, there is an incredibly low instance of issue among larger more established manufacturers with chargers that avoid over voltage. In 2024, the world's largest electric bike maker, Giant Manufacturing, [https://www.cyclingelectric.com/in-depth/are-e-bike-fires-the-threat-were-told-they-are went on record to say] that it had never experienced an issue with a single battery. Gig workers who rely on using e-bikes to do their jobs may also be limited in their choice of vehicle and purchase a cheap or second-hand e-bike that is more prone to damage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bellan |first=Rebecca |date=11 July 2023 |title=Everything you need to know about e-bike battery fires |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/07/11/everything-you-need-to-know-about-e-bike-battery-fires/ |website=TechCrunch}}</ref> Some jurisdictions, such as New York City and San Francisco, have passed laws requiring that all electric mobility devices sold have UL safety certifications.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hu |first=Winnie |date=2023-09-15 |title=How New York Plans to Regulate E-Bikes in the Wake of Deadly Fires |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/ebike-laws-nyc.html |access-date=2024-04-19 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Secon |first=Holly |date=9 March 2024 |title=San Francisco Cracks Down on E-Scooter and E-Bike Fires with New Battery Fire Codes |url=https://sfist.com/2024/03/09/san-francisco-cracks-down-on-e-scooter-and-e-bike-battery-fires-with-new-battery-regulations/ |website=SFist |access-date=19 April 2024 |archive-date=10 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240410041945/https://sfist.com/2024/03/09/san-francisco-cracks-down-on-e-scooter-and-e-bike-battery-fires-with-new-battery-regulations/ }}</ref>

=== Range === Range is a key consideration with e-bikes, and is affected by factors such as motor usage and degree of assistance chosen, battery capacity, speed and aerodynamics, rolling resistance, hills and weight of the bike and rider.<ref>"[http://www.electric-bicycle-guide.com/electric-bicycle-range.html Electric Bicycle Range]"; Electric Bicycle Guide (retrieved 2014-03-09)</ref>

An e-bike with a 70 kg rider (total mass of ≈100 kg) can be calculated to go about 5.6 kilometres on a 10% grade at 25 km/h on battery power alone (assuming frontal area = 0.4 meter-squared, drag coefficient = 0.7, altitude = 100m, wind speed = 10 km/h (2.8 m/s) and rolling resistance coefficient = 0.007<ref>{{cite web|title=Electric Bicycle Calculators|url=http://www.electric-bicycle-guide.com/electric-bicycle-calculators.html|access-date=5 December 2025}}</ref>). Depending on the assistance of the rider, a proportionally greater range is achieved.

Some models with hub motors, such as pioneered in the former Canadian BionX and its present derivitives use regenerative braking, the motor acts as a generator to slow the bike down prior to the brake pads engaging.<ref>{{cite web|title=BionX FAQ Page|url=http://www.bionx.ca/en/support/faq/|access-date=2010-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100322230111/http://www.bionx.ca/en/support/faq/|archive-date=2010-03-22}}</ref> This is useful for extending the range and the life of brake pads and wheel rims.

There were also range-extending experiments using fuel cells, e.g. the 2007 PHB.

==Design variations== Not all e-bikes take the form of conventional push-bikes with an incorporated motor, such as the Cytronex bicycles which use a small battery disguised as a water bottle.<ref>{{cite news | last = Henshaw | first = Peter | title = Cytronex Trek FX: A bike with boost | publisher = The Telegraph | date = 2008-09-05 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/motorbikes/adventureandtrailmotorbikes/2979610/Cytronex-Trek-FX-A-bike-with-boost.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006033041/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/motorbikes/adventureandtrailmotorbikes/2979610/Cytronex-Trek-FX-A-bike-with-boost.html | archive-date = 2008-10-06 }} </ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Peace | first = Richard | title = Electric bikes start to come of age | work = BikeRadar | publisher = Future Publishing | date = 2008-08-26 | url = http://www.bikeradar.com/news/article/electric-bikes-start-to-come-of-age--18203 | access-date = 12 November 2010 | archive-date = 4 October 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081004215036/http://www.bikeradar.com/news/article/electric-bikes-start-to-come-of-age--18203 }}</ref> Converting a non-electric bicycle to its electric equivalent can be complicated but numerous 'replace a wheel' solutions are now available on the market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gizmag.com/geoorbital-wheel/43097/|title=Tron-inspired electric bike wheel chucks the hub|website=www.gizmag.com|date=2 May 2016|access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref>

