Bioplastic

{{Short description|Plastics derived from renewable biomass sources}} {{About|plastics made from renewable biomass|the information on plastics that are biodegradable|biodegradable plastic}} [[File:BiodegradablePlasticUtensils1.jpg|thumb|Biodegradable plastic [[kitchen utensil|utensil]]s]] [[File:Flower Wrapping made of PLA-Blend Bio-Flex.jpg|thumb|Flower wrapping made of PLA-blend bio-flex]] '''Bioplastics''' are [[plastic]] materials produced from renewable [[biomass]] sources.{{cn|date=January 2026}} In the context of [[bioeconomy]] and the [[circular economy]], bioplastics remain topical. Conventional petro-based polymers are increasingly blended with bioplastics to manufacture "bio-attributed" or "mass-balanced" plastic products—so the difference between bio- and other plastics might be difficult to define.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bioplastics Market Report: Industry Analysis, Forecast 2032 |url=https://ceresana.com/en/produkt/market-study-bioplastics |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=Ceresana Market Research |language=en-US}}</ref><!--[[Timeline of plastic development|Historically]], bioplastics were made from natural polymeric materials like [[shellac]] or [[Celluloid|cellulose]] with the addition of [[plasticizers]] to manipulate its properties. Since the end of the 19th century they have been almost ccmpletely superseded by [[fossil-fuel]] plastics derived from [[petroleum]] or [[natural gas]] (''fossilized'' biomass is not considered to be [[Renewable resource|renewable]] in reasonable short time). -->

Bioplastics can be produced by:

* processing directly from [[Biopolymer|natural biopolymers]] including [[polysaccharide]]s (e.g., [[corn starch]] or [[rice starch]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marichelvam |first1=M. K. |last2=Jawaid |first2=Mohammad |last3=Asim |first3=Mohammad |date=2019 |title=Corn and Rice Starch-Based Bio-Plastics as Alternative Packaging Materials |journal=[[Fibers (journal)|Fibers]] |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=32 |doi=10.3390/fib7040032 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[cellulose]], [[chitosan]], and [[alginate]]) and [[protein]]s (e.g., [[soy protein]], [[gluten]], and [[gelatin]]), * chemical synthesis from [[sugar]] derivatives (e.g., [[lactic acid]]) and [[lipid]]s (such as [[vegetable oil|vegetable fats and oils]]) from either plants or animals, * fermentation of sugars or lipids, * biotechnological production in microorganisms or genetically modified plants (e.g., [[polyhydroxyalkanoates]] (PHA)).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Manali |last2=Rajhans |first2=Sanjukta |last3=Pandya |first3=Himanshu A. |last4=Mankad |first4=Archana U. |last5=Shah |first5=Manali |last6=Rajhans |first6=Sanjukta |last7=Pandya |first7=Himanshu A. |last8=Mankad |first8=Archana U. |date=2021 |title=Bioplastic for future: A review then and now |journal=World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=056–067 |doi=10.30574/wjarr.2021.9.2.0054 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

One advantage of bioplastics is their independence from [[fossil fuel]] as a raw material, which is a finite and globally unevenly distributed resource linked to [[petroleum politics]] and [[Environmental impact of the petroleum industry|environmental impacts]]. Bioplastics can utilize previously unused waste materials (e.g., [[straw]], [[woodchips]], [[sawdust]], and [[food waste]]). [[Life cycle analysis]] studies show that some bioplastics can be made with a lower [[carbon footprint]] than their fossil counterparts, for example when [[biomass]] is used as raw material and also for energy production. However, other bioplastics' processes are less efficient and result in a higher carbon footprint than fossil plastics.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Rosenboom |first1=Jan-Georg |last2=Langer |first2=Robert |last3=Traverso |first3=Giovanni |date=2022-02-20 |title=Bioplastics for a circular economy |journal=Nature Reviews Materials |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=117–137 |doi=10.1038/s41578-021-00407-8 |pmid=35075395 |pmc=8771173 |bibcode=2022NatRM...7..117R |issn=2058-8437}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Di Bartolo |first1=Alberto |last2=Infurna |first2=Giulia |last3=Dintcheva |first3=Nadka Tzankova |title=A Review of Bioplastics and Their Adoption in the Circular Economy |journal=[[Polymers (journal)|Polymers]] |date=2021 |volume=13 |issue=8 |page=1229 |doi=10.3390/polym13081229 |doi-access=free|pmid=33920269 |pmc=8069747 |hdl=10447/538077 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=S. |last2=Rothman |first2=R. |date=2020-07-10 |title=Life cycle assessment of bio-based and fossil-based plastic: A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652620312051 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=261 |article-number=121158 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121158 |bibcode=2020JCPro.26121158W |s2cid=216414551 |issn=0959-6526|hdl=10871/121758 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pellis |first1=Alessandro |last2=Malinconico |first2=Mario |last3=Guarneri |first3=Alice |last4=Gardossi |first4=Lucia |date=2021-01-25 |title=Renewable polymers and plastics: Performance beyond the green |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871678420301813 |journal=New Biotechnology |language=en |volume=60 |pages=146–158 |doi=10.1016/j.nbt.2020.10.003 |pmid=33068793 |s2cid=224321496 |issn=1871-6784|url-access=subscription |hdl=11368/2973201 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Some consumer products tout the use of bioplastics as a means to earn "green" credentials. Many skeptics believe that bioplastics will not solve problems as others expect.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Bioplastics Will Not Solve the World's Plastics Problem|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-bioplastics-will-not-solve-the-worlds-plastics-problem|access-date=2022-01-12|website=Yale E360|language=en-US}}</ref>

Whether any kind of plastic is degradable or non-degradable (durable) depends on its molecular structure, not on whether or not the biomass constituting the raw material is fossilized. Both durable bioplastics, such as [[Bio-PET]] or [[biopolyethylene]] (bio-based analogues of fossil-based [[polyethylene terephthalate]] and [[polyethylene]]), and degradable bioplastics, such as [[polylactic acid]], [[polybutylene succinate]], or [[polyhydroxyalkanoates]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Anjaly P. |last2=Kasa |first2=Vara Prasad |last3=Dubey |first3=Brajesh Kumar |last4=Sen |first4=Ramkrishna |last5=Sarmah |first5=Ajit K. |title=Synthesis and commercialization of bioplastics: Organic waste as a sustainable feedstock |journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]] |date=2023 |volume=904 |article-number=167243 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167243|pmid=37741416 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.90467243T }}</ref> exist.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lackner |first1=Maximilian |title=Bioplastics |journal=[[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology]] |date=2015 |pages=1–41 |doi=10.1002/0471238961.koe00006|isbn=978-0-471-48494-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Piemonte |first1=Vincenzo |title=Sustainable Development in Chemical Engineering Innovative Technologies |date=2013 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-1-119-95352-4 |pages=181–198 |edition=1 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118629703.ch8 |language=en |chapter=Inside the Bioplastics World: An Alternative to Petroleum-based Plastics|doi=10.1002/9781118629703.ch8 }}</ref> Bioplastics must be recycled similar to fossil-based plastics to avoid [[plastic pollution]]; "drop-in" bioplastics (such as biopolyethylene) fit into existing recycling streams. On the other hand, recycling biodegradable bioplastics in the current recycling streams poses additional challenges, as it may raise the cost of sorting and decrease the yield and the quality of the recyclate. However, biodegradation is not the only acceptable end-of-life disposal pathway for biodegradable bioplastics, and mechanical and chemical recycling are often the preferred choice from the environmental point of view.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fredi |first1=Giulia |last2=Dorigato |first2=Andrea |date=2021-07-01 |title=Recycling of bioplastic waste: A review |journal=Advanced Industrial and Engineering Polymer Research |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=159–177 |doi=10.1016/j.aiepr.2021.06.006|s2cid=237852939 |doi-access=free |hdl=11572/336675 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

[[biodegradable|Biodegradability]] may offer an end-of-life pathway in certain applications, such as agricultural mulch, but the concept of biodegradation is not as straightforward as many believe. Susceptibility to biodegradation is highly dependent on the chemical backbone structure of the polymer, and different bioplastics have different structures, thus it cannot be assumed that bioplastic in the environment will readily disintegrate. Conversely, biodegradable plastics can also be synthesized from fossil fuels.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.worldcentric.org/biocompostables/bioplastics | title=Bioplastics (PLA) - World Centric | website=worldcentric.org | access-date=2018-07-15 | archive-date=2019-03-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309234733/http://www.worldcentric.org/biocompostables/bioplastics }}</ref>

As of 2018, bioplastics represented approximately 2% of the global plastics output (>380 million tons).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chinthapalli |first1=Raj |last2=Skoczinski |first2=Pia |last3=Carus |first3=Michael |last4=Baltus |first4=Wolfgang |last5=de Guzman |first5=Doris |last6=Käb |first6=Harald |last7=Raschka |first7=Achim |last8=Ravenstijn |first8=Jan |date=2019-08-01 |title=Biobased Building Blocks and Polymers—Global Capacities, Production and Trends, 2018–2023 |url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ind.2019.29179.rch |journal=Industrial Biotechnology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=237–241 |doi=10.1089/ind.2019.29179.rch |s2cid=202017074 |issn=1550-9087|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 2022, the commercially most important types of bioplastics were [[Polylactic acid|PLA]] and products based on [[starch]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bioplastics Market Report: Industry Analysis, Forecast 2032 |url=https://ceresana.com/en/produkt/market-study-bioplastics |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=Ceresana Market Research |language=en-US}}</ref>

==IUPAC definition== The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] define biobased polymer as:

