Electronic waste

{{short description|Discarded electronic devices (E-Waste)}} {{Multiple issues| collapsed=yes| {{Copy edit|date=March 2026}} {{Very long|date=March 2026|words=~11,000}} }} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}} thumb|Defective and obsolete electronic equipment {{Pollution sidebar|Solid waste}}

'''Electronic waste (E-Waste)''' describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. It is also commonly known as '''waste electrical and electronic equipment''' ('''WEEE''') or '''end-of-life''' ('''EOL''') '''electronics'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kahhat |first1=Ramzy |last2=Kim |first2=Junbeum |last3=Xu |first3=Ming |last4=Allenby |first4=Braden |last5=Williams |first5=Eric |last6=Zhang |first6=Peng |date=May 2008 |title=Exploring e-waste management systems in the United States |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=52 |issue=7 |page=956 |bibcode=2008RCR....52..955K |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2008.03.002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=E-waste - IUPAC Resource Page |url=https://iupac.org/e-waste/ |access-date=2025-12-05 |website=IUPAC |language=en-US}}</ref> Electronic waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams globally, driven by rapid technological advancement and increasing consumption of electronic devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jain |first=Muskan |last2=Kumar |first2=Depak |last3=Chaudhary |first3=Jyoti |last4=Kumar |first4=Sudesh |last5=Sharma |first5=Sheetal |last6=Singh Verma |first6=Ajay |date=2023-07-08 |title=Review on E-waste management and its impact on the environment and society |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949750723000135 |journal=Waste Management Bulletin |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=34-44}}</ref> In 2022, approximately 62 million tonnes of electronic waste were generated globally, making it one of the fastest growing waste streams; only 22.3% were formally collected and recycled.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global e-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five Times Faster than Documented E-waste Recycling {{!}} UNITAR |url=https://unitar.org/about/news-stories/press/global-e-waste-monitor-2024-electronic-waste-rising-five-times-faster-documented-e-waste-recycling |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=unitar.org |language=en}}</ref> Global e-waste generation is projected to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global e-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five Times Faster than Documented E-waste Recycling {{!}} UNITAR |url=https://unitar.org/about/news-stories/press/global-e-waste-monitor-2024-electronic-waste-rising-five-times-faster-documented-e-waste-recycling |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=unitar.org |language=en}}</ref> Used electronics which are destined for refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through material recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental pollution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Electronic waste (e-waste) |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/electronic-waste-(e-waste) |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> The growing consumption of electronic goods due to the Digital Revolution and innovations in science and technology, such as bitcoin, has led to a global e-waste problem and hazard. The rapid exponential increase in e-waste is due to frequent new-model releases, unnecessary purchases of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), short innovation cycles, low recycling rates, and a drop in the average lifespan of computers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=Devin N. |last2=Drisse |first2=Marie-Noel Brune |last3=Nxele |first3=Tapiwa |last4=Sly |first4=Peter D. |date=25 November 2014 |title=E-Waste: A Global Hazard |journal=Annals of Global Health |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=286–295 |doi=10.1016/j.aogh.2014.10.001 |pmid=25459330 |s2cid=43167397 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to the health of workers and their communities.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sakar |first=Anne |date=12 February 2016 |title=Dad brought home lead, kids got sick |url=https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2016/02/12/dad-brought-home-lead-kids-got-sick/80078164/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329114114/https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2016/02/12/dad-brought-home-lead-kids-got-sick/80078164/ |archive-date=29 March 2022 |access-date=8 November 2019 |work=The Cincinnati Enquirer}}</ref>

== Definition == {{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |footer=Hoarding (first), disassembling (second), and collecting (third) electronic waste in Bengaluru, India |image1=India Victor Grigas 2011-12.jpg |image2=India Victor Grigas 2011-14.jpg |image3=India Victor Grigas 2011-13.jpg }}

When an electronic product is discarded after its useful life, it becomes electronic waste, or e-waste. When new electronic product models appear, older ones become obsolete and are often discarded.<ref name="forensic">{{Cite journal |last1=Kapoor |first1=Neeti |last2=Sulke |first2=Pradnya |last3=Badiye |first3=Ashish |date=2021-11-01 |title=E-waste forensics: An overview |journal=Forensic Science International: Animals and Environments |volume=1 |article-number=100034 |doi=10.1016/j.fsiae.2021.100034 |bibcode=2021FSIAE...100034K |issn=2666-9374|doi-access=free }}</ref> E-waste is produced in vast quantities as a result of the consumption-driven society and the quick development of technology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Does Consumer Behavior Impact E-Waste Generation? → Question |url=https://climate.sustainability-directory.com/question/how-does-consumer-behavior-impact-e-waste-generation/ |access-date=2025-10-31 |website=Climate → Sustainability Directory |language=en-US}}</ref>

The European Union (EU) classifies e-waste into ten categories (EU-10):<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baldé |first=C. P. |last2=Forti |first2=V. |last3=Gray |first3=V. |last4=Kuehr |first4=R. |last5=Stegmann |first5=P. |date=2017 |title=The Global E-waste Monitor 2017: Quantities, Flows, and Resources |url=https://ewastemonitor.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Global-E-waste-Monitor-2017-electronic-spreads.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260312103801/https://ewastemonitor.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Global-E-waste-Monitor-2017-electronic-spreads.pdf |archive-date=March 12, 2026 |access-date=May 18, 2026 |website=United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Directive - 2012/19 - EN - EUR-Lex |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/19/oj/eng |access-date=2026-05-19 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=20em}} # Large household appliances # Small household appliances # IT and telecommunications equipment # Consumer equipment and photovoltaic panels # Lighting equipment # Electrical and electronic tools # Toys, leisure, and sports equipment # Medical devices # Monitoring and control instruments # Automatic dispensers {{end div col}} These include used electronics destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal, as well as reusables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary raw materials (such as copper, steel, plastic, and similar materials). The term "waste" is reserved for residue or material that is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and recycling operations, because loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and non-recyclable). Several public policy advocates use the terms "e-waste" and "e-scrap" broadly to encompass all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are among the hardest types to recycle.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |author-link=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=10 September 2019 |title=National Recycling Strategy |url=https://www.epa.gov/circulareconomy |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Electronic Hazardous Waste (E-Waste) |url=https://dtsc.ca.gov/electronic-hazardous-waste/ |website=dtsc.ca.gov}}</ref>