Electric cargo bikes allow the rider to carry large, heavy items which would be difficult to transport without electric power supplementing the human power input.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://electricbikereport.com/electric-cargo-bike-guide/ |title=Electric Cargo Bike Guide |publisher=Electric Bike Report |date=2010-09-01 |access-date=2010-10-06}}</ref> These bikes can also allow for adults to continue biking into parenthood, enabling the transportation of children without using a car.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Alainna |date=2022-07-01 |title=Electric bicycles and cargo bikes—Tools for parents to keep on biking in auto-centric communities? Findings from a US metropolitan area |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Transportation |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=637–646 |doi=10.1080/15568318.2021.1914787 |bibcode=2022IJSTr..16..637T |s2cid=235549536 |issn=1556-8318|doi-access=free }}</ref>

There are many e-bikes design variations available, some with batteries attached to the frame, some housed within the tube. Some use fat tires for improved stability and off-road capability.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enter The Rapid Development Fat Tire E-bike In 2022 |url=https://www.addmotor.com/blog/enter-the-rapid-development-fat-tire-e-bike-in-2022 |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=Electric Bike Blog - Addmotor}}</ref> Various designs (including those mentioned above) are designed to fit inside most area laws, and the ones that contain pedals can be used on roads in the United Kingdom, among other countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-20|title=Electric Bike Sizing Guide|url=https://e-lectride.com/road-bike-sizing-guide/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Electride|language=en-GB|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214321/https://e-lectride.com/road-bike-sizing-guide/}}</ref>

Folding e-bikes are also available.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sutton|first=Mark|title=EBCO introduces Solex electric bikes to the UK|url=http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/ebco-introduces-solex-electric-bikes-to-the-uk/012429|access-date=10 January 2012|newspaper=Bike Biz|date=6 January 2012|archive-date=22 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122101241/http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/ebco-introduces-solex-electric-bikes-to-the-uk/012429}}</ref> Electric self-balancing unicycles do not conform to e-bike legislation in most countries and therefore cannot be used on the road,<ref>[http://news.cnet.com/electric-gyroscopic-unicycle-is-like-a-segway-junior/8301-17938_105-20064007-1.html Electric Unicycle] by Amanda Kooser, 18 May 2011, cnet.com</ref> but may be legal to use on the sidewalk. They are the cheapest electric cycles and used by the last mile commuters, for urban use and to be combined with public transport, including buses. They are not legal for use on the public highway (including footways and cycle paths) in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/powered-transporters/information-sheet-guidance-on-powered-transporters |title=Powered transporters |website=GOV.UK |location=United Kingdom |author1=Department for Transport |author2=Driver & Vehicle Standards Agency |date=December 2018 |access-date=14 November 2022 |quote=It is illegal to use a powered transporter: on a public road without complying with a number of legal requirements, which potential users will find very difficult[;] in spaces that are set aside for use by pedestrians, cyclists, and horse-riders; this includes on the pavement and in cycle lanes[.] Any person who uses a powered transporter on a public road or other prohibited space in breach of the law is committing a criminal offence and can be prosecuted. ... The term 'powered transporters' ... includes ... powered unicycles, and u-wheels.}}</ref>

===Tricycles=== {{See also|e-tricycle}} Electric trikes have also been produced that conform to the e-bike legislation. These have the benefit of additional low speed stability and are often favored by people with disabilities. Cargo carrying tricycles are also gaining acceptance, with a small but growing number of couriers using them for package deliveries in city centers. Latest designs of these trikes resemble a cross-between a pedal cycle and a small van.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itv.com/news/central/2013-11-20/electric-delivery-trikes-will-they-catch-on-in-britain/|title=Electric Delivery Trikes – will they catch on in Britain?|newspaper=ITV Central News|date=2013-11-20}}</ref> <gallery mode="packed"> Electric Bicycle Diagram.jpg|Diagram illustrating a standard bicycle converted to an e-bike using a retail conversion kit Electro bike, Brno.jpg|A folding e-bike Modern Cargo Trike In London.jpg|A modern electric cargo trike in use in London, with a payload of up to {{cvt|250|kg|lb}} An electric unicycle at Berwick Pier - geograph.org.uk - 6281514.jpg|Electric unicycle Airwheel-SE3-robot.jpg|Some vehicles might not technically be an electric bicycle, but might be grouped in that category by transportation authorities. </gallery>

== Health effects == thumb|Electric bicycle usage can have several health benefits and rider safety can be improved through the use of a helmet. One research shows that E-bike use increased the amount of physical activity. E-bike users in seven European cities had 10% higher weekly energy expenditure than other cyclists because they cycled longer trips.<ref name="Castro">{{cite journal | last = Castro | first = A | title = Physical activity of electric bicycle users compared to conventional bicycle users and non-cyclists: Insights based on health and transport data from an online survey in seven European cities | journal = Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives | volume = 1| article-number = 100017 | year = 2019 | doi = 10.1016/j.trip.2019.100017 | doi-access = free| bibcode = 2019TrRIP...100017C | hdl = 10044/1/77527 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> However a study from University of Tennessee provides evidence that energy expenditure (EE) and oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub>) for e-bikes are 24% lower than that for conventional bicycles, and 64% lower than for walking. Further, the study notes that the difference between e-bikes and bicycles are most pronounced on the uphill segments.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://peopleforbikes.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/1-s2.0-S2214140516303930-main.pdf|title=Comparing physical activity of pedal-assist electric bikes with walking and conventional bicycles|last=Langford|first=Brian Casey|date=2017|access-date=5 May 2018|archive-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205215132/https://peopleforbikes.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/1-s2.0-S2214140516303930-main.pdf}}</ref>