{{blockquote|''Biobased polymer'' derived from the ''[[biomass]]'' or issued from monomers derived from the biomass and which, at some stage in its processing into finished products, can be shaped by flow. :''Note 1'': Bioplastic is generally used as the opposite of polymer derived from fossil resources. :''Note 2'': Bioplastic is misleading because it suggests that any polymer derived from the biomass is ''environmentally friendly''. :''Note 3'': The use of the term "bioplastic" is discouraged. Use the expression "biobased polymer". :''Note 4'': A biobased polymer similar to a petrobased one does not imply any superiority with respect to the environment unless the comparison of respective ''life cycle assessments'' is favourable.<ref name="IUPAC2012">{{cite journal|title=Terminology for biorelated polymers and applications (IUPAC Recommendations 2012)|journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry]]|year=2012|volume=84|issue=2|pages=377–410|doi=10.1351/PAC-REC-10-12-04|url=http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2012/pdf/8402x0377.pdf|last1=Vert|first1=Michel|s2cid=98107080|access-date=2013-07-17|archive-date=2015-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319032817/http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2012/pdf/8402x0377.pdf}}</ref>}}

== Types ==

=== Polysaccharide-based bioplastics ===

==== Starch-based plastics ==== [[File:Stärke-Packstoff Pömpel CG.jpg|thumb|[[Foam peanut|Packaging peanuts]] made from bioplastics (thermoplastic starch)]] [[Thermoplastic]] starch represents the most widely used bioplastic, constituting about 50 percent of the bioplastics market.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Types of Bioplastic {{!}} InnovativeIndustry.net|url=http://www.innovativeindustry.net/types-of-bioplastic|access-date=2020-07-11|language=en-US|archive-date=2023-04-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409192929/http://www.innovativeindustry.net/types-of-bioplastic|url-status=dead}}</ref> Simple starch bioplastic film can be made at home by [[Starch gelatinization|gelatinizing starch]] and [[Polymer solution casting|solution casting]].<ref>[http://www.instructables.com/id/Make-Potato-Plastic!/ Make Potato Plastic!]. Instructables.com (2007-07-26). Retrieved 2011-08-14.</ref> Pure starch is able to absorb [[humidity]], and is thus a suitable material for the production of drug capsules by the pharmaceutical sector. However, pure starch-based bioplastic is brittle. Plasticizers such as [[glycerol]], glycol, and [[sorbitol]] can also be added so that the starch can also be processed thermo-plastically.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Hongsheng|last2=Xie|first2=Fengwei|last3=Yu|first3=Long|last4=Chen|first4=Ling|last5=Li|first5=Lin|date=2009-12-01|title=Thermal processing of starch-based polymers|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079670009000653|journal=Progress in Polymer Science|language=en|volume=34|issue=12|pages=1348–1368|doi=10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2009.07.001|issn=0079-6700|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The characteristics of the resulting bioplastic (also called "thermoplastic starch") can be tailored to specific needs by adjusting the amounts of these additives. Conventional polymer processing techniques can be used to process starch into bioplastic, such as extrusion, injection molding, compression molding and solution casting.<ref name=":1" /> The properties of starch bioplastic is largely influenced by [[amylose]]/[[amylopectin]] ratio. Generally, high-amylose starch results in superior mechanical properties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Ming|last2=Liu|first2=Peng|last3=Zou|first3=Wei|last4=Yu|first4=Long|last5=Xie|first5=Fengwei|last6=Pu|first6=Huayin|last7=Liu|first7=Hongshen|last8=Chen|first8=Ling|date=2011-09-01|title=Extrusion processing and characterization of edible starch films with different amylose contents|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0260877411002196|journal=Journal of Food Engineering|language=en|volume=106|issue=1|pages=95–101|doi=10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.04.021|issn=0260-8774|url-access=subscription}}</ref> However, high-amylose starch has less processability because of its higher gelatinization temperature<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Hongsheng|last2=Yu|first2=Long|last3=Xie|first3=Fengwei|last4=Chen|first4=Ling|date=2006-08-15|title=Gelatinization of cornstarch with different amylose/amylopectin content|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0144861706000506|journal=Carbohydrate Polymers|language=en|volume=65|issue=3|pages=357–363|doi=10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.01.026|s2cid=85239192 |issn=0144-8617|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and higher melt viscosity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xie|first1=Fengwei|last2=Yu|first2=Long|last3=Su|first3=Bing|last4=Liu|first4=Peng|last5=Wang|first5=Jun|last6=Liu|first6=Hongshen|last7=Chen|first7=Ling|date=2009-05-01|title=Rheological properties of starches with different amylose/amylopectin ratios|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0733521009000083|journal=Journal of Cereal Science|language=en|volume=49|issue=3|pages=371–377|doi=10.1016/j.jcs.2009.01.002|issn=0733-5210|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Starch-based bioplastics are often blended with biodegradable polyesters to produce starch/polylactic acid,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Khalid|first1=Saud|last2=Yu|first2=Long|last3=Meng|first3=Linghan|last4=Liu|first4=Hongsheng|last5=Ali|first5=Amjad|last6=Chen|first6=Ling|title=Poly(lactic acid)/starch composites: Effect of microstructure and morphology of starch granules on performance |journal= Journal of Applied Polymer Science|doi=10.1002/app.45504|volume=134|issue=46|year=2017|article-number=45504}}</ref> starch/[[polycaprolactone]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bioplasticsonline.net/2010/06/starch-based-bioplastic-manufacturers-and-suppliers/ | title=Starch based Bioplastic Manufacturers and Suppliers | work=bioplasticsonline.net | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814061041/http://bioplasticsonline.net/2010/06/starch-based-bioplastic-manufacturers-and-suppliers/ | archive-date=August 14, 2011 }}</ref> or starch/Ecoflex<ref>{{cite web | archive-date=17 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417023038/https://www.ptonline.com/articles/enhancing-biopolymers-additives-are-needed-for-toughness-heat-resistance-processability | url=https://www.ptonline.com/articles/enhancing-biopolymers-additives-are-needed-for-toughness-heat-resistance-processability | title=Enhancing biopolymers: additives are needed for toughness, heat resistance & processability. | work=Plastics Technology | url-status=live|first = Lilli Manolis|last = Sherman|date = 1 July 2008}}</ref> (polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate produced by [[BASF]]<ref>{{cite web|title=BASF announces major bioplastics production expansion|url=http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2008/04/22/basf-announces-major-bioplastics-production-expansion/|access-date=2011-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331122532/http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2008/04/22/basf-announces-major-bioplastics-production-expansion/|archive-date=2012-03-31}}</ref>) blends. These blends are used for industrial applications and are also compostable. Other producers, such as [[Roquette Frères|Roquette]], have developed other starch/[[polyolefin]] blends. These blends are not biodegradable, but have a lower carbon footprint than petroleum-based plastics used for the same applications.<ref>{{cite web|title=Roquette, nouvel acteur sur le marché des plastiques, lance GAÏALENE®: une gamme innovante de plastique végétal|url=http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2010/10/16/roquette-nouvel-acteur-sur-le-marche-des-plastiques-lance-gaialene%C2%AE-une-gamme-innovante-de-plastique-vegetal/|access-date=2011-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331122551/http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2010/10/16/roquette-nouvel-acteur-sur-le-marche-des-plastiques-lance-gaialene%C2%AE-une-gamme-innovante-de-plastique-vegetal/|archive-date=2012-03-31}}</ref>

Starch is cheap, abundant, and renewable.<ref name="auto">{{Citation|last1=Avérous|first1=Luc|title=Nanobiocomposites Based on Plasticized Starch|year=2014|work=Starch Polymers|pages=211–239|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-444-53730-0|last2=Pollet|first2=Eric|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53730-0.00028-2}}</ref>

Starch-based films (mostly used for packaging purposes) are made mainly from starch blended with thermoplastic polyesters to form biodegradable and compostable products. These films are seen specifically in consumer goods packaging of magazine wrappings and bubble films. In [[food packaging]], these films are seen as bakery or fruit and vegetable bags. Composting bags with this films are used in selective collecting of organic waste.<ref name="auto" /> Further, starch-based films can be used as a paper.<ref name="StarchPlasticsPaperUsda">{{cite web |url=https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2017/apr/starch/ | title=Better Paper, Plastics With Starch | last=Avant | first=Sandra | publisher=USDA | date=April 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214152835/https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2017/apr/starch/ | archive-date=2018-12-14|access-date=2018-12-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Collaboration delivers better results | date=January 2017 | last=Cate | first=Peter | journal=Reinforced Plastics | volume=61 | issue=1 | pages=51–54 | issn=0034-3617 | doi=10.1016/j.repl.2016.09.002}}</ref>

Starch-based nanocomposites have been widely studied, showing improved mechanical properties, thermal stability, moisture resistance, and gas barrier properties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xie|first1=Fengwei|last2=Pollet|first2=Eric|last3=Halley|first3=Peter J.|last4=Avérous|first4=Luc|date=2013-10-01|title=Starch-based nano-biocomposites|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079670013000439|journal=Progress in Polymer Science|series=Progress in Bionanocomposites: from green plastics to biomedical applications|language=en|volume=38|issue=10|pages=1590–1628|doi=10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.05.002|issn=0079-6700|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==== Cellulose-based plastics ==== [[File:Bio-K Blister CG.jpg|thumb|A [[Blister pack|packaging blister]] made from [[cellulose acetate]], a bioplastic]]

[[Cellulose]] bioplastics are mainly the [[cellulose ester]]s (including [[cellulose acetate]] and [[nitrocellulose]]) and their derivatives, including [[celluloid]].