Using a different set of categories, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development defines e-waste in six categories:

{{div col|colwidth=20em}} # Temperature exchange equipment (such as air conditioners, freezers) # Screens, monitors (TVs, laptops) # Lamps (LED lamps, for example) # Large equipment (washing machines, electric stoves) # Small equipment (microwaves, electric shavers) # Small IT and telecommunication equipment (such as mobile phones, printers) {{end div col}}

Products in each category vary in longevity profile, impact, and collection methods, among other differences.<ref>Baldé, C. P., et al., The Global E-waste Monitor 2017, UNU, ITU, ISWA, 2017</ref> Around 70% of toxic waste in landfills is electronic waste, even though e-waste accounts for only 3% of the waste in landfills.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marin |first=Johan |title=College of Saint Mary spreads sustainability awareness through recycling event |url=https://www.wowt.com/2022/10/15/college-saint-mary-spreads-sustainability-awareness-through-recycling-event/ |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=wowt.com |date=15 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

CRTs have a relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus), both of which are necessary for the display. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous household waste" but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to be commodities if they are recycled or exported for recycling, under certain conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2016-01-04 |title=Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) |url=https://www.epa.gov/hw/cathode-ray-tubes-crts |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=40 CFR 261.39 -- Conditional Exclusion for Used, Broken Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) and Processed CRT Glass Undergoing Recycling. |url=https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-40/part-261/section-261.39 |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=www.ecfr.gov |language=en}}</ref> These CRT devices are often confused with the DLP Rear Projection TV, both of which have a different recycling process due to the materials of which they are composed.

The EU and its member states operate a system through the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) – a European Council Directive implemented as "member state law". In the UK, this is set out in the List of Wastes Directive. However, the list (and EWC) provides a broad definition (EWC Code 16 02 13*) of what constitutes hazardous electronic waste, requiring "waste operators" to consult the Hazardous Waste Regulations (Annex 1A, Annex 1B) for a more refined definition. Constituent materials in the waste also require assessment via the combination of Annex II and Annex III, again allowing operators to further determine whether waste is hazardous.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2013 |title=Defining & categorization of wastes via the regulations |url=http://www.it-green.co.uk/uk_business_recycling/what-computer-waste-is-hazardous/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611155024/http://www.it-green.co.uk/uk_business_recycling/what-computer-waste-is-hazardous/ |archive-date=11 June 2013 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=ITGreen}}</ref>

Some exporters are accused of leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete, or non-repairable equipment mixed with loads of working equipment (for various reasons, mostly to cut costs for separation and treatment).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rucevska |first1=I |url=http://www.grida.no/publications/166 |title=Waste Crime: Low Risks - High Profits. Gaps in Meeting the Global Waste Challenge. A Rapid Response Assessment |last2=Nelleman |first2=C |last3=Isarin |first3=N |last4=Yang |first4=W |last5=Liu |first5=N |last6=Yu |first6=K |last7=Sandnæs |first7=S |last8=Olley |first8=K |last9=McCann |first9=H |date=2015 |isbn=978-82-7701-148-6 |location=Nairobi and Arendal}}</ref> Protectionists may broaden the definition of "waste" electronics to protect domestic markets from working secondary equipment.

The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste (working and reusable laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can help pay the cost of transportation for a larger number of worthless pieces than what can be achieved with display devices, which have less (or negative) scrap value. A 2011 report, "Ghana E-waste Country Assessment",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana e-Waste Country Assessment |url=http://ewasteguide.info/files/Amoyaw-Osei_2011_GreenAd-Empa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815230326/http://ewasteguide.info/files/Amoyaw-Osei_2011_GreenAd-Empa.pdf |archive-date=15 August 2011 |access-date=29 August 2011 |publisher=SBC e-Waste Africa Project}}</ref> found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported to Ghana, 30% was brand new and 70% was used. Of the used product, the study concluded that 15% was not reused and was scrapped or discarded. This contrasts with published but uncredited claims that 80% of the imports into Ghana were being burned in primitive conditions.

Bitcoin has been found to produce large amounts of e-waste, totaling 30.7 metric kilotons as of May, 2021. This amount of e-waste is similar to that of a small country such as Denmark. This has sparked controversy over the sustainability of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.<ref>de Vries, Alex, and Christian Stoll. "Bitcoin's Growing e-Waste Problem." ''Resources, Conservation and Recycling'', vol. 175, 2021, p. 105901, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105901</nowiki>.</ref>