E-bikes can also provide a source of exercise for individuals who have trouble exercising for an extended time (due to injury or excessive weight, for example) as the bike can allow the rider to take short breaks from pedaling and also provide confidence to the rider that they'll be able to complete the selected path without becoming too fatigued<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mensfitness.com/life/gearandtech/why-you-need-electric-bike |title=Why You Need an Electric Bike |work=Men's Fitness |publisher=MensFitness.com |date= 19 July 2013|access-date=2015-12-15}}</ref> or without having forced their knee joints too hard (people who need to use their knee joints without wearing them out unnecessarily may in some electric bikes adjust the level of motor assistance according to the terrain).

There are individuals who claim to have lost considerable amounts of weight by using an electric bike.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/womans-dramatic-280-pound-weight-loss-life-back/story?id=27294756 |title=Woman's Dramatic 280-pound Weight Loss |website=ABC News |date=2014-12-03 |access-date=2015-12-15}}</ref> A recent prospective cohort study however found that people using e-bikes have a higher BMI than those using conventional bikes.<ref name="Dons">{{cite journal |last = Dons |first = E |title = Transport mode choice and body mass index: Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence from a European-wide study |journal = Environment International |volume = 119 |issue = 119 |pages = 109–116 |year = 2018 |doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2018.06.023 |pmid = 29957352 |bibcode = 2018EnInt.119..109D |hdl = 10044/1/61061 |s2cid = 49607716 |url = http://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/61061/2/Dons2018%20preprint_BMI.pdf |hdl-access = free |archive-date = 28 August 2021 |access-date = 16 September 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210828005223/https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk:8443/bitstream/10044/1/61061/2/Dons2018%20preprint_BMI.pdf }}</ref> By making the biking terrain less of an issue, people who would not otherwise consider biking can use the electric assistance when needed and otherwise pedal as they are able.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/gadget-lust-pedego-electric-bike-makes-exercise-look-and-feel-easy-320211 |title=Pedego Electric Bike Makes Exercise Look and Feel Easy |website=Newsweek |date=2015-04-11 |access-date=2015-12-15}}</ref>

E-bikes can be a useful part of cardiac rehabilitation programs, since health professionals will often recommend a stationary bike be used in the early stages of these. Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation programs can reduce deaths in people with coronary heart disease by around 27%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/exercise/pages/rehabilitation.aspx |title=Exercise – Rehabilitation – NHS Choices |publisher=Nhs.uk |date=2010-01-25 |access-date=2010-10-06}}</ref>

===Road traffic safety=== Safety issues with e-bikes are a concern when more and longer trips and higher speeds lead to a higher number of and more severe accidents. Car drivers may underestimate how fast a cyclist is moving. Also, an elderly person may ride much faster on a pedelec than previously possible. Risky situations can also arise at road exits and junctions. To illustrate the consequences of such critical situations, the German Insurers Accident Research (UDV) has conducted a research project with road tests, performance tests and crash tests for pedelecs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Elektrofahrräder – Umweltschonend aber gefährlich?|url=http://www.udv.de/uploads/tx_udvpublications/110407_Pedelec_info_01.pdf|publisher=Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. (GDV)|access-date=21 March 2013|author=Siegfried Brockmann|location=Neumünster|format=PDF 1.7MB|date=7 April 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708052449/http://www.udv.de/uploads/tx_udvpublications/110407_Pedelec_info_01.pdf|archive-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

On the other hand, many e-bike users report that they can ride more defensively with the auxiliary electric drive assisting them; unlike traditional bicyclists that tend to be averse to braking since this incurs effort to accelerate again, an e-bike rider can brake and then accelerate back to a normal speed with less effort. The Bavarian accident statistics for the first half of 2012 listed 6,186 accidents involving bicycles, of which 76 were e-bikes and notes that the accident risk of e-bikes is not higher than for other bicycles.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/bayern/E-Bikes-nicht-gefaehrlicher-als-andere-Raeder-id21910861.html |title= E-Bikes nicht gefährlicher als andere Räder |work= Augsburger Allgemeine |date= 2012-09-20 |access-date= 2013-03-21 |language= de |trans-title=E-Bikes not more dangerous than other bicycles}}</ref>

The use of S-Pedelecs involves an additional risk due to often higher speeds and trip distances.