Cellulose can become thermoplastic when extensively modified. An example of this is cellulose acetate, which is expensive and therefore rarely used for packaging. However, cellulosic fibers added to starches can improve mechanical properties, permeability to gas, and water resistance due to being less hydrophilic than starch.<ref name="auto" />

=== Protein-based plastics === [[File:Edible packaging film.jpg|thumb|Development of an edible casein film overwrap at USDA<ref>{{cite journal | last =OBrien | title =That's a Wrap: Edible Food Wraps from ARS | journal =USDA Agricultural Research | page = 22 | date =February 2018 | url =https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2018/feb/wraps/#printdiv | access-date =4 December 2021}}</ref> ]] Bioplastics can be made from proteins from different sources. For example, wheat gluten and casein show promising properties as a raw material for different biodegradable polymers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Song|first1=J. H.|last2=Murphy|first2=R. J.|last3=Narayan|first3=R.|last4=Davies|first4=G. B. H.|date=2009-07-27|title=Biodegradable and compostable alternatives to conventional plastics|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=364|issue=1526|pages=2127–2139|doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0289|issn=0962-8436|pmc=2873018|pmid=19528060}}</ref>

Additionally, soy protein is being considered as another source of bioplastic. Soy proteins have been used in plastic production for over one hundred years. For example, body panels of an [[Soybean car|original Ford automobile]] were made of soy-based plastic.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The History of Tomorrow's Materials: Protein-Based Biopolymers | date=February 2008 | last1=Ralston | first1=Brian E. | last2=Osswald | first2=Tim A. | journal=Plastics Engineering | volume=64 | issue=2 | pages=36–40 | issn=0091-9578 | doi=10.1002/j.1941-9635.2008.tb00292.x}}</ref>

There are difficulties with using soy protein-based plastics due to their water sensitivity and relatively high cost. Therefore, producing blends of soy protein with some already-available biodegradable polyesters improves the water sensitivity and cost.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Morphology and Properties of Soy Protein and Polylactide Blends | date=May 2006 | last1=Zhang | first1=Jinwen | last2=Jiang | first2=Long | last3=Zhu | first3=Linyong | last4=Jane | first4=Jay-lin | last5=Mungara | first5=Perminus | journal=Biomacromolecules | volume=7 | issue=5 | pages=1551–1561 | issn=1525-7797 | doi=10.1021/bm050888p| pmid=16677038 |url = http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/fshn_ag_pubs/108}}</ref>

=== Some aliphatic polyesters === The [[aliphatic]] bio[[polyester]]s are mainly [[polyhydroxyalkanoate]]s (PHAs) like the [[poly-3-hydroxybutyrate]] (PHB), polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV) and polyhydroxyhexanoate (PHH).

==== Polylactic acid (PLA) ==== [[File:Mulch Film made of PLA-Blend Bio-Flex.jpg|thumb|left|Mulch film made of [[polylactic acid]] (PLA)-blend bio-flex]]

[[Polylactic acid]] (PLA) is a [[transparent plastic]] produced from [[maize]]<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/plastic.html|title=History, Travel, Arts, Science, People, Places |work=smithsonianmag.com}}</ref> or [[dextrose]]. Superficially, it is similar to conventional petrochemical-based mass plastics like [[Polystyrene|PS]]. It is derived from plants, and it biodegrades under industrial composting conditions. Unfortunately, it exhibits inferior impact strength, thermal robustness, and barrier properties (blocking air transport across the membrane) compared to non-biodegradable plastics.<ref name="Ullmanns">{{Ullmann |last1=Künkel |first1=Andreas |last2=Becker |first2=Johannes |last3=Börger |first3=Lars |last4=Hamprecht |first4=Jens |last5=Koltzenburg |first5=Sebastian |last6=Loos |first6=Robert |last7=Schick |first7=Michael Bernhard |last8=Schlegel |first8=Katharina |last9=Sinkel |first9=Carsten |last10=Skupin |first10=Gabriel |last11=Yamamoto |first11=Motonori |pages=1–29 |year=2016 |doi=10.1002/14356007.n21_n01.pub2 |title=Polymers, Biodegradable|doi-access=free}}</ref> PLA and PLA blends generally come in the form of granulates. PLA is used on a limited scale for the production of films, fibers, plastic containers, cups, and bottles. PLA is also the most common type of plastic [[Fiber|filament]] used for home [[fused deposition modeling]] in 3D printers.

==== Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate ==== The [[biopolymer]] [[Polyhydroxybutyrate|poly-3-hydroxybutyrate]] (PHB) is a [[polyester]] produced by certain bacteria processing glucose, corn starch<ref name="bioplastic-innovation.com">{{cite web|title=Mirel: PHAs grades for Rigid Sheet and Thermoforming|url=http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2011/06/08/mirel-phas-grades-for-rigid-sheet-and-thermoforming/|access-date=2011-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331122556/http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2011/06/08/mirel-phas-grades-for-rigid-sheet-and-thermoforming/|archive-date=2012-03-31}}</ref> or wastewater.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|title=Micromidas is using carefully constructed populations of bacteria to convert organic waste into bio-degradable plastics. |url=http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2011/07/29/micromidas-is-using-carefully-constructed-populations-of-bacteria-to-convert-organic-waste-into-bio-degradable-plastics/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023230713/http://bioplastic-innovation.com/2011/07/29/micromidas-is-using-carefully-constructed-populations-of-bacteria-to-convert-organic-waste-into-bio-degradable-plastics/ |archive-date=October 23, 2011 }}</ref> Its characteristics are similar to those of the petroplastic [[polypropylene]] (PP). PHB production is increasing. The [[South America]]n [[sugar]] industry, for example, has decided to expand PHB production to an industrial scale. PHB is distinguished primarily by its physical characteristics. It can be processed into a transparent film with a melting point higher than 130 degrees Celsius, and is biodegradable without residue.

=== Polyhydroxyalkanoates === [[Polyhydroxyalkanoates]] (PHA) are linear [[polyester]]s produced in nature by [[bacteria]]l [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of [[sugar]] or [[lipid]]s. They are produced by the bacteria to store carbon and energy. In industrial production, the polyester is extracted and purified from the bacteria by optimizing the conditions for the fermentation of sugar. More than 150 different [[monomer]]s can be combined within this family to give materials with extremely different properties. PHA is more ductile and less elastic than other plastics, and it is also biodegradable. These plastics are being widely used in the medical industry.

=== Polyamide 11 === [[Polyamide 11|PA 11]] is a [[biopolymer]] derived from natural oil. It is also known under the tradename Rilsan B, commercialized by [[Arkema]]. PA 11 belongs to the technical polymers family and is not biodegradable. Its properties are similar to those of [[Polyamide 12|PA 12]], although emissions of greenhouse gases and consumption of nonrenewable resources are reduced during its production. Its thermal resistance is also superior to that of PA 12. It is used in high-performance applications like automotive fuel lines, pneumatic airbrake tubing, electrical cable antitermite sheathing, flexible oil and gas pipes, control fluid umbilicals, sports shoes, electronic device components, and catheters.

A similar plastic is Polyamide 410 (PA 410), derived 70% from [[castor oil]], under the trade name EcoPaXX, commercialized by DSM.<ref name="EcoPaXX">{{cite web|url=http://www.dsm.com/en_US/cworld/public/media/pages/press-releases/19_10_dsm_launches_bio_based_performance_materials_for_automotive_industry.jsp|title=Home|work=dsm.com}}</ref> PA 410 is a high-performance polyamide that combines the benefits of a high melting point (approx. 250&nbsp;°C), low moisture absorption and excellent resistance to various chemical substances.

=== Bio-derived polyethylene === {{Main|Renewable polyethylene}}

The basic building block ([[monomer]]) of [[polyethylene]] is ethylene. Ethylene is chemically similar to, and can be derived from ethanol, which can be produced by fermentation of agricultural feedstocks such as sugar cane or corn. Bio-derived polyethylene is chemically and physically identical to traditional polyethylene&nbsp;– it does not biodegrade but can be recycled. The Brazilian chemicals group [[Braskem]] claims that using its method of producing polyethylene from sugar cane ethanol captures (removes from the environment) 2.15 tonnes of {{CO2}} per tonne of Green Polyethylene produced.

=== Genetically modified feedstocks === With [[Genetic modification|GM]] corn being a common feedstock, it is unsurprising that some bioplastics are made from this.

Under the bioplastics manufacturing technologies there is the "plant factory" model, which uses [[genetically modified crops]] or [[genetically modified bacterium|genetically modified bacteria]] to optimize efficiency.

===Polyhydroxyurethanes === The condensation of [[polyamine]]s and cyclic carbonates produces polyhydroxyurethanes.<ref name="From Petrochemical Polyurethanes to Biobased Polyhydroxyurethanes">{{cite journal | last = Nohra | first = Bassam | author2 = Laure Candy | author3 = Jean-Francois Blanco | author4 = Celine Guerin | author5 = Yann Raoul | author6 = Zephirin Mouloungui | year = 2013 | title = From Petrochemical Polyurethanes to Biobased Polyhydroxyurethanes | journal = Macromolecules | volume = 46 | issue = 10 | doi = 10.1021/ma400197c | pages = 3771–3792 | bibcode = 2013MaMol..46.3771N | url = https://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/9942/1/Nohra_9942.pdf | access-date = 2019-12-08 | archive-date = 2020-09-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200918232716/https://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/9942/1/Nohra_9942.pdf }}</ref> Unlike traditional cross-linked polyurethanes, cross-linked polyhydroxyurethanes are in principle amenable to recycling and reprocessing through dynamic transcarbamoylation reactions.<ref name="Mechanically Activated, Catalyst-Free Polyhydroxyurethane Vitrimers">{{cite journal | last = Fortman | first = David J. |author2=Jacob P. Brutman |author3=[[Christopher J. Cramer]] |author4=Marc A. Hillmyer |author5=William R. Dichtel | year = 2015 | title = Mechanically Activated, Catalyst-Free Polyhydroxyurethane Vitrimers | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume = 137| issue = 44| doi =10.1021/jacs.5b08084 | pages=14019–14022 | pmid=26495769| doi-access =free | bibcode = 2015JAChS.13714019F }}</ref>