== Quantity == thumb|A fragment of a discarded circuit board from a television remote E-waste is considered the "fastest-growing waste stream in the world".<ref name="World Economic Forum-2019">{{Cite web |date=24 January 2019 |title=A New Circular Vision for Electronics, Time for a Global Reboot |url=https://www.weforum.org/reports/a-new-circular-vision-for-electronics-time-for-a-global-reboot/ |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=World Economic Forum}}</ref> A study in 2024 highlights that nearly 62 million tons are generated globally every year with only 22.3% formally documented as being collected and recycled,<ref>{{Cite web |last=ewastemonitor |date=2024-03-20 |title=The Global E-waste Monitor 2024 |url=https://ewastemonitor.info/the-global-e-waste-monitor-2024/ |access-date=2025-06-03 |website=E-Waste Monitor |language=en-US}}</ref> with the rest often processed informally in developing countries, posing serious health and environmental risks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Kang |last2=Tan |first2=Quanyin |last3=Yu |first3=Jiadong |last4=Wang |first4=Mengmeng |date=2023-03-01 |title=A global perspective on e-waste recycling |journal=Circular Economy |volume=2 |issue=1 |article-number=100028 |doi=10.1016/j.cec.2023.100028 |issn=2773-1677|doi-access=free }}</ref> An estimated $62 Billion USD of key raw materials are lost annually, due to inadequate recycling efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RMIS - E-waste |url=https://rmis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ewaste |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=RMIS - Raw Materials Information System |language=en}}</ref>

Rapid technological change, constant innovation, shifts in media (tapes, software, MP3s), falling prices, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a rapidly growing surplus of electronic waste worldwide. Truly circular technical solutions are very limited, but in most cases, a legal framework, collection, logistics, and other services need to be in place before a technical solution can be applied.

Display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, or APU chips), memory (DRAM or SRAM), and audio components have different useful lives. Processors are most frequently outdated (because software is no longer optimized for them). They are more likely to become "e-waste", while display units are most often replaced while still in use, without repair attempts, due to changes in wealthy nations' appetite for new display technology.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}} This problem could potentially be solved with modular smartphones (such as the Phonebloks concept). These phones are more durable and can have certain parts replaced, making them more environmentally friendly. Replacing the broken part of the phone will reduce e-waste.<ref>Smedley, Tim. The Guardian, 2013. Web. 22 May 2015. {{Cite news |last=Smedley |first=Tim |date=18 November 2013 |title=Is Phonebloks really the future of sustainable smartphones? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/phonebloks-future-sustainable-smartphone |url-status=live |access-date=19 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221142842/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/phonebloks-future-sustainable-smartphone |archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref> An estimated 50 million tons of e-waste are produced each year.<ref name="Sthiannopkao S 2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Sthiannopkao |first1=Suthipong |last2=Wong |first2=Ming Hung |year=2013 |title=Handling e-waste in developed and developing countries: Initiatives, practices, and consequences |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=463–464 |pages=1147–1153 |bibcode=2013ScTEn.463.1147S |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.088 |pmid=22858354}}</ref> The USA discards 30 million computers each year and 100&nbsp;million phones are disposed of in Europe each year. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that only 15–20% of e-waste is recycled, the rest of these electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics on the Management of Used and End-of-Life Electronics |url=http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/manage.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205035824/http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/manage.htm |archive-date=5 February 2012 |access-date=13 March 2012 |publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Environment |work=Mobile Recycling - The safest business phone & laptop recyclers |date=18 February 2014 |url=http://corporatemobilerecycling.co.uk/enviroment/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424192458/http://corporatemobilerecycling.co.uk/enviroment/ |archive-date=24 April 2014 |access-date=24 April 2014 |publisher=ECD Mobile Recycling}}</ref> [[File:Electronic waste at Agbogbloshie, Ghana.jpg|thumb|Electronic waste at Agbogbloshie, Ghana]] According to a report by UNEP titled, "Recycling – from e-waste to Resources," the amount of e-waste being produced – including mobile phones and computers – could rise by as much as 500 percent over the next decade in some countries, such as India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Section |first=United Nations News Service |date=22 February 2010 |title=As e-waste mountains soar, UN urges smart technologies to protect health |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=33845&Cr=waste&Cr1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724005105/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=33845&Cr=waste&Cr1 |archive-date=24 July 2012 |access-date=12 March 2012 |website=United Nations-DPI/NMD – UN News Service Section }}</ref> The United States is the world leader in producing electronic waste, tossing away about 3 million tons each year.<ref name="unep.org">{{Cite web |title=Urgent need to prepare developing countries for surges in E-Waste |url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=612&ArticleID=6471 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531144909/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=612&ArticleID=6471 |archive-date=31 May 2011}}</ref> China already produces about 10.1 million tons (2020 estimate) domestically, second only to the United States. And, despite having banned e-waste imports, China remains a major e-waste dumping ground for developed countries.<ref name="unep.org" />