Schleinitz et al. (2014) concluded that e-bike users in Germany were no more likely than conventional cyclists to be involved in "safety-critical situations". However, Dozza et al. (2015) concluded (from an analysis of Swedish cyclists) that e-bikers may be involved in more critical incidents but with "lower severity". Additionally, e-bikers were less likely to have dangerous interactions with motorized vehicles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haustein |first1=Sonja |last2=Møller |first2=Mette |title=E-bike safety: Individual-level factors and incident characteristics |journal=Journal of Transport & Health |date=September 2016 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=386–394 |doi=10.1016/j.jth.2016.07.001 |bibcode=2016JTHea...3..386H |s2cid=54224506 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140516301979#bib31 |access-date=6 October 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the United States, an estimated 53,200 e-bike-related emergency department visits occurred between 2017 and 2022. During this period, there were 104 e-bike fatalities, accounting for 45% of all micromobility-related deaths.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tark |first=James |date=September 2023 |title=Micromobility Products-Related Deaths, Injuries, and Hazard Patterns: 2017–2022 |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/Micromobility-Products-Related-Deaths-Injuries-and-Hazard-Patterns-2017-2022.pdf |website=United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) }}</ref> Following a new state law, Assembly Bill 2234, cities in San Diego County can establish a minimum age for operating e-bikes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Producer |first=Alexander Nguyen / Multimedia |last2=Journalist |first2=North County Contributors: Carolyne Corelis / Video |date=2025-12-03 |title=Carlsbad moves forward on banning e-bikes for kids 12 and under |url=https://www.kpbs.org/news/public-safety/2025/12/02/carlsbad-considers-banning-e-bikes-for-kids-12-and-under |access-date=2025-12-04 |website=KPBS Public Media |language=en}}</ref>

==Environmental effects== thumb|Delivery by e-bike can be more efficient in dense urban environments where parking is not always available for larger vehicles. E-bikes are zero-emissions vehicles, as they emit no combustion by-products, but the environmental effects of electricity generation and power distribution and of manufacturing and recycling batteries<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gerow|first=Brian|date=2020-08-10|title=How Sustainable are the Batteries in E-bikes and Other MTB Gadgets? We Asked a Battery Expert.|url=https://www.singletracks.com/environment/how-sustainable-are-the-batteries-in-e-bikes-and-other-mtb-gadgets-we-asked-a-battery-expert/|access-date=2020-12-30|website=Singletracks Mountain Bike News|language=en-US}}</ref> must be accounted for.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramadhan |first1=Ali |last2=Dinata |first2=Rizky |title=Development of electric bicycle and its impact on the environment |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |date=2021 |volume=1122 |issue=1 |article-number=012054 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/1122/1/012054 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021MS&E.1122a2054R }}</ref>

According to figures from a 2011 ECF-publication<ref>{{cite web |title=Quantifying CO₂ savings of Cycling| last=Blondel|first=Benoit|url=https://ecf.com/media/resources/2016/ECF_CO2_WEB.pdf|publisher=European Cyclists' Federation|date=November 2011|access-date=18 January 2026 }}</ref>, updated with respect to electrical energy required<ref name="Stott">{{cite web |title=How green is cycling? Riding, walking, ebikes and driving ranked |last=Stott |first=Seb |url=https://www.bikeradar.com/features/long-reads/cycling-environmental-impact |publisher=bikeradar.com |date=30 October 2000 |access-date=17 January 2026 }}</ref>, over their full life-cycle e-bikes on average emit 15 g CO₂e per passenger-km, including 7 g for manufacturing, 2 g for electric energy production and 6 g for food production. This is less than for unmotorized cycles, which rate at 21 g CO₂e per passenger-km with 5 g for manufacturing and 16 g for food energy. Other means of transport cause higher figures, e.g. roughly 50 g CO₂e per passenger-km for electric cars (driver only) or walking, or 100 g for buses with ten passengers. Within this data, buses with over 60 passengers would cluster with e-bikes. These comparisons are very approximate as the data varies considerably depending on the vehicles, humans, and energy statistics assumed. For example, an e-bike rider with access to climate-neutral food and electricity might emit 7 g CO₂e/km, whereas one eating beef might cause emissions of over 570 g CO₂e/km if other things remain equal.<ref name="Stott" />