=== Lipid-derived polymers === A number of bioplastic classes have been synthesized from plant- and animal-derived fats and oils.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Michael A. R.|last2=Metzger|first2=Jürgen O.|last3=Schubert|first3=Ulrich S.|date=2007-10-02|title=Plant oil renewable resources as green alternatives in polymer science|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|volume=36|issue=11|pages=1788–802|doi=10.1039/b703294c|pmid=18213986|issn=1460-4744}}</ref> [[Polyurethane]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Floros|first1=Michael|last2=Hojabri|first2=Leila|last3=Abraham|first3=Eldho|last4=Jose|first4=Jesmy|last5=Thomas|first5=Sabu|last6=Pothan|first6=Laly|last7=Leao|first7=Alcides Lopes|last8=Narine|first8=Suresh|title=Enhancement of thermal stability, strength and extensibility of lipid-based polyurethanes with cellulose-based nanofibers|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=97|issue=10|pages=1970–1978|doi=10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.02.016|year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pillai|first1=Prasanth K. S.|last2=Floros|first2=Michael C.|last3=Narine|first3=Suresh S.|date=2017-07-03|title=Elastomers from Renewable Metathesized Palm Oil Polyols|journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering|volume=5|issue=7|pages=5793–5799|doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b00517}}</ref> [[polyester]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Can|first1=E.|last2=Küsefoğlu|first2=S.|last3=Wool|first3=R. P.|date=2001-07-05|title=Rigid, thermosetting liquid molding resins from renewable resources. I. Synthesis and polymerization of soy oil monoglyceride maleates|journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science|volume=81|issue=1|pages=69–77|doi=10.1002/app.1414|issn=1097-4628}}</ref> [[epoxy resins]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stemmelen|first1=M.|last2=Pessel|first2=F.|last3=Lapinte|first3=V.|last4=Caillol|first4=S.|last5=Habas|first5=J.-P.|last6=Robin|first6=J.-J.|date=2011-06-01|title=A fully biobased epoxy resin from vegetable oils: From the synthesis of the precursors by thiol-ene reaction to the study of the final material|journal=Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry|volume=49|issue=11|pages=2434–2444|doi=10.1002/pola.24674|issn=1099-0518|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00587993/file/JPOLSCI.pdf|bibcode=2011JPoSA..49.2434S|s2cid=78089334 }}</ref> and a number of other types of polymers have been developed with comparable properties to crude-oil-based materials. The recent development of [[olefin metathesis]] has opened a wide variety of feedstocks to economical conversion into biomonomers and polymers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meier|first=Michael A. R.|date=2009-07-21|title=Metathesis with Oleochemicals: New Approaches for the Utilization of Plant Oils as Renewable Resources in Polymer Science|journal=Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics|volume=210|issue=13–14|pages=1073–1079|doi=10.1002/macp.200900168|issn=1521-3935|doi-access=free}}</ref> With the growing production of traditional [[vegetable oil]]s as well as low-cost [[Algae fuel|microalgae-derived oils]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mata|first1=Teresa M.|last2=Martins|first2=António A.|last3=Caetano|first3=Nidia. S.|title=Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: A review|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=14|issue=1|pages=217–232|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2009.07.020|year=2010|bibcode=2010RSERv..14..217M |hdl=10400.22/10059|s2cid=15481966 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> there is significant potential for growth in this area.

In 2024, Lamanna et al. introduced oleogels based on [[ethyl cellulose]] and vegetable oils as a novel bioplastic named OleoPlast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lamanna |first1=Leonardo |last2=Corigliano |first2=Gabriele |last3=Narayanan |first3=Athira |last4=Villani |first4=Stefania |last5=Friuli |first5=Marco |last6=Chietera |first6=Francesco P. |last7=Stanca |first7=Benedetta Di Chiara |last8=Giannotti |first8=Laura |last9=Siculella |first9=Luisa |last10=Colella |first10=Riccardo |last11=Catarinucci |first11=Luca |last12=Athanassiou |first12=Athanassia |last13=Cataldi |first13=Pietro |last14=Demitri |first14=Christian |last15=Caironi |first15=Mario |date=2024-10-15 |title=Beyond Plastic: Oleogel as gel-state biodegradable thermoplastics |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |volume=498 |article-number=154988 |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2024.154988 |bibcode=2024ChEnJ.49854988L |issn=1385-8947|doi-access=free |hdl=10281/512761 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This bioplastic exhibits thermoplastic behavior, offering both recyclability and biodegradability. The key advantages of OleoPlast include the ability to customize its mechanical and physical properties, as well as its compatibility with different processing techniques, such as [[Injection moulding|injection molding]], hot pressing, [[extrusion]], and [[fused filament fabrication]].

== Environmental impact == [[File:Bottle made from Cellulose Acetate Biograde.JPG|thumb|[[Bottle]]s made from [[cellulose acetate]] biograde]]

Materials such as starch, cellulose, wood, sugar and biomass are used as a substitute for fossil fuel resources to produce bioplastics; this makes the production of bioplastics a more sustainable activity compared to conventional plastic production.<ref name="Gironi and Piemonte">{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/15567030903436830 | title=Bioplastics and Petroleum-based Plastics: Strengths and Weaknesses | date=2011 | last1=Gironi | first1=F. | last2=Piemonte | first2=V. | journal=Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects | volume=33 | issue=21 | pages=1949–1959 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atiwesh |first1=Ghada |last2=Mikhael |first2=Abanoub |last3=Parrish |first3=Christopher C. |last4=Banoub |first4=Joseph |last5=Le |first5=Tuyet-Anh T. |title=Environmental impact of bioplastic use: A review |journal=[[Heliyon]] |date=2021 |volume=7 |issue=9 |article-number=e07918 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07918 |doi-access=free|pmid=34522811 |pmc=8424513 |bibcode=2021Heliy...707918A }}</ref> The environmental impact of bioplastics is often debated, as there are many different metrics for "greenness" (e.g., water use, energy use, deforestation, biodegradation, etc.).<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.06.010 | title=Life cycle assessments of biodegradable, commercial biopolymers—A critical review | date=2013 | last1=Yates | first1=Madeleine R. | last2=Barlow | first2=Claire Y. | journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling | volume=78 | pages=54–66 | bibcode=2013RCR....78...54Y }}</ref><ref name="BiodegradableEnvironmentalImpactAxion">{{cite web |url=https://axiongroup.co.uk/news/biodegradable-plastics-better-environment/ | title=Are biodegradable plastics better for the environment? | publisher=Axion | date=6 February 2018 |access-date=2018-12-14 }}</ref><ref name="BiodegradableImpactMiles">{{cite web |url=https://treadingmyownpath.com/2018/03/22/biodegradable-plastic-is-it-really-eco-friendly/ | title=Biodegradable Plastic: Is It Really Eco-Friendly? | last=Miles | first=Lindsay | date=22 March 2018 |access-date=2018-12-14 }}</ref> Hence bioplastic environmental impacts are categorized into nonrenewable energy use, [[climate change]], [[eutrophication]] and [[Freshwater acidification|acidification]].<ref name="Weis et al">{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00468.x | title=A Review of the Environmental Impacts of Biobased Materials | date=2012 | last1=Weiss | first1=Martin | last2=Haufe | first2=Juliane | last3=Carus | first3=Michael | last4=Brandão | first4=Miguel | last5=Bringezu | first5=Stefan | last6=Hermann | first6=Barbara | last7=Patel | first7=Martin K. | journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology | volume=16 | url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:42352 }}</ref> Bioplastic production significantly reduces [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and decreases non-renewable energy consumption.<ref name="Gironi and Piemonte" /> Firms worldwide would also be able to increase the [[environmental sustainability]] of their products by using bioplastics.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.003 | title=A crossroads for bioplastics: Exploring product developers' challenges to move beyond petroleum-based plastics | date=2016 | last1=Brockhaus | first1=Sebastian | last2=Petersen | first2=Moritz | last3=Kersten | first3=Wolfgang | journal=Journal of Cleaner Production | volume=127 | pages=84–95 | bibcode=2016JCPro.127...84B }}</ref>

Although bioplastics save more nonrenewable energy than conventional plastics and emit less greenhouse gasses compared to conventional plastics, bioplastics also have negative environmental impacts such as eutrophication and acidification.<ref name="Weis et al" /> Bioplastics induce higher eutrophication potentials than conventional plastics.<ref name="Weis et al" /> Biomass production during industrial farming practices causes nitrate and phosphate to filtrate into water bodies; this causes [[eutrophication]], the process in which a body of water gains excessive richness of nutrients.<ref name="Weis et al" /> Eutrophication is a threat to water resources around the world since it causes harmful algal blooms that create oxygen dead zones, killing aquatic animals.<ref>Sinha, E., et al. "Eutrophication Will Increase during the 21st Century as a Result of Precipitation Changes." Science, vol. 357, no. July, 2017, pp. 405–08.</ref> Bioplastics also increase acidification.<ref name="Weis et al" /> The high increase in eutrophication and acidification caused by bioplastics is also caused by using chemical fertilizer in the cultivation of renewable raw materials to produce bioplastics.<ref name="Gironi and Piemonte" />