thumb|A smartphone with a cracked screen A 2023 study found that improper disposal and recycling of electronic waste significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, linking electronic waste to recent global environmental problems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fawole |first1=A. A. |last2=Afolabi |first2=A. S. |last3=Oyedele |first3=O. A. |last4=Fawole |first4=O. O. |year=2023 |title=Climate change implications of electronic waste: strategies for sustainable management |journal=Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=68 |doi=10.1186/s42269-023-01124-8 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Electronic waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Electronic waste contains a complex mixture of hazardous substances, including heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and nickel, as well as organic pollutants like flame retardants and dioxins. These substances can be released into the environment during improper recycling or disposal, posing risks to ecosystems and human health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parvez |first=Sarker M. |last2=Jahan |first2=Farjana |last3=Brune |first3=Marie-Noel |last4=Gorman |first4=Julia F. |last5=Rahman |first5=Musarrat J. |last6=Carpenter |first6=David |last7=Islam |first7=Zahir |last8=Rahman |first8=Mahbubur |last9=Aich |first9=Nirupam |last10=Knibbs |first10=Luke D. |last11=Sly |first11=Peter D. |date=December 2021 |title=Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: an updated systematic review |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8674120/ |journal=The Lancet. Planetary Health |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e905–e920 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00263-1 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=8674120 |pmid=34895498}}</ref>Up to 60 elements can be found in complex electronics.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Walsh |first=Bryan |date=8 March 2012 |title=E-Waste: How the New IPad Adds to Electronic Garbage |magazine=Time |url=https://science.time.com/2012/03/08/e-waste-how-the-new-ipad-adds-to-electronic-garbage/ |access-date=22 May 2015}}</ref> Concentration of metals within the electronic waste is generally higher than a typical ore, such as copper, aluminium, iron, gold, silver, and palladium.<ref name="Holuszko 2022">{{Cite book |last1=Holuszko |first1=Maria E. |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9783527816392.ch1 |title=Introduction, Vision, and Opportunities |last2=Espinosa |first2=Denise C. R. |last3=Scarazzato |first3=Tatiana |last4=Kumar |first4=Amit |date=2022-01-10 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-3-527-34490-1 |editor-last=Holuszko |editor-first=Maria E. |edition=1 |pages=1–13 |language=en |doi=10.1002/9783527816392.ch1 |s2cid=244687606 |editor-last2=Kumar |editor-first2=Amit |editor-last3=Espinosa |editor-first3=Denise C.R.}}</ref> As of 2013, Apple has sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad).<ref>{{Cite web |title=iPhone, iPad sales up, Macs fall as Apple sees record sales |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/220194/iphone-ipad-sales-up-macs-fall-as-apple-sees-record-sales.html |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref> Many cell phone companies make cell phones that are not made to last so that the consumer will purchase new phones. Companies give these products such short lifespans because they know consumers will want a new product and will buy it if they make one.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Render |first=Meredith M. |date=2025-03-10 |title=Waste, Property, and Useless Things |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-138/waste-property-and-useless-things/ |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Harvard Law Review |language=en-US}}</ref> In the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in landfills comes from discarded electronics.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kozlan, Melanie |date=2 November 2010 |title=What is 'E-Waste' & How Can I Get Rid of It?! |url=http://www.fourgreensteps.com/infozone/featured/features/what-is-e-waste-a-how-can-i-get-rid-of-it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130085009/http://www.fourgreensteps.com/infozone/featured/features/what-is-e-waste-a-how-can-i-get-rid-of-it |archive-date=30 November 2010 |publisher=Four Green Steps }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Poison PCs and toxic TVs |url=http://svtc.org/wp-content/uploads/ppc-ttv1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520125715/http://svtc.org/wp-content/uploads/ppc-ttv1.pdf |archive-date=20 May 2011}}</ref>

While there is agreement that the number of discarded electronic devices is increasing, there is considerable disagreement about the relative risk (compared to automobile scrap, for example), and strong disagreement about whether curtailing trade in used electronics will improve conditions or make them worse. According to an article in ''Motherboard'', attempts to restrict the trade have driven reputable companies out of the supply chain, with unintended consequences.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ingenthron |first=Robin |date=31 March 2011 |title=Why We Should Ship Our Electronic "waste" to China and Africa |url=http://www.motherboard.tv/2011/3/26/e-waste-recycling-exports-are-good |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721144843/http://www.motherboard.tv/2011/3/26/e-waste-recycling-exports-are-good |archive-date=21 July 2011 |website=Motherboard.tv |publisher=Vice }}</ref>

=== E-waste data 2016 ===

In 2016, Asia had the largest volume of e-waste (18.2 Mt), followed by Europe (12.3 Mt), the Americas (11.3 Mt), Africa (2.2 Mt), and Oceania (0.7 Mt). Despite producing the least total e-waste, Oceania was the largest per-capita e-waste generator (17.3&nbsp;kg/inhabitant), with only 6% of its e-waste collected and recycled. Europe is the second-largest per-capita generator of e-waste, with an average of 16.6&nbsp;kg/inhabitant; however, it has the highest collection rate (35%). America generates 11.6&nbsp;kg/inhabitant and recycles only 17% of the e-waste produced in the region, a rate comparable to that in Asia (15%). However, Asia generates less e-waste per capita (4,2&nbsp;kg/inhabitant). Africa generates only 1.9&nbsp;kg/inhabitant, and limited information is available on its collection rate. The record furnishes regional breakdowns for Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. The figure illustrates the modest number of countries with official e-waste data: only 41. For 16 other countries, e-waste volumes were collected from exploration and evaluated. The outcome of a considerable bulk of the e-waste (34.1 Metric tons) is unidentified. In countries without a national e-waste constitution, e-waste may be classified as alternative or general waste. This is land-filled or recycled, along with alternative metal or plastic scraps. There is a colossal compromise: toxins are not properly removed, or they are handled by the informal sector and converted without adequate safeguards for laborers, while e-waste contaminants are released. Although e-waste volumes continue to rise, a growing number of countries are adopting e-waste regulations. National e-waste legislation now covers 66% of the world's population, up from 44% in 2014.<ref>Authored By Baldé, C., Forti, V., Gray, V., Kuehr, R. and Stegmann, P. (n.d.). Quantities, Flows, and Resources The Global E-waste Monitor 2017.</ref>

=== E-waste data 2019 ===

In 2019, an enormous volume of e-waste (53.6 Mt, averaging 7.3&nbsp;kg per capita) was generated globally. This is projected to increase to 74 Mt by 2030. Asia remains the largest contributor of electronic waste, at 24.9 Mt, followed by the Americas (13.1 Mt), Europe (12 Mt), and Africa and Oceania at 2.9 Mt and 0.7 Mt, respectively. In per capita generation, Europe came first with 16.2&nbsp;kg, followed by Oceania at 16.1&nbsp;kg, and then the Americas. Africa generates the least e-waste per capita, at 2.5&nbsp;kg. Regarding the collection and recycling of this waste, Europe ranked first (42.5%), and Asia second (11.7%). The Americas and Oceania are next (9.4% and 8.8% respectively), and Africa trails behind at 0.9%. Out of the 53.6 Metric tons of e-waste generated globally, formally documented collection and recycling accounted for 9.3%, while the fate of 44.3% remains uncertain, with its whereabouts and environmental impact varying across regions worldwide. However, the number of countries with national e-waste legislation, regulation, or policy has increased since 2014, from 61 to 78. A large proportion of undocumented commercial and domestic waste is mixed with other waste streams, such as plastic and metal, implying that easily recyclable fractions might be recycled under inferior conditions, without depollution and the recovery of all valuable materials.<ref>Authored By Baldé, C., Forti, V., Gray, V., Kuehr, R. and Stegmann, P. (2020). The Global E-waste Monitor 2020.</ref>