These emission rates are several times lower than conventional motorcycles and cars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cherry |first1=Christopher R. |last2=Weinert |first2=Jonathan X. |last3=Xinmiao |first3=Yang |date=2009 |title=Comparative environmental impacts of electric bikes in China |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1361920908001387 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |language=en |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=281–290 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2008.11.003|bibcode=2009TRPD...14..281C |s2cid=54579197 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brand|first1=Christian|last2=Götschi|first2=Thomas|last3=Dons|first3=Evi|last4=Gerike|first4=Regine|last5=Anaya-Boig|first5=Esther|last6=Avila-Palencia|first6=Ione|last7=de Nazelle|first7=Audrey|last8=Gascon|first8=Mireia|last9=Gaupp-Berghausen|first9=Mailin|last10=Iacorossi|first10=Francesco|last11=Kahlmeier|first11=Sonja|date=2021-03-01|title=The climate change mitigation impacts of active travel: Evidence from a longitudinal panel study in seven European cities|journal=Global Environmental Change|language=en|volume=67|article-number=102224|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102224|hdl=10044/1/89043|issn=0959-3780|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021GEC....6702224B |hdl-access=free}}</ref> E-bikes are generally seen as environmentally desirable in an urban environment.<ref name="Cherry2015">{{cite journal | last1 =Fishman | first1 = Elliot | last2 = Cherry | first2 = Christopher | title = E-bikes in the Mainstream: Reviewing a Decade of Research | journal = Transport Reviews | volume =36 | issue = 1 | pages = 72–91 | publisher = Taylor & Francis Online | date = 30 Jul 2015 | doi = 10.1080/01441647.2015.1069907 | s2cid = 155112620 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philips |first1=Ian |last2=Anable |first2=Jillian |last3=Chatterton |first3=Tim |title=E-bikes and their capability to reduce car CO2 emissions |journal=Transport Policy |date=2022 |volume=116 |pages=11–23 |doi=10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.11.019 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

A 2018 study in England found that e-bikes, if used to replace car travel, have the capability to "cut car carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) emissions in England by up to 50% (about 30 million tonnes per year)".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Philips|first1=Ian|last2=Watling|first2=David|last3=Timms|first3=Paul|date=2018-05-28|title=Estimating individual physical capability (IPC) to make journeys by bicycle|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Transportation|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=324–340|doi=10.1080/15568318.2017.1368748|bibcode=2018IJSTr..12..324P |issn=1556-8318|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A 2020 study focusing on the Yorkshire region of England suggested that the greatest opportunities are in rural and sub-urban settings: city dwellers already have many low-carbon travel options, so the greatest impact would be on encouraging use outside urban areas.<ref name="Phelps et al">{{cite web |last1=Phelps |first1=Ian |last2=Anable |first2=Jillian |last3=Chatterton |first3=Tim |title=e-bike carbon savings – how much and where? |url=https://www.creds.ac.uk/publications/e-bike-carbon-savings-how-much-and-where/ |website=CREDS |access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref> The study further suggested there may also be scope for e-bikes to help people who are most affected by rising transport costs.<ref name="Phelps et al" />

The environmental effects involved in recharging the batteries can of course be reduced. The small size of the battery pack on an e-bike, relative to the larger pack used in an electric car, makes them very good candidates for charging via solar power or other renewable energy resources. Sanyo capitalized on this benefit when it set up "solar parking lots", in which e-bike riders can charge their vehicles while parked under photovoltaic panels.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Eaton | first = Kit | title = Sanyo's Solar Bike Sheds—Green Power, Healthy and Clever | newspaper = Fast Company | date = 16 March 2010 |url=http://www.fastcompany.com/1585081/sanyo-eneloop-solar-charging-hybrid-bike-park-japan-alt-power | access-date = 2010-03-19}}</ref>

The environmental credentials of e-bikes, and electric / human powered hybrids generally, have led some municipal authorities to use them, such as Little Rock, Arkansas, with their ''Wavecrest'' electric power-assisted bicycles or Cloverdale, California police with ''Zap'' e-bikes. China's e-bike manufacturers, such as Xinri, are now partnering with universities in a bid to improve their technology in line with international environmental standards, backed by the Chinese government who is keen to improve the export potential of the Chinese manufactured e-bikes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.articlesbase.com/international-business-articles/electric-bicycles-the-green-innovation-gaining-traction-in-world-export-markets-2420374.html |title=Electric Bicycles; the Green Innovation gaining traction in world export markets |publisher=Articlesbase.com |access-date=2010-10-06}}</ref>

Both land management regulators and mountain bike trail access advocates have argued for bans of electric bicycles on outdoor trails that are accessible to mountain bikes, citing potential safety hazards as well as the potential for electric bikes to damage trails. A study conducted by the International Mountain Bicycling Association, however, found that the physical impacts of low-powered pedal-assist electric mountain bikes (eMTB) may be similar to traditional mountain bikes (MTB).<ref>{{Cite news | last = Newland | first = Cameron | title = IMBA Preliminary Study Results Suggest That Electric Bikes Aren't Especially Damaging To Mountain Bike Trails | newspaper = Overvolted Electric Bike News and Reviews | date = 24 September 2015 | url = http://overvolted.com/imba-preliminary-study-results-suggest-that-electric-bikes-arent-especially-damaging-to-mountain-bike-trails/ | access-date = 2015-09-25 | archive-date = 25 September 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150925102200/http://overvolted.com/imba-preliminary-study-results-suggest-that-electric-bikes-arent-especially-damaging-to-mountain-bike-trails/ }}</ref>

A 2010 study on the environment impact of e-bikes versus other forms of transportation<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shreya |first=Dave |title=Life Cycle Assessment of Transportation Options for Commuters |journal=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=February 2010 |url=http://www.pietzo.com/storage/downloads/Pietzo_LCAwhitepaper.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715083534/http://www.pietzo.com/storage/downloads/Pietzo_LCAwhitepaper.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-15 }}</ref> found that e-bikes are: * 18 times more energy efficient than an SUV * 13 times more energy efficient than a sedan * 6 times more energy efficient than rail transit * Of about equal impact to the environment as a conventional bicycle.