Other environmental impacts of bioplastics include exerting lower human and terrestrial [[ecotoxicity]] and carcinogenic potentials compared to conventional plastics.<ref name="Weis et al" /> However, bioplastics exert higher aquatic ecotoxicity than conventional materials.<ref name="Weis et al" /> Bioplastics and other bio-based materials increase stratospheric [[ozone]] depletion compared to conventional plastics; this is a result of [[nitrous oxide]] emissions during fertilizer application during industrial farming for biomass production.<ref name="Weis et al" /> Artificial fertilizers increase nitrous oxide emissions especially when the crop does not need all the nitrogen.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s10584-015-1426-y | title=Nitrous oxide emission reductions from cutting excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications | date=2015 | last1=Rosas | first1=Francisco | last2=Babcock | first2=Bruce A. | last3=Hayes | first3=Dermot J. | journal=Climatic Change | volume=132 | issue=2 | pages=353–367 | bibcode=2015ClCh..132..353R | hdl=10.1007/s10584-015-1426-y | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Minor environmental impacts of bioplastics include toxicity through using pesticides on the crops used to make bioplastics.<ref name="Gironi and Piemonte" /> Bioplastics also cause carbon dioxide emissions from harvesting vehicles.<ref name="Gironi and Piemonte" /> Other minor environmental impacts include high water consumption for biomass cultivation, soil erosion, [[soil carbon]] losses and [[loss of biodiversity]], and they are mainly are a result of land use associated with bioplastics.<ref name="Weis et al" /> Land use for bioplastics production leads to lost [[carbon sequestration]] and increases the carbon costs while diverting land from its existing uses <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/ep.10518 | title=Land-use change emissions: How green are the bioplastics? | date=2011 | last1=Piemonte | first1=Vincenzo | last2=Gironi | first2=Fausto | journal=Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy | volume=30 | issue=4 | pages=685–691 | bibcode=2011EPSE...30..685P }}</ref>

Although bioplastics are extremely advantageous because they reduce non-renewable consumption and GHG emissions, they also negatively affect the environment through land and water consumption, using pesticide and fertilizer, eutrophication and acidification; hence one's preference for either bioplastics or conventional plastics depends on what one considers the most important environmental impact.<ref name="Gironi and Piemonte" />

Another issue with some bioplastics is that they are made from the edible parts of crops. This makes them compete with food production because the crops that produce bioplastics can also be used to feed people.<ref name="Cho">{{cite web |last1=Cho |first1=Renee |title=The truth about bioplastics |url=https://phys.org/news/2017-12-truth-bioplastics.html |website=phys.org |access-date=31 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> These bioplastics are called "1st generation feedstock bioplastics". 2nd generation feedstock bioplastics use non-food crops (cellulosic feedstock) or waste materials from 1st generation feedstock (e.g. waste vegetable oil). Third generation feedstock bioplastics use [[algae]] as the feedstock.<ref>[https://bioplasticsnews.com/2018/09/12/bioplastic-feedstock-1st-2nd-and-3rd-generations/ Bioplastic Feedstock 1st, 2nd and 3rd Generations]</ref>

=== Biodegradation of Bioplastics === {{further|Biodegradable plastic}} [[File:Air Pillow made of PLA-Blend Bio-Flex.jpg|thumb|upright|Packaging air pillow made of PLA-blend bio-flex]]

Biodegradation of any plastic is a process that happens at solid/liquid interface whereby the enzymes in the liquid phase depolymerize the solid phase.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fmicb.2014.00475 | doi-access=free | title=Biodegradation of plastics and ecotoxicity testing: When should it be done | date=2014 | last1=Degli-Innocenti | first1=Francesco | journal=Frontiers in Microbiology | volume=5 | page=475 | pmid=25250023 | pmc=4155774 }}</ref> Certain types of bioplastics as well as conventional plastics containing additives are able to biodegrade.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.09.018 | title=Biodegradability of conventional and bio-based plastics and natural fiber composites during composting, anaerobic digestion and long-term soil incubation | date=2013 | last1=Gómez | first1=Eddie F. | last2=Michel | first2=Frederick C. | journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability | volume=98 | issue=12 | pages=2583–2591 }}</ref> Bioplastics are able to biodegrade in different environments hence they are more acceptable than conventional plastics.<ref name="Emadian et al">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.006 | title=Biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments | date=2017 | last1=Emadian | first1=S. Mehdi | last2=Onay | first2=Turgut T. | last3=Demirel | first3=Burak | journal=Waste Management | volume=59 | pages=526–536 | pmid=27742230 | bibcode=2017WaMan..59..526E }}</ref> [[Biodegradability]] of bioplastics occurs under various environmental conditions including soil, aquatic environments and compost.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Both the structure and composition of biopolymer or bio-composite have an effect on the biodegradation process, hence changing the composition and structure might increase biodegradability.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Soil and compost as environment conditions are more efficient in biodegradation due to their high microbial diversity.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Composting not only biodegrades bioplastics efficiently but it also significantly reduces the emission of greenhouse gases.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Biodegradability of bioplastics in compost environments can be upgraded by adding more soluble sugar and increasing temperature.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Soil environments on the other hand have high diversity of microorganisms making it easier for biodegradation of bioplastics to occur.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> However, bioplastics in soil environments need higher temperatures and a longer time to biodegrade.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Some bioplastics biodegrade more efficiently in water bodies and marine systems; however, this causes danger to marine ecosystems and freshwater.<ref name="Emadian et al" /> Hence it is accurate to conclude that biodegradation of bioplastics in water bodies which leads to the death of aquatic organisms and unhealthy water can be noted as one of the negative environmental impacts of bioplastics.

== Applications == [[File:Bio-K Abfallbeutel Kompostbeutel CG.jpg|thumb|Boxed products made from bioplastics and other [[biodegradation|biodegradable]] plastics]] Few commercial applications exist for bioplastics. Cost and performance remain problematic. Typical is the example of Italy, where biodegradable plastic bags are compulsory for shoppers since 2011 with the introduction of a specific law.<ref>{{cite web |title=Consiglio dei Ministri conferma la messa al bando dei sacchetti di plastica non biodegradabili - Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare |url=http://www.minambiente.it/comunicati/consiglio-dei-ministri-conferma-la-messa-al-bando-dei-sacchetti-di-plastica-non |website=minambiente.it}}</ref> Beyond structural materials, electroactive bioplastics are being developed that promise to [[Organic electronics|carry electric current]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Suszkiw |first=Jan |date=December 2005 |title=Electroactive Bioplastics Flex Their Industrial Muscle |url=https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2005/dec/plastic |access-date=2011-11-28 |work=News & Events |publisher=[[USDA]] Agricultural Research Service}}</ref>

Bioplastics are used for disposable items, such as [[packaging]], crockery, cutlery, pots, bowls, and straws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=G. |last2=Patel |first2=M. |year=2012 |title=Plastics derived from biological sources: Present and future: P technical and environmental review |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=2082–2099 |doi=10.1021/cr200162d |pmid=22188473}}</ref>

[[Biopolymer]]s are available as coatings for paper rather than the more common petrochemical coatings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Khwaldia |first=Khaoula |author2=Elmira Arab-Tehrany |author3=Stephane Desobry |year=2010 |title=Biopolymer Coatings on Paper Packaging Materials |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=82–91 |doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00095.x |pmid=33467805 |doi-access=}}</ref>

Bioplastics called '''drop-in bioplastics''' are chemically identical to their fossil-fuel counterparts but made from renewable resources. Examples include [[bio-PE]], [[bio-PET]], [[propylene|bio-propylene]], [[bio-PP]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bio-based drop-in, smart drop-in and dedicated chemicals |url=https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/news/2017_October/RoadToBio_Drop-in_paper.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102122527/https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/news/2017_October/RoadToBio_Drop-in_paper.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-02 |access-date=2020-10-30}}</ref> and biobased nylons.<ref>[https://www.wur.nl/nl/Onderzoek-Resultaten/Onderzoeksinstituten/food-biobased-research/Oplossingen/Duurzame-bioplastics-op-basis-van-hernieuwbare-grondstoffen.htm Duurzame bioplastics op basis van hernieuwbare grondstoffen]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What are bioplastics? |url=http://www.bioplastics.guide/ref/bioplastics/what-are-bioplastics/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605220227/http://www.bioplastics.guide/ref/bioplastics/what-are-bioplastics/ |archive-date=2022-06-05 |access-date=2020-10-30}}</ref><ref name="Drop in bioplastics">[https://bioplasticsnews.com/2018/08/28/drop-ins-bioplastics/ Drop in bioplastics]</ref> Drop-in bioplastics are easy to implement technically, as existing infrastructure can be used.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bio-based drop-in, smart drop-in and dedicated chemicals |url=https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/news/2017_October/RoadToBio_Drop-in_paper.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102122527/https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/news/2017_October/RoadToBio_Drop-in_paper.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-02 |access-date=2020-10-30}}</ref> A dedicated bio-based pathway allows to produce products that cannot be obtained through traditional chemical reactions and can create products which have unique and superior properties, compared to fossil-based alternatives.

=== Bioplastics for construction materials === The concept of bioplastics dates back to the early 20th century. However, significant advancements occurred in the 1980s and 1990s when researchers began developing biodegradable plastics from natural sources. The construction industry started to take notice of bioplastics' potential in the late 2000s, due to the global push for greener building practices and the attractive benefits of bioplastics in construction, such as increased energy efficiency and biodegradeability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narancic |first1=Tanja |last2=Cerrone |first2=Federico |last3=Beagan |first3=Niall |last4=O'Connor |first4=Kevin E. |date=2020 |title=Recent Advances in Bioplastics: Application and Biodegradation |journal=[[Polymers (journal)|Polymers]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |page=920 |doi=10.3390/polym12040920 |pmc=7240402 |pmid=32326661 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Razza |first1=Francesco |last2=Innocenti |first2=Francesco Degli |date=2012 |title=Bioplastics from renewable resources: the benefits of biodegradability |journal=[[Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering]] |volume=7 |issue=S3 |pages=S301–S309 |doi=10.1002/apj.1648}}</ref>

In recent years, bioplastics have seen considerable advancements in terms of durability, cost-effectiveness, and performance. Innovations in biopolymer blends and composites have made bioplastics more suitable for construction applications, ranging from insulation to structural components.

=== Applications in Construction === ; Insulation: Bioplastics can be used to create effective and eco-friendly insulation materials. Polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are commonly used for this purpose due to their thermal properties and biodegradability.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ecbf.vc/biodegradable-bioplastics | title=Biodegradable bioplastics - Insurance against waste or risky shortcut? }}</ref>

; Flooring: Bioplastic composites, such as those made from PLA and natural fibers, offer durable and sustainable alternatives to traditional flooring materials. They are particularly valued for their low carbon footprint and recyclability.