=== E-waste data 2021 === In 2021, an estimated 57.4 Mt of e-waste was generated globally. According to estimates in Europe, where the problem is best studied, 11 of 72 electronic items in an average household are no longer in use or broken. Annually per citizen, another 4 to 5&nbsp;kg of unused electrical and electronic products are hoarded in Europe before being discarded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 2021 |title=International E-Waste Day: 57.4M Tonnes Expected in 2021 {{!}} WEEE Forum |url=https://weee-forum.org/ws_news/international-e-waste-day-2021/ |access-date=11 January 2022 |website=weee-forum.org |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, less than 20 percent of the e-waste is collected and recycled.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gill |first=Victoria |date=7 May 2022 |title=Mine e-waste, not the Earth, say scientists |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-61350996 |access-date=8 May 2022}}</ref>

=== E-waste data 2022<!-- mayhaps collapse all of these years? -->=== In 2022, global e-waste generation increased by an estimated 3.4%, reaching 59.4 Mt, bringing the total unrecycled e-waste accumulated through 2022 to over 347 Mt.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-12 |title=17 Shocking E-Waste Statistics In 2022 - The Roundup |url=https://theroundup.org/global-e-waste-statistics/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=theroundup.org |language=en-US}}</ref> The transboundary flow of e-waste has gained attention from the public due to many worrisome headlines, but global study on the volumes and trading routes has not yet been conducted. According to the Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor, 5.1 Mt (or slightly under 10% of the 53.6 Mt of global e-waste) crossed international boundaries in 2019. This study divides the transboundary movement of e-waste into regulated and uncontrolled categories and considers both the receiving and sending regions to understand its implications better. Of the 5.1 Mt of transboundary movement, 1.8 Mt is sent under regulated conditions, while 3.3 Mt is delivered under uncontrolled conditions, as used EEE or e-waste may encourage unlawful movements and pose a risk to the proper management of e-waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GTF 2022 |url=https://ewastemonitor.info/gtf-2022/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=E-Waste Monitor |date=7 June 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Global trade issues == {{See also|Global Waste Trade|Electronic waste by country}} thumb|Electronic waste is often exported to developing countries. thumb|4.5-volt, D, C, AA, AAA, AAAA, A23, 9-volt, CR2032, and LR44 cells are all recyclable in most countries. [[File:Agbogbloshie.JPG|thumb|The e-waste center of Agbogbloshie, Ghana, where electronic waste is burnt and disassembled with no safety or environmental considerations]]

One theory is that increased regulation of electronic waste and concern over the environmental harm in nature economies creates an economic disincentive to remove residues before export. Critics of trade in used electronics maintain that it is still too easy for brokers calling themselves recyclers to export unscreened electronic waste to developing countries, such as China,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grossman |first=Elizabeth |date=10 April 2006 |title=Where computers go to die – and kill (4/10/2006) |work=Salon.com |url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2006/04/10/ewaste |access-date=8 November 2012}}</ref> India and parts of Africa, thus avoiding the expense of removing items like bad cathode ray tubes (the processing of which is expensive and difficult). Developing countries have become toxic dumping grounds for e-waste. Developing countries that receive foreign e-waste often go further by repairing and recycling forsaken equipment.<ref name="Osibanjo-2007">{{Cite journal |last=Osibanjo |first=Oladele |date=1 December 2007 |title=The Challenge of Electronic Waste (E-waste) Management in Developing Countries |journal=Waste Management & Research |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=489–501 |doi=10.1177/0734242x07082028 |pmid=18229743 |bibcode=2007WMR....25..489O |s2cid=21323480}}</ref> Yet still 90% of e-waste ended up in landfills in developing countries in 2003.<ref name="Osibanjo-2007" /> Proponents of international trade point to the success of fair trade programs in other industries, where cooperation has led to the creation of sustainable jobs and can bring affordable technology in countries where repair and reuse rates are higher.

Some supporters of the used-electronics trade say that metal extraction from virgin mining has been shifted to developing countries. Recycling copper, silver, gold, and other materials from discarded electronic devices is considered better for the environment than mining. They also state that the repair and reuse of computers and televisions have become a "lost art" in wealthier nations, and that refurbishing has traditionally been a development path.

South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China all excelled at finding "retained value" in used goods and, in some cases, have set up billion-dollar industries refurbishing used ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working CRTs. Refurbishing has traditionally been a threat to established manufacturing, and simple protectionism helps explain some of the criticism of the trade. Works like "The Waste Makers" by Vance Packard explain some of the criticism of exports of working products, for example, the ban on import of tested working Pentium 4 laptops to China, or the bans on export of used surplus working electronics by Japan.