There are strict shipping regulations for lithium-ion batteries, due to safety concerns.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prba.org/areas-of-focus/about-batteries/lithium-battery-transport-info/|title=Lithium Battery Transport Information|publisher=Portable Rechargeable Battery Association|access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref> In this regard, lithium iron phosphate batteries are safer than lithium cobalt oxide batteries.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/91/i6/Assessing-Safety-Lithium-Ion-Batteries.html |title=Assessing The Safety Of Lithium-Ion Batteries |first=Mitch |last=Jacoby |date=11 February 2013 |magazine=Chemical & Engineering News |publisher=American Chemical Society |volume=91 |issue=6 |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref>

== Experience by country == <gallery mode="packed"> 20211229 Didi shared electric bicycles in Sui County.jpg|Legislation has led to more e-bike usage in China, with e-bike rentals catering to that growth. E-Call a Bike Pedelec.jpg|Pedelecs from the Call a Bike bicycle hire scheme in Berlin E-bike 34th St jeh.jpg|Delivery e-bike with license plate in Manhattan, New York City -i---i- (49173334798).jpg|Police e-bikes in São Paulo, Brazil. </gallery>

===China=== China has experienced an explosive growth of sales of non-assisted e-bikes including scooter type, with annual sales jumping from 56,000 units in 1998 to over 21 million in 2008,<ref name=Chi-Taiw>{{cite journal|url=http://www.duke.edu/~cy42/EV.pdf|title=Launching strategy for electric vehicles: Lessons from China and Taiwan|author=Chi-Jen Yang|year=2010|pages=831–834|issue=77|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331153729/http://www.duke.edu/~cy42/EV.pdf|archive-date=2010-03-31}}</ref> and reaching an estimated fleet of 120 million e-bikes in early 2010.<ref name=NYT0110/><ref name=Economist0510/> This boom was triggered by Chinese local governments' efforts to restrict motorcycles in city centers to avoid traffic disruption and accidents. By late 2009 motorcycles, were banned or restricted in over ninety major Chinese cities.<ref name=Chi-Taiw/> Commuters began replacing traditional bicycles and motorcycles and e-bike became an alternative to commuting by car.<ref name=NYT0110/> Nevertheless, road safety concerns continue as around 2,500 e-bike related deaths were registered in 2007.<ref name=Economist0510>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/business-finance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=16117106|title=China's electric-bicycle boom – Pedals of fire|publisher=The Economist|date=2010-05-13|access-date=2010-05-31}}</ref> By late 2009, ten cities had also banned or imposed restrictions on e-bikes on the same grounds as motorcycles. Among these cities were Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Changsha, Foshan, Changzhou, and Dongguang.<ref name=Chi-Taiw/><ref name=Economist0510/>

In April 2019, China's regulatory policies changed, and new standards around electric bikes were introduced, governing a bicycle's weight, maximum speed and nominal voltage among other factors.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=E-Bikes Rule China's Urban Streets: Hyperdrive Daily |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2021-04-05/hyperdrive-daily-e-bikes-rule-china-s-urban-streets |access-date=2022-03-17 |newspaper=Bloomberg|date=5 April 2021 }}</ref> Vehicles which apply the new standard, including international 25 km/h speed limit, are legally considered as bicycles and do not require registration. E-bikes out of this standard are considered as motorcycles and are subject to helmet and license regulation.<ref>Global status report on road safety 2018. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO</ref>