; Panels and Cladding: Bioplastic panels, made from blends of natural fibers and biopolymers, provide an eco-friendly option for wall cladding and partitioning. These materials are lightweight, durable, and can be designed to mimic traditional materials like wood or stone.

; Formwork: Bioplastics are increasingly used in formwork for concrete casting. They offer advantages in terms of reusability, weight reduction, and reduced environmental impact compared to conventional materials.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://plasticconcreteformwork.com/environmental-benefits-of-plastic-formwork-in-concrete-construction/ | title=Environmental Benefits of Plastic Formwork | date=2 September 2021 }}</ref>

; Reinforcement: Bioplastic composites reinforced with natural fibers or other materials can be used in structural applications, offering a sustainable alternative to steel or fiberglass.

=== Challenges and Limitations ===

; Cost: Bioplastics are often more expensive to produce than traditional plastics, which can be a barrier to widespread adoption in the cost-sensitive construction industry. However, ongoing research and technological advancements are expected to reduce costs over time.

;Performance :While bioplastics have made significant strides, some types still lag behind traditional materials in terms of strength, durability, and resistance to environmental factors like UV exposure and moisture.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://primebiopol.com/bioplasticos-y-plasticos-convencionales-un-analisis-comparativo/?lang=en | title=Bioplastics and conventional plastics: Comparative analysis | date=26 June 2023 }}</ref>

; Limited Applications : Currently, bioplastics are suitable for a limited range of applications within construction. Expanding their use to more demanding structural roles will require further development and testing.

=== Future Prospects ===

The future of bioplastics in construction looks promising, with continued research and innovation likely to expand their applications and improve their performance.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sameerabuildingconstruction.com/can-bioplastics-replace-traditional-materials-in-building/ | title=Can Bioplastics Replace Traditional Materials in Building? - | date=2 September 2024 | access-date=8 July 2024 | archive-date=8 July 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708213339/https://sameerabuildingconstruction.com/can-bioplastics-replace-traditional-materials-in-building/ }}</ref> As the construction industry increasingly embraces sustainability, bioplastics are poised to play a critical role in the development of eco-friendly building materials.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sidek |first=Izathul Shafina |last2=Draman |first2=Sarifah Fauziah Syed |last3=Abdullah |first3=Siti Rozaimah Sheikh |last4=Anuar |first4=Nornizar |date=2019-10-01 |title=CURRENT DEVELOPMENT ON BIOPLASTICS AND ITS FUTURE PROSPECTS: AN INTRODUCTORY REVIEW |url=http://itechmag.org/paper/volume%201/03-08.pdf |journal=INWASCON Technology Magazine |pages=03–08 |doi=10.26480/itechmag.01.2019.03.08}}</ref>

Bioplastics offer a sustainable and versatile alternative to traditional construction materials, with significant environmental and economic benefits. While challenges remain, particularly in terms of cost and performance, the ongoing advancements in bioplastic technology<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1088/1757-899X/1158/1/012008 | title=Bioplastic Technology as Packaging Innovation | date=2021 | last1=Ekawardhani | first1=Y. A. | last2=Pasaribu | first2=C. Y. | last3=Rohmah | first3=A. N. | last4=Salsabila | first4=O. | journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering | volume=1158 | issue=1 | article-number=012008 | bibcode=2021MS&E.1158a2008E | doi-access=free }}</ref> hold the potential to transform the construction industry and contribute to a more sustainable future.

== Industry and markets == [[File:Teebeutel Polylactid 2009.jpg|thumb|[[Tea bag]]s made of polylactide (PLA) (peppermint tea)]]

While plastics based on organic materials were manufactured by chemical companies throughout the 20th century, the first company solely focused on bioplastics—Marlborough Biopolymers—was founded in 1983. However, Marlborough and other ventures that followed failed to find commercial success, with the first such company to secure long-term financial success being the Italian company Novamont, founded in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bioplasticsnews.com/2018/07/05/history-of-bioplastics/|title=The History and Most Important Innovations of Bioplastics|last=Barrett|first=Axel|date=5 September 2018|website=Bioplastics News}}</ref>

Bioplastics remain less than one percent of all plastics manufactured worldwide.<ref name="dx.doi.org">{{cite journal | title=Ready to Grow: The Biodegradable Polymers Market | date=March 2016 | journal=Plastics Engineering | volume=72 | issue=3 | pages=1–4 | issn=0091-9578 | doi=10.1002/j.1941-9635.2016.tb01489.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Darby|first=Debra|date=August 2012|title=Bioplastics Industry Report|url=https://www.biocycle.net/2012/08/15/bioplastics-industry-report/|journal=BioCycle|volume=53|issue=8|pages=40–44}}</ref> Most bioplastics do not yet save more carbon emissions than are required to manufacture them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rujnić-Sokele|first1=Maja|last2=Pilipović|first2=Ana|date=September 2017|title=Challenges and Opportunities of Biodegradable Plastics: A Mini Review|journal=Waste Management & Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=132–140|doi=10.1177/0734242x16683272|pmid=28064843|bibcode=2017WMR....35..132R |s2cid=23782848}}</ref> It is estimated that replacing 250 million tons of the plastic manufactured each year with bio-based plastics would require 100 million hectares of land, or 7 percent of the arable land on Earth. And when bioplastics reach the end of their life cycle, those designed to be compostable and marketed as biodegradable are often sent to landfills due to the lack of proper composting facilities or waste sorting, where they then release methane as they break down anaerobically.<ref>Dolfen, Julia. "Bioplastics- Opportunities and Challenges." US Composting Council. 2012 Compostable Plastics Symposium, Jan. 2012, Austin, Texas, https://compostingcouncil.org/admin/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Dolfen.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926130802/https://compostingcouncil.org/admin/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Dolfen.pdf |date=2018-09-26 }}</ref> <!-- [[File:Chart of global bioplastics production by year.jpg|thumb|A chart depicting the increase in bioplastics manufactured each year in ten year intervals, measured in millions of tonnes - THIS SEEMS TO BE WRONG: in 2016, world plastics production totaled around 335 million metric tons. -- https://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-plastics-since-1950/

2015: 322 Mt, 2016: 335 Mt -- https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/5715/1717/4180/Plastics_the_facts_2017_FINAL_for_website_one_page.pdf

and "bioplastics represented approximately 0.2% of the global polymer marke" -- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioplastic

]] -->

COPA (Committee of Agricultural Organisation in the European Union) and COGEGA (General Committee for the Agricultural Cooperation in the European Union) have made an assessment of the potential of bioplastics in different sectors of the European economy: {| class="wikitable" !Sector !!colspan="2"|Tonnes per year |- |Catering products ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 450,000||0.0005}} |- |Organic waste bags ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 100,000||0.0005}} |- |[[Biodegradable]] mulch foils ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 130,000||0.0005}} |- |Biodegradable foils for diapers||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 80,000||0.0005}} |- |Diapers, 100% biodegradable ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 240,000||0.0005}} |- |Foil packaging ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 400,000||0.0005}} |- |Vegetable packaging ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 400,000||0.0005}} |- |Tyre components ||style="text-align:right;"|{{bartable| 200,000||0.0005}} |- !Total: !!style="text-align:right;"|2,000,000 !! |} The bioplastics market is expanding, driven by increasing demand for sustainable construction materials. This growth presents new economic opportunities for manufacturers and suppliers. The estimated market size for bioplastics in 2024 is 7.41 billion USD and is projected to grow upto 127.55 billion USD by 2025, with the largest share being produced by the European economy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Research |first=Vantage Market |title=Bioplastics Market Size and Share Analysis for 2035 |url=https://www.vantagemarketresearch.com/industry-report/bioplastics-market-2274 |access-date=2025-12-29 |website=www.vantagemarketresearch.com |language=en}}</ref>

== History and development of bioplastics == {{Further|List of bioplastic producers}}