Opponents of surplus electronics exports argue that lower environmental and labor standards, cheap labor, and the relatively high value of recovered raw materials lead to the transfer of pollution-generating activities, such as copper wire smelting. Electronic waste is often sent to various African and Asian countries, such as China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya, for processing, sometimes illegally. Many surplus laptops are routed to developing nations as "dumping grounds for e-waste".<ref name="tmc">{{Cite news |last=Prashant, Nitya |date=20 August 2008 |title=Cash For Laptops Offers 'Green' Solution for Broken or Outdated Computers |work=Green Technology |publisher=Technology Marketing Corporation |location=Norwalk, Connecticut |url=http://green.tmcnet.com/topics/green/articles/37567-cash-laptops-offers-green-solution-broken-outdated-computers.htm |url-status=live |access-date=17 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119082900/http://green.tmcnet.com/topics/green/articles/37567-cash-laptops-offers-green-solution-broken-outdated-computers.htm |archive-date=19 January 2010}}</ref>

The Basel Convention was adopted in March of 1989 and is a primary global treaty that aims to regulate the transboundary movement of hazardous waste to protect countries that import such waste <ref>https://www.basel.int/TheConvention/Overview/History/Overview/tabid/3405/Default.aspx</ref>. The United States has not ratified the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, and thus has few domestic federal laws forbidding the export of toxic waste—the Basel Action Network estimates that about 80% of the electronic waste directed to recycling in the U.S. does not get recycled there at all, but is put on container ships and sent to countries such as China.<ref name="harm">{{Cite news |last1=Basel Action Network |last2=Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition |date=25 February 2002 |title=Exporting Harm: The High-Tech Trashing of Asia |location=Seattle and San Jose |url=http://www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309044103/http://www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chea, Terence |date=18 November 2007 |title=America Ships Electronic Waste Overseas |agency=Associated Press |url=http://redmondmag.com/articles/2007/11/19/america-ships-electronic-waste-overseas.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222031233/http://redmondmag.com/articles/2007/11/19/america-ships-electronic-waste-overseas.aspx |archive-date=22 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Slade, Giles |year=2006 |title=Made To Break: Technology and Obsolescence in America |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674025721 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222122625/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674025721 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref><ref name=ng /> This figure is disputed as an exaggeration by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.

Independent research by Arizona State University showed that 87–88% of imported used computers were priced above the constituent materials they contained, and that "the official trade in end-of-life computers is thus driven by reuse as opposed to recycling".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ramzy Kahhat and Eric Williams |date=June 2009 |title=Product or Waste? Importation and End-of-Life Processing of Computers in Peru |journal=Environmental Science and Technology |publisher=Center for Earth Systems Engineering and Management, Arizona State University / American Chemical Society |volume=43 |issue=15 |pages=6010–6016 |bibcode=2009EnST...43.6010K |doi=10.1021/es8035835 |pmid=19731711}}</ref>

== Basel Convention Obstacles ==

The Basel Convention and Ban Amendment face regulatory obstacles across nations. First, there is often a lack of waste reporting from Parties due to not having ratified the Basel Convention or low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) primarily using informal recycling and collection procedures <ref>https://unitar.org/about/news-stories/press/global-e-waste-monitor-2024-electronic-waste-rising-five-times-faster-documented-e-waste-recycling#:~:text=18%20million%20tonnes:%20e%2Dwaste,movements</ref>. In the 2024 UNEP report of the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention, it was mentioned that 27 Parties did not submit national reports from 2018 to 2022 about their compliance to the Basel Convention's legal implementation <ref>United Nations Environment Programme. (2024). Report of the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention Implementation and Compliance Committee (second part, 14–18 October 2024) (UNEP/CHW/CC.16/11/Add.1). Basel Convention Secretariat.</ref> These Parties included Belize, Cambodia, Chile, Djibouti, Dominica, Somalia, Tonga, Mauritius, Nepal, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Cameroon, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic, Liechtenstein, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Samoa, Republic of Korea, Uruguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Zambia<ref>United Nations Environment Programme. (2024). Report of the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention Implementation and Compliance Committee (second part, 14–18 October 2024) (UNEP/CHW/CC.16/11/Add.1). Basel Convention Secretariat.</ref>.

There is also vague language in reports and legislation, as 68 of 126 Parties at the sixteenth meeting defined illegal traffic <ref>United Nations Environment Programme. (2024). Report of the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention Implementation and Compliance Committee (second part, 14–18 October 2024) (UNEP/CHW/CC.16/11/Add.1). Basel Convention Secretariat.</ref>. E-waste may be exported under the guise of second-hand or used materials, which reduces the effectiveness of the Basel Convention by creating loopholes in its language <ref>https://imcra-az.org/uploads/public_files/2025-05/82.pdf</ref>.

Further, the Basel Convention leaves the responsibility of waste monitoring and enforcing consequences for violations up to the Parties themselves <ref>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13264-3</ref>. In the sixteenth meeting, it was found that 66 Parties implemented provisions to take back hazardous waste, and 52 Parties treated the illegal trafficking of hazardous waste between nations as a criminal offense <ref>United Nations Environment Programme. (2024). Report of the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention Implementation and Compliance Committee (second part, 14–18 October 2024) (UNEP/CHW/CC.16/11/Add.1). Basel Convention Secretariat.</ref>. While these data represent overall hazardous waste, not just e-waste, electronic waste is still included in these statistics. The hindrances posed by the Basel Convention and the Ban Amendment allow LMICs to import large amounts of e-waste through global trade, leading to harmful effects on community health in those regions.