China is the world's leading manufacturer of e-bikes, with 22.2 million units produced in 2009. Some of the biggest manufacturers of E-bikes in the world are BYD and Geoby. Production is concentrated in five regions, Tianjin, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Shanghai.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=23424 |title=China Remains World's Leading Electric Bicycle Manufacturer |publisher=EV World |date=2005-05-28 |access-date=2010-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614073757/http://evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=23424 |archive-date=2010-06-14 }}</ref> China exported 370,000 e-bikes in 2009.<ref name=AsiaT/> In 2019, about 223,000 China companies were in businesses related to the electric-bike industry.<ref name=":2" /> As of 2025, there are 380 million registered ebikes. New ebikes must be made from fire resistant plastic, be at least 94.5% metal and a max weight of 63kg.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China's New E-Bike National Standards Take Effect |url=https://www.yicaiglobal.com/news/chinas-new-e-bike-national-standards-take-effect |access-date=2025-11-11 |website=www.yicaiglobal.com |language=en}}</ref>  === Germany === {{As of|2012}} there were about 600,000 e-bikes, mostly pedelecs, on the road in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pedelec, Segway, Bierbike: Lust oder Last? Arbeitskreis auf dem 50. Deutschen Verkehrsgerichtstag |trans-title=Pedelec, Segway, beer bike: desire or burden? Workshop on the 50th German Traffic Court Conference |url=http://www.nationaler-radverkehrsplan.de/termine/termin.php?id=3478|access-date=23 March 2013|language=de|date=January 2012}}</ref> Growth had been spectacular: the year before, 310,000–340,000 were sold in Germany and this in turn was 55% more than in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Go Pedelec! Handbuch mit wertvollen Praxistipps|trans-title=Go pedelec! Handbook with valuable practical tips|url=http://extraenergy.org/main.php?language=de&category=information&subcateg=21&id=27585|page=14|language=de|format=PDF|year=2012|access-date=22 March 2013|archive-date=31 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131113401/http://extraenergy.org/main.php?language=de&category=information&subcateg=21&id=27585|url-status=dead}}</ref> In comparison, there were around 70 million conventional bicycles in Germany in 2011 according to ZIV, the German Bicycle Industry Association.<ref name="ZIV-WiPK2012">{{cite web|title=Präsentation zur Wirtschaftspressekonferenz |trans-title=Presentation on the scientific press conference|url=http://www.ziv-zweirad.de/public/pk_2012-ziv-praesentation_21-03-2012.pdf|publisher=Zweirad-Industrie-Verband (ZIV)|access-date=22 March 2013|language=de|format=PDF|date=21 March 2012|quote=Die angegebene Spanne des durchschnittlichen Verkaufspreises schließt auch die vernachlässigbar wenigen ausschließlich elektrisch angetriebenen Räder mit ein.|trans-quote=The given interval of average sales prices includes the negligibly few bicycles with exclusively electric propulsion.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202064332/http://www.ziv-zweirad.de/public/pk_2012-ziv-praesentation_21-03-2012.pdf|archive-date=2 December 2012}}</ref>

By 2019 the yearly sales topped one million and in the year up to and including 2024 two million, slightly surpassing unmotorized bicycles from 2023 on.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fahrradbranche robust in herausfordernden Zeiten |trans-title=Cycling branch robust in challenging times|url=https://www.ziv-zweirad.de/marktdaten-2024/|publisher=Zweirad-Industrie-Verband (ZIV)|access-date=25 November 2025|language=de|date=12 March 2025}}</ref>

=== India === In India electric bicycles market was valued at US$1.14 million in 2021, and is expected to reach US$2.31 million by 2027, projecting a CAGR of 12.69% during this forecast period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India E-bike Market Size, Share (2022 - 27) {{!}} Industry Analysis |url=https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/india-e-bike-market |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=Mordor Intelligence |language=en}}</ref>

=== Japan === Japan introduces e-bikes under new pedelec-legislation (PAS-system) in 1994 and by mid-year Yamaha had sold 30,000 and by mid-1997 200,000.

Numbers by all manufacturers continued:<ref name="Japan">{{cite web |title=Electric Bike Usage Statistics in Japan |url=https://www.xjd.com/t-electric-bike-law-japan/ |publisher=XJD.com |date=October 23, 2024}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Year !! Number sold |- | 2018 || 150,000 |- | 2019 || 180,000 |- | 2020 || 220,000 |- | 2021 || 250,000 |- | 2022 || 300,000 |- | 2023 || 350,000 |}

===Netherlands=== The Netherlands has a fleet of 23 million bicycles for its population of 18 million (as of 2024).<ref name=DutchNews0110>{{cite news|url=http://www.dutchdailynews.com/netherlands-bicycle-capital-of-the-world/|title=Netherlands bicycle capital of the world|publisher=Dutch Daily News|date=2010-01-26|access-date=2010-05-31}}</ref> E-bikes have reached a market share of 10% by 2009, as e-bikes sales quadrupled from 40,000 units to 153,000 between 2006 and 2009,<ref name="BikeEU Holland">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bike-eu.com/home/nieuws/2010/4/in-holland-one-out-of-eight-bikes-is-electric-1016132|title=In Holland One out of Eight Bikes Is Electric|publisher=Bike Europe|date=2010-04-18|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref> and the electric-powered models represented 25% of the total bicycle sales revenue in that year.<ref name=DutchNews0110/> By early 2010 one in every eight bicycles sold in the country is electric-powered despite the fact that on average an e-bike is three times more expensive than a regular bicycle.<ref name=Economist0510/><ref name="BikeEU Holland"/> E-bike sales have now overtaken those of unpowered bikes, reaching 423,000 in 2019 and 547,000 in 2020.