* 1855: First (inferior) version of [[linoleum]] produced * 1862: At the Great London Exhibition, [[Alexander Parkes]] displays [[Parkesine]], the first thermoplastic. Parkesine is made from nitrocellulose and had very good properties, but exhibits extreme flammability. (White 1998)<ref>{{cite journal | title=Fourth in a Series: Pioneers of Polymer Processing Alexander Parkes | date=December 1998 | last=White | first=J. L. | journal=International Polymer Processing | volume=13 | issue=4 | page=326 | issn=0930-777X | doi=10.3139/217.980326| s2cid=137545344 }}</ref> * 1897: Still produced today, Galalith is a milk-based bioplastic that was created by German chemists in 1897. Galalith is primarily found in buttons. (Thielen 2014)<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Raschka|first1=Achim|title=Renewable Raw Materials and Feedstock for Bioplastics|date=2013-10-04|work=Bio-Based Plastics|pages=331–345|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-67664-6|last2=Carus|first2=Michael|last3=Piotrowski|first3=Stephan|doi=10.1002/9781118676646.ch13}}</ref> * 1907: Leo Baekeland invented [[Bakelite]], which received the National Historic Chemical Landmark for its non-conductivity and heat-resistant properties. It is used in radio and telephone casings, kitchenware, firearms and many more products. (Pathak, Sneha, Mathew 2014) * 1912: Brandenberger invents [[Cellophane]] out of wood, cotton, or hemp cellulose. (Thielen 2014)<ref name=":0" /> * 1920s: Wallace Carothers finds Polylactic Acid (PLA) plastic. PLA is incredibly expensive to produce and is not mass-produced until 1989. (Whiteclouds 2018) * 1925: [[Polyhydroxybutyrate]] was isolated and characterised by French microbiologist [[Maurice Lemoigne]] * 1926: Maurice Lemoigne invents polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) which is the first bioplastic made from bacteria. (Thielen 2014)<ref name=":0" /> * 1930s: The [[Soybean car|first bioplastic car]] was made from soy beans by Henry Ford. (Thielen 2014)<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Soybean Car - The Henry Ford|url=https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-resources/popular-topics/soy-bean-car/|access-date=2020-12-09|website=www.thehenryford.org|language=en}}</ref> * 1940-1945: During World War II, an increase in plastic production is seen as it is used in many wartime materials. Due to government funding and oversight the United States production of plastics (in general, not just bioplastics) tripled during 1940-1945 (Rogers 2005).<ref name="A Brief History of Plastic">{{Cite web|url=https://brooklynrail.org/2005/05/express/a-brief-history-of-plastic|title=A Brief History of Plastic|website=The Brooklyn Rail|date=May 2005|access-date=2018-09-27}}</ref> The 1942 U.S. government short film ''[[The Tree in a Test Tube]]'' illustrates the major role bioplastics played in the World War II victory effort and the American economy of the time. * 1950s: Amylomaize (>50% amylose content corn) was successfully bred and commercial bioplastics applications started to be explored. (Liu, Moult, Long, 2009)<ref>{{cite book | title=d-2016-154 | date=2016 | doi=10.18411/d-2016-154|isbn = 978-5-91243-072-5}}</ref> A decline in bioplastic development is seen due to the cheap oil prices, however the development of synthetic plastics continues. * 1970s: The environmental movement spurred more development in bioplastics. (Rogers 2005)<ref name="A Brief History of Plastic"/> * 1983: The first bioplastics company, Marlborough Biopolymers, is started which uses a bacteria-based bioplastic called {{Proper name|biopal}}. (Feder 1985)<ref>{{cite journal | title=New fibre could make stronger parts | date=May 1995 | journal=Reinforced Plastics | volume=39 | issue=5 | page=17 | issn=0034-3617 | doi=10.1016/0034-3617(95)91746-2}}</ref> * 1989: The further development of PLA is made by Dr. Patrick R. Gruber when he figures out how to create PLA from corn. (Whiteclouds 2018). The leading bioplastic company is created called Novamount. Novamount uses matter-bi, a bioplastic, in multiple different applications. (Novamount 2018)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://bioplasticsnews.com/bioplastics-companies/novamont/|title=Novamont|date=2013-12-30|work=Bioplastics News|access-date=2018-09-27}}</ref> * Late 1990s: The development of TP starch and BIOPLAST from research and production of the company BIOTEC lead to the BIOFLEX film. BIOFLEX film can be classified as blown film extrusion, flat film extrusion, and injection moulding lines. These three classifications have applications as follows: Blown films - sacks, bags, trash bags, mulch foils, hygiene products, diaper films, air bubble films, protective clothing, gloves, double rib bags, labels, barrier ribbons; Flat films - trays, flower pots, freezer products and packaging, cups, pharmaceutical packaging; Injection moulding - disposable cutlery, cans, containers, performed pieces, CD trays, cemetery articles, golf tees, toys, writing materials. (Lorcks 1998)<ref>{{cite journal | title=Properties and applications of compostable starch-based plastic material | date=January 1998 | last=Lörcks | first=Jürgen | journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability | volume=59 | issue=1–3 | pages=245–249 | issn=0141-3910 | doi=10.1016/s0141-3910(97)00168-7}}</ref> * 1992: It is reported in Science that PHB can be produced by the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. (Poirier, Dennis, Klomparens, Nawrath, Somerville 1992)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poirier |first1=Yves |last2=Dennis |first2=Douglas |last3=Klomparens |first3=Karen |last4=Nawrath |first4=Christiane |last5=Somerville |first5=Chris |date=December 1992 |title=Perspectives on the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates in plants |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=103 |issue=2–4 |pages=237–246 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1992.tb05843.x |issn=0378-1097 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * 2001: Metabolix inc. purchases Monsanto's biopol business (originally Zeneca) which uses plants to produce bioplastics. (Barber and Fisher 2001)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1985-12-02|title=Monsanto finds buyer for oil and gas assets|journal=Chemical & Engineering News|volume=63|issue=48|page=5|doi=10.1021/cen-v063n048.p005a|issn=0009-2347}}</ref> * 2001: Nick Tucker uses elephant grass as a bioplastic base to make plastic car parts. (Tucker 2001)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://bioplasticsnews.com/2018/07/05/history-of-bioplastics/|title=The History and Most Important Innovations of Bioplastics|date=2018-07-05|work=Bioplastics News|access-date=2018-09-27}}</ref> * 2005: Cargill and Dow Chemicals is rebranded as NatureWorks and becomes the leading PLA producer. (Pennisi 2016)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pennisi|first=Elizabeth|author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi|date=1992-05-16|title=Natureworks|journal=Science News|volume=141|issue=20|pages=328–331|doi=10.2307/3976489|issn=0036-8423|jstor=3976489}}</ref> * 2007: Metabolix inc. market tests its first 100% biodegradable plastic called Mirel, made from corn sugar fermentation and genetically engineered bacteria. (Digregorio 2009)<ref>{{cite journal | title=Biobased Performance Bioplastic: Mirel | date=January 2009 | last=DiGregorio | first=Barry E. | journal=Chemistry & Biology | volume=16 | issue=1 | pages=1–2 | issn=1074-5521 | doi=10.1016/j.chembiol.2009.01.001|pmid = 19171300| doi-access= }}</ref> * 2012: A bioplastic is developed from seaweed proving to be one of the most environmentally friendly bioplastics based on research published in the journal of pharmacy research. (Rajendran, Puppala, Sneha, Angeeleena, Rajam 2012)<ref>{{Citation|last1=Rajam|first1=Manchikatla V.|title=Engineering Insect Resistance in Tomato by Transgenic Approaches|year=2018|work=Sustainable Management of Arthropod Pests of Tomato|pages=237–252|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-802441-6|last2=Yogindran|first2=Sneha|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-802441-6.00010-3}}</ref> * 2013: A patent is put on bioplastic derived from blood and a crosslinking agent like sugars, proteins, etc. (iridoid derivatives, diimidates, diones, carbodiimides, [[acrylamide]]s, dimethylsuberimidates, aldehydes, Factor XIII, dihomo bifunctional NHS esters, carbonyldiimide, {{sic|nolink=y|reason=error in source|glyoxyls}}, proanthocyanidin, reuterin). This invention can be applied by using the bioplastic as tissue, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bones, and being used in stem cell delivery. (Campbell, Burgess, Weiss, Smith 2013)<ref>{{cite journal | title=Nanotube technology gains US patent | date=November 2004 | journal=Reinforced Plastics | volume=48 | issue=10 | page=17 | issn=0034-3617 | doi=10.1016/s0034-3617(04)00461-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Phil G. |last2=Burgess |first2=James E. |last3=Weiss |first3=Lee E. |last4=Smith |first4=Jason |title=Methods and Apparatus for Manufacturing Plasma Based Plastics and Bioplastics Produced Therefrom |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20150165093A1/en |language=en |date=18 June 2015}}</ref> * 2014: It is found in a study published in 2014 that bioplastics can be made from blending vegetable waste (parsley and spinach stems, the husks from cocoa, the hulls of rice, etc.) with TFA solutions of pure cellulose creates a bioplastic. (Bayer, Guzman-Puyol, Heredia-Guerrero, Ceseracciu, Pignatelli, Ruffilli, Cingolani, and Athanassiou 2014)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bayer|first1=Ilker S.|last2=Guzman-Puyol|first2=Susana|last3=Heredia-Guerrero|first3=José Alejandro|last4=Ceseracciu|first4=Luca|last5=Pignatelli|first5=Francesca|last6=Ruffilli|first6=Roberta|last7=Cingolani|first7=Roberto|last8=Athanassiou|first8=Athanassia|date=2014-07-15|title=Direct Transformation of Edible Vegetable Waste into Bioplastics|journal=Macromolecules|volume=47|issue=15|pages=5135–5143|doi=10.1021/ma5008557|issn=0024-9297|bibcode=2014MaMol..47.5135B|url=https://www.openaccessrepository.it/record/74866 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815111106/https://www.openaccessrepository.it/record/74866 |archive-date=August 15, 2022 }}</ref> * 2016: An experiment finds that a car bumper that passes regulation can be made from nano-cellulose based bioplastic biomaterials using banana peels. (Hossain, Ibrahim, Aleissa 2016)<ref>{{cite journal | title=Nano-cellulose derived bioplastic biomaterial data for vehicle bio-bumper from banana peel waste biomass | date=September 2016 | last1=Sharif Hossain | first1=A.B.M. | last2=Ibrahim | first2=Nasir A. | last3=AlEissa | first3=Mohammed Saad | journal=Data in Brief | volume=8 | pages=286–294 | issn=2352-3409 | doi=10.1016/j.dib.2016.05.029|pmid = 27331103| pmc=4906129 | bibcode=2016DIB.....8..286S }}</ref> * 2017: A new proposal for bioplastics made from Lignocellulosics resources (dry plant matter). (Brodin, Malin, Vallejos, Opedal, Area, Chinga-Carrasco 2017)<ref>{{cite journal | title=Lignocellulosics as sustainable resources for production of bioplastics – A review | date=September 2017 | last1=Brodin | first1=Malin | last2=Vallejos | first2=María | last3=Opedal | first3=Mihaela Tanase | last4=Area | first4=María Cristina | last5=Chinga-Carrasco | first5=Gary | journal=Journal of Cleaner Production | volume=162 | pages=646–664 | issn=0959-6526 | doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.209| bibcode=2017JCPro.162..646B | hdl=20.500.12219/4447 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> * 2018: Many developments occur including Ikea starting industrial production of bioplastics furniture (Barret 2018), Project Effective focusing on replacing nylon with bio-nylon (Barret 2018), and the first packaging made from fruit (Barret 2018).<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1515/9783110351705.141 |chapter = 26. Biofuels and bioplastics |title = Industrial Chemistry |year = 2015 |pages = 141–148 |isbn = 978-3-11-035169-9 }}</ref> *2019: Five different types of Chitin [[nanomaterials]] were extracted and synthesized by the 'Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology' to verify strong personality and antibacterial effects. When buried underground, 100% biodegradation was possible within six months.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Tran TH, Nguyen HL, Hwang DS, Lee JY, Cha HG, Koo JM, Hwang SY, Park J, Oh DX |title=Five different chitin nanomaterials from identical source with different advantageous functions and performances|journal=Carbohydrate Polymers|publisher=Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam.|volume=205 |pages=392–400|issn=0144-8617|doi=10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.10.089|pmid=30446120|year=2019|s2cid=53569630}}</ref>