=== Trade === [[File:Day 6 Warehouse (25890985098) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Sacks of mobile phones in Agbogbloshie, Ghana]] Proponents of the trade say the growth of internet access is more strongly correlated with trade than with poverty. Haiti is poor and closer to the port of New York than Southeast Asia, but far more electronic waste is exported from New York to Asia than to Haiti. Thousands of men, women, and children are employed in reuse, refurbishing, repair, and remanufacturing in unsustainable industries that are in decline in developed countries. Denying developing nations access to used electronics may deny them sustainable employment, affordable products, and internet access, or force them to deal with even less scrupulous suppliers. In a series of seven articles for The Atlantic, Shanghai-based reporter Adam Minter describes many of these computer repair and scrap separation activities as objectively sustainable.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minter |first=Adam |date=7 March 2011 |title=Shanghai Scrap |url=http://shanghaiscrap.com/?p=6448 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323053947/http://shanghaiscrap.com/?p=6448 |archive-date=23 March 2011 |access-date=7 March 2011 |website=Wasted 7/7 |publisher=The Atlantic}}</ref>

Opponents of the trade argue that developing countries utilize methods that are more harmful and more wasteful. A common and expedient method is to toss equipment onto an open fire to melt plastics and burn off non-valuable metals. This releases carcinogens and neurotoxins into the air, contributing to an acrid, lingering smog. These noxious fumes include dioxins and furans. Bonfire refuse can be quickly disposed of in drainage ditches or waterways that feed the ocean or local water supplies.<ref name="ng">{{Cite news |last=Carroll |date=January 2008 |title=High-Tech Trash |publisher=National Geographic Magazine Online |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/2008-01/high-tech-trash/carroll-text.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202090155/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/2008-01/high-tech-trash/carroll-text.html |archive-date=2 February 2008}}</ref>

In June 2008, a container of electronic waste, destined from the Port of Oakland in the U.S. to Sanshui District in mainland China, was intercepted in Hong Kong by Greenpeace.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Illegal e-waste exposed |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/illegal-e-waste-exposed140708 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080711061104/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/illegal-e-waste-exposed140708 |archive-date=11 July 2008 |publisher=Greenpeace International}}</ref> Concern over exports of electronic waste were raised in press reports in India,<ref>{{Cite news |title=E-Trash Industry Poses Hazards to Workers |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11211916 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921070144/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11211916 |archive-date=21 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Simmons |first=Dan |date=14 October 2005 |title=British Broadcasting Corporation |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/click_online/4341494.stm |url-status=live |access-date=3 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228055440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/click_online/4341494.stm |archive-date=28 December 2006 }}</ref> Ghana,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poisoning the poor – Electronic Waste in Ghana |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/poisoning-the-poor-electroni |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808042955/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/poisoning-the-poor-electroni |archive-date=8 August 2008 |publisher=Greenpeace International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 August 2008 |title=British Broadcasting Corporation |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7543489.stm |url-status=live |access-date=3 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218152932/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7543489.stm |archive-date=18 February 2009 }}</ref> Côte d'Ivoire,<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 November 2006 |title=British Broadcasting Corporation |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6187358.stm |url-status=live |access-date=3 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827231346/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6187358.stm |archive-date=27 August 2010 }}</ref> and Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carney |first=Liz |date=19 December 2006 |title=British Broadcasting Corporation |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6193625.stm |url-status=live |access-date=3 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821123324/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6193625.stm |archive-date=21 August 2009 }}</ref>

The research that was undertaken by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade (CWIT) project, funded by the European Commission, found that in Europe only 35% (3.3&nbsp;million tons) of all the e-waste discarded in 2012 ended up in the officially reported amounts of collection and recycling systems. The other 65% (6.15&nbsp;million tons) was either: * Exported (1.5 million tons), * Recycled under non-compliant conditions in Europe (3.15 million tons), * Scavenged for valuable parts (750,000 tons), or * Thrown in waste bins (750,000 tons).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Countering WEEE Illegal Trade Summary Report |url=http://www.cwitproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/CWIT-Final-Report.pdf |publisher=CWIT |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201150109/http://www.cwitproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/CWIT-Final-Report.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2017 |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref>

=== Guiyu === {{Main|Electronic waste in China|Electronic waste in Guiyu}}

Guiyu in the Guangdong region of China is a massive electronic-waste-processing community.<ref name=harm /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slade |first=Giles |title=Computer age leftovers |work=Denver Post |url=http://www.denverpost.com/perspective/ci_3633138 |url-status=live |access-date=13 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208034832/http://www.denverpost.com/perspective/ci_3633138 |archive-date=8 December 2006}}</ref> It is often referred to as the "e-waste capital of the world." Traditionally, Guiyu was an agricultural community; however, in the mid-1990s, it transformed into an e-waste recycling center, with over 75% of local households and an additional 100,000 migrant workers involved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=M.H. |date=2007 |title=Export of toxic chemicals – A review of the case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recycling |url=https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=cies_ja |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=131–140 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2007.01.044 |pmid=17412468 |bibcode=2007EPoll.149..131W |archive-date=28 April 2019 |access-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428044740/https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=cies_ja |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Thousands of individual workshops employ laborers to snip cables, pry chips from circuit boards, grind plastic computer cases into particles, and dip circuit boards in acid baths to dissolve the precious metals. Others work to strip insulation from all wiring in an attempt to salvage tiny amounts of copper wire.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Electronic Waste Dump of the World |publisher=Sometimes-interesting.com |url=http://sometimes-interesting.com/2011/07/17/electronic-waste-dump-of-the-world/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125073415/http://sometimes-interesting.com/2011/07/17/electronic-waste-dump-of-the-world/ |archive-date=25 November 2012}}</ref> Uncontrolled burning, disassembly, and disposal has led to many environmental problems such as groundwater contamination, atmospheric pollution, and water pollution either by immediate discharge or from surface runoff (especially near coastal areas), as well as health problems including occupational safety and health effects among those directly and indirectly involved, due to the methods of processing the waste.

Six of the many villages in Guiyu specialize in circuit-board disassembly, seven in plastics and metals reprocessing, and two in wire and cable disassembly. Greenpeace, an environmental group, sampled dust, soil, river sediment, and groundwater in Guiyu. They found very high levels of toxic heavy metals and organic contaminants in both places.<ref>{{Cite news |title=E-Waste Dump of the World |publisher=Seattletimes.com |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2002920133_ewaste09.html |url-status=live |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221124954/http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2002920133_ewaste09.html |archive-date=21 December 2012}}</ref> Lai Yun, a campaigner for the group found "over 10 poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium."