A 2008 market survey showed that the average distance traveled in the Netherlands by commuters on a standard bicycle is {{convert|6.3|km|mi}} while with an e-bike this distance increases to {{convert|9.8|km|mi}}.<ref name=Market08>{{cite web|url=http://www.fietsberaad.nl/index.cfm?lang=en&section=Kennisbank&mode=detail&repository=Electric+bicycles+-+market+research+and+investigation|title=Electric bicycles – market research and investigation|first=Ingrid|last=Hendriksen|display-authors=et al|year=2008|publisher=Fiets Beraad|access-date=2010-05-31|archive-date=5 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205170615/http://www.fietsberaad.nl/index.cfm?lang=en&section=Kennisbank&mode=detail&repository=Electric+bicycles+-+market+research+and+investigation}}</ref> This survey also showed that e-bike ownership is particularly popular among people aged 65 and over, but limited among commuters. The e-bike is used in particular for recreational bicycle trips, shopping and errands.<ref name=Market08/>

===Switzerland=== frame|center|Bicycles and e-bikes sold 2005-2024 in Switzerland<ref>{{cite web |title=News und Statistik |url=https://www.velosuisse.ch/news-statistik/ |publisher=velosuisse |access-date=7 December 2025}}</ref>

===United States=== In 2009 the U.S. had an estimated fleet of 200,000 e-bikes.<ref name=AsiaT>{{cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/LE07Cb01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509020637/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/LE07Cb01.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=2010-05-09|title=China switches to e-bikes|publisher=Asia Times|date=2010-05-07|access-date=2010-06-01}}</ref> In 2012 they were increasingly favored in New York as food-delivery vehicles.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/04/nyregion/for-food-delivery-workers-speed-tips-and-fear-on-wheels.html?_r=2&hp |title=Food deliverymen on wheels |first=J. |last=David Goodman |newspaper=The New York Times |date= 2 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes2024Nightmare"/> The North American Electric Bike Market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 10.13% from 2021 to 2028.<ref>{{Cite web |title=North America E-Bike Market 2021-2028|url=https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5233692/north-america-e-bike-market-2021-2028 |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=Research and Markets.com |language=english |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426231609/https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5233692/north-america-e-bike-market-2021-2028 }}</ref>thumb|fat tire ebike continental divide rocky mountains USA

== Use in warfare == Ukraine used donated e-bikes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine to transport light anti-tank weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine Is Using Quiet Electric Bikes to Haul Anti-Tank Weapons|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/ukraine-is-using-quiet-electric-bikes-to-haul-anti-tank-weapons/ |work=Vice |first=Matthew |last=Gault | date=24 May 2022 |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref> This echoes past usage of bicycle infantry in wartime, particularly by the Japanese forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Are Military E-Bikes the Next Big Thing in Land Warfare? |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a38965509/e-bikes-military-missions/ |work=Popular Mechanics |first=Kyle |last=Mizokami | date=19 May 2022 |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref>

== Gallery == {{gallery |File:Antec1991.JPG|Electric bicycle by Antec, 1991 |File:Electricbike1raleigh.JPG|A bike equipped with an after market electric hub motor conversion kit, with the battery pack placed on the rear carrier rack |File:NCycle e-bike (2014).jpg|nCycle (2014) designed by Hussain Almossawi and Marin Myftiu<ref>{{Cite web|title=The nCycle is Here |publisher=Yanko Design|date=29 August 2014 |url=https://www.yankodesign.com/2014/08/29/the-ncycle-is-here/|access-date=2020-08-30}}</ref> |Pinarello Dyodo Gravel E-Bike - 20.jpg|Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC) bicycle hub motor }}

==Notes== {{reflist|group=Okla pakistan}}

==References== {{Reflist |refs= <ref name="NYTimes2024Nightmare">{{cite news |last=Stewart |first=Dodai |date=27 May 2024 |title=Have E-Bikes Made New York City a 'Nightmare'? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/27/nyregion/street-wars-e-bikes.html |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=subscription |access-date=28 May 2024 |quote=E-bikes zoom down streets, zigzag around cars and zip across sidewalks, changing the way some residents view the streets. }}</ref> }}

==External links== * [https://rmi.org/insight/e-bike-environment-and-economics-impact-assessment-calculator/ Environment and Economics Impact Assessment Calculator] from RMI (energy organization) * {{Commons category-inline|Electrically-powered bicycles|Electrically powered bicycles}}

{{Portal bar|Sports|Transport|Cars}} {{Alternative propulsion}} {{Electric vehicles}} {{Cycling}} {{Human-powered vehicles}} {{Private transport}} {{Micromobility}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Electric bicycles Category:Cycle types Category:Micromobility *Electric Category:Road cycles Category:Vehicles introduced in 1897