<nowiki>*</nowiki>This is not a comprehensive list. These inventions show the versatility of bioplastics and important breakthroughs. New applications and bioplastics inventions continue to occur. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Year !Bioplastic Discovery or Development |- |1862 |Parkesine - Alexander Parkes |- |1868 |Celluloid - John Wesley Hyatt |- |1897 |Galalith - German chemists |- |1907 |Bakelite - Leo Baekeland |- |1912 |Cellophane - Jacques E. Brandenberger |- |1920s |Polylactic Acid (PLA) - Wallace Carothers |- |1926 |Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) - Maurice Lemoigne |- |1930s |Soy bean-based bioplastic car - Henry Ford |- |1983 |Biopal - Marlborough Biopolymers |- |1989 |PLA from corn - Dr. Patrick R. Gruber; Matter-bi - Novamount |- |1992 |PHB can be produced by Arabidopsis thaliana (a small flowering plant) |- |1998 |Bioflex film (blown, flat, injection molding) leads to many different applications of bioplastic |- |2001 |PHB can be produced by elephant grass |- |2007 |Mirel (100% biodegradable plastic) by Metabolic inc. is market tested |- |2012 |Bioplastic is developed from seaweed |- |2013 |Bioplastic made from blood and a cross-linking agent which is used in medical procedures |- |2014 |Bioplastic made from vegetable waste |- |2016 |Car bumper made from banana peel bioplastic |- |2017 |Bioplastics made from lignocellulosic resources (dry plant matter) |- |2018 |Bioplastic furniture, bio-nylon, packaging from fruit |} [[File:Bioplastics Development Center - University of Massachusetts Lowell - DSC00107.JPG|thumb|Bioplastics Development Center - University of Massachusetts Lowell]] [[File:PLA-Kugelschreiber NatureWorks CG.jpg|thumb|A [[pen]] made with bioplastics (Polylactide, PLA)]]

== Testing procedures == [[File:Shampoo Bottle made of PLA-Blend Bio-Flex.jpg|thumb|150px|A bioplastic shampoo [[bottle]] made of PLA-blend bio-flex]]

=== Industrial compostability – EN 13432, ASTM D6400 === The [[European Norm|EN]] 13432 industrial standard must be met in order to claim that a plastic product is compostable in the European marketplace. In summary, it requires multiple tests and sets pass/fail criteria, including disintegration (physical and visual break down) of the finished item within 12 weeks, biodegradation (conversion of organic carbon into {{CO2}}) of polymeric ingredients within 180 days, plant toxicity and heavy metals. The [[ASTM]] 6400 standard is the regulatory framework for the United States and has similar requirements.

Many [[starch]]-based plastics, PLA-based plastics and certain [[aliphatic]]-[[aromatic]] co-[[polyester]] compounds, such as [[succinates]] and [[Adipic acid#Adipate salts and esters|adipates]], have obtained these certificates. Additive-based bioplastics sold as photodegradable or [[Oxo Biodegradable]] do not comply with these standards in their current form.

=== Compostability – ASTM D6002 === The ASTM D 6002 method for determining the compostability of a plastic defined the word ''[[compost]]able'' as follows: <blockquote>that which is capable of undergoing biological decomposition in a compost site such that the material is not visually distinguishable and breaks down into carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds and biomass at a rate consistent with known compostable materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.compostable.info/compostable.htm|title=Compostable.info}}</ref></blockquote> {{Original research|section|date=September 2015}} This definition drew much criticism because, contrary to the way the word is traditionally defined, it completely divorces the process of "composting" from the necessity of it leading to [[humus]]/compost as the end product. The only criterion this standard ''does'' describe is that a compostable plastic must '''look''' to be going away as fast as something else one has already established to be compostable under the ''traditional'' definition.

==== Withdrawal of ASTM D 6002 ==== In January 2011, the ASTM withdrew standard ASTM D 6002, which had provided plastic manufacturers with the legal credibility to label a plastic as [[compostable]]. Its description is as follows: <blockquote>This guide covered suggested criteria, procedures, and a general approach to establish the compostability of environmentally degradable plastics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astm.org/Standards/D6002.htm|title=ASTM D6002 - 96(2002)e1 Standard Guide for Assessing the Compostability of Environmentally Degradable Plastics (Withdrawn 2011)|work=astm.org|access-date=2012-09-05|archive-date=2019-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221192326/https://www.astm.org/Standards/D6002.htm}}</ref> </blockquote>

The ASTM has yet to replace this standard.

=== Biobased – ASTM D6866 === The ASTM D6866 method has been developed to certify the biologically derived content of bioplastics. Cosmic rays colliding with the atmosphere mean that some of the carbon is the radioactive isotope [[carbon-14]]. CO₂ from the atmosphere is used by plants in [[photosynthesis]], so new plant material will contain both carbon-14 and [[carbon-12]]. Under the right conditions, and over geological timescales, the remains of living organisms can be transformed into [[fossil fuels]]. After ~100,000 years all the carbon-14 present in the original organic material will have undergone radioactive decay leaving only carbon-12. A product made from [[biomass]] will have a relatively high level of carbon-14, while a product made from petrochemicals will have no carbon-14. The percentage of renewable carbon in a material (solid or liquid) can be measured with an accelerator [[mass spectrometer]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astm.org/Standards/D6866.htm |title=ASTM D6866 - 11 Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis |publisher=Astm.org |access-date=2011-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/publications/nnfcc-newsletter-issue-16-understanding-bio-based-content |title=NNFCC Newsletter&nbsp;– Issue 16. Understanding Bio-based Content&nbsp;— NNFCC |publisher=Nnfcc.co.uk |date=2010-02-24 |access-date=2011-08-14 |archive-date=2011-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720182801/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/publications/nnfcc-newsletter-issue-16-understanding-bio-based-content |url-status=dead }}</ref>

There is an important difference between [[biodegradability]] and biobased content. A bioplastic such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.braskem.com.br/site/portal_braskem/en/sala_de_imprensa/sala_de_imprensa_detalhes_6062.aspx |title=Braskem |publisher=Braskem |access-date=2011-08-14}}</ref> can be 100% biobased (i.e. contain 100% renewable carbon), yet be non-biodegradable. These bioplastics such as HDPE nonetheless play an important role in greenhouse gas abatement, particularly when they are combusted for energy production. The biobased component of these bioplastics is considered carbon-neutral since their origin is from biomass.

=== Anaerobic [[biodegradability]] – ASTM D5511-02 and ASTM D5526 === The ASTM D5511-12 and ASTM D5526-12 are testing methods that comply with international standards such as the ISO DIS 15985 for the [[biodegradability]] of plastic.

== See also == <!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER --> {{Portal|Ecology}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Alkane]] * [[Biofuel]] * [[BioSphere Plastic]] * [[Celluloid]] * [[Cutlery]] * [[Edible tableware]] * [[Food vs. fuel]] * [[Galalith]] * [[Plastic bottle#Concerns|Health concerns regarding plastic food packaging]] * [[Organic photovoltaics]] * [[:Category:Plastivores|Plastivores]] * [[Plastic bans]] * [[Sustainable packaging]] {{div col end}}

== References == {{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading == * [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1347639560 Plastics Without Petroleum History and Politics of 'Green' Plastics in the United States] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCNJ8qSWKYC ''Plastics and the environment''] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=SUCtOwns7TEC&pg=PA155 "The Social construction of Bakelite: Toward a theory of invention"] in ''The Social Construction of Technological Systems'', pp.&nbsp;155–182 * {{cite journal |last1=Mastrolia |first1=Cristina |last2=Giaquinto |first2=Domenico |last3=Gatz |first3=Christoph |last4=Pervez |first4=Md Nahid |last5=Hasan |first5=Shadi Wajih |last6=Zarra |first6=Tiziano |last7=Li |first7=Chi-Wang |last8=Belgiorno |first8=Vincenzo |last9=Naddeo |first9=Vincenzo |title=Plastic Pollution: Are Bioplastics the Right Solution? |journal=[[Water (journal)|Water]] |date=2022 |volume=14 |issue=22 |page=3596 |doi=10.3390/w14223596 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Lackner |first1=Maximilian |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Anindya |last3=Koller |first3=Martin |title=What Are "Bioplastics"? Defining Renewability, Biosynthesis, Biodegradability, and Biocompatibility |journal=[[Polymers (journal)|Polymers]] |date=2023 |volume=15 |issue=24 |page=4695 |doi=10.3390/polym15244695 |pmid=38139947 |doi-access=free |pmc=10747977}}

== External links == {{commons category|Bioplastics}} * [http://www.gcis.com.cn/11-multi-client-market-research-reports/204-china-biodegradable-plastics-market-research-report Assessment of China's Market for Biodegradable Plastics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904192810/http://www.gcis.com.cn/11-multi-client-market-research-reports/204-china-biodegradable-plastics-market-research-report |date=2021-09-04 }}, May 2017, GCiS China Strategic Research

{{Plastics}} {{Packaging}}

[[Category:Bioplastics| ]] [[Category:Biodegradable waste management]] [[Category:Polymer chemistry]]