Guiyu is only one example of a digital dump, but similar sites can be found around the world, including Nigeria, Ghana, and India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Where does e-waste end up? |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/where-does-e-waste-end-up/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729020723/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/where-does-e-waste-end-up/ |archive-date=29 July 2015 |website=Greenpeace}}</ref>

=== Other informal e-waste recycling sites === [[File:TV and Computer Monitor Recycling Pen - geograph.org.uk - 1025508.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A pile of discarded CRT TVs and computer monitors]]

Guiyu is likely one of the oldest and largest informal e-waste recycling sites in the world; however, there are many sites worldwide, including India, Ghana (Agbogbloshie), Nigeria, and the Philippines. There are a handful of studies that describe exposure levels in e-waste workers, the community, and the environment. For example, locals and migrant workers in Delhi, a northern union territory of India, scavenge discarded computer equipment and extract base metals using toxic, unsafe methods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mukherjee |first=Rahul |year=2017 |title=Anticipating Ruinations: Ecologies of 'Make Do' and 'Left With' |journal=Journal of Visual Culture |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=287–309 |doi=10.1177/1470412917740884 |s2cid=148682371}}</ref> Bangalore, located in southern India, is often referred as the "Silicon Valley of India" and has a growing informal e-waste recycling sector.<ref name="Ngoc Ha-2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Ngoc Ha |first1=Nguyen |last2=Agusa |first2=Tetsuro |last3=Ramu |first3=Karri |last4=Phuc Cam Tu |first4=Nguyen |last5=Murata |first5=Satoko |last6=Bulbule |first6=Keshav A. |last7=Parthasaraty |first7=Peethmbaram |last8=Takahashi |first8=Shin |last9=Subramanian |first9=Annamalai |last10=Tanabe |first10=Shinsuke |date=2009 |title=Contamination by trace elements at e-waste recycling sites in Bangalore, India |journal=Chemosphere |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=9–15 |bibcode=2009Chmsp..76....9H |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.02.056 |pmid=19345395}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Needhidasan |first1=S |last2=Samuel |first2=M |last3=Chidambaram |first3=R |date=2014 |title=Electronic waste- an emerging threat to the environment of urban India |journal=Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=36 |doi=10.1186/2052-336X-12-36 |pmc=3908467 |pmid=24444377 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014JEHSE..12...36N }}</ref> A study found that e-waste workers in the slum community had higher levels of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Tl, and Pb than workers at an e-waste recycling facility.<ref name="Ngoc Ha-2009" />

=== Cryptocurrency e-waste === {{further|Environmental impact of bitcoin}} Bitcoin mining has also contributed to increased electronic waste. Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies can be used for payment or speculation. Per de Vries & Stoll in the journal ''Resources, Conservation and Recycling'', the average bitcoin transaction yields 272 grams of electronic waste and generated approximately 112.5 million grams of waste in 2020 alone.<ref name="de Vries-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=de Vries |first1=Alex |last2=Stoll |first2=Christian |date=1 December 2021 |title=Bitcoin's growing e-waste problem |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344921005103 |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |publisher = Elsevier |language=en |volume=175 |article-number=105901 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105901 |bibcode=2021RCR...17505901D |issn=0921-3449 |s2cid=240585651|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other estimates indicate that the bitcoin network discards as much "small IT and telecommunication equipment waste produced by a country like the Netherlands," totaling to 30.7 metric kilotons every year.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /> Furthermore, the rate at which Bitcoin disposes of its waste exceeds that of major financial organizations such as VISA, which produces 40 grams of waste for every 100,000 transactions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jana |first1=Rabin K. |last2=Ghosh |first2=Indranil |last3=Das |first3=Debojyoti |last4=Dutta |first4=Anupam |date=2021 |title=Determinants of electronic waste generation in Bitcoin network: Evidence from the machine learning approach |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/tefoso/v173y2021ics0040162521005345.html |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |language=en |volume=173 |issue=C |article-number=121101 |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121101}}</ref>

A major concern is the rapid technological turnover in the bitcoin industry, which results in high levels of e-waste. This can be attributed to the proof-of-work principle bitcoin employs where miners receive currency as a reward for being the first to decode the hashes that encode its blockchain.<ref name="de Vries-2019">{{Cite journal |last=de Vries |first=Alex |date=17 April 2019 |title=Renewable Energy Will Not Solve Bitcoin's Sustainability Problem |journal=Joule |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=893–898 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2019.02.007 |issn=2542-4351 |s2cid=169784459|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Joule...3..893D }}</ref> As such, miners are encouraged to compete with one another to decode the hash first.<ref name="de Vries-2019" /> However, computing these hashes requires massive computing power, which, in effect, drives miners to obtain rigs with the highest processing power possible. To achieve this, miners increase the processing power of their rigs by purchasing more advanced computer chips.<ref name="de Vries-2019" />

According to Koomey's Law, efficiency in computer chips doubles every 1.5 years,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koomey |first1=Jonathan |last2=Berard |first2=Stephen |last3=Sanchez |first3=Marla |last4=Wong |first4=Henry |date=March 2011 |title=Implications of Historical Trends in the Electrical Efficiency of Computing |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=46–54 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2010.28 |bibcode=2011IAHC...33c..46K |issn=1934-1547 |id=Koomey's law describes a trend: "at a fixed computing load, the amount of battery you need will fall by a factor of two every year and a half.", Koomey wrote. |s2cid=8305701}}</ref> meaning that miners are incentivized to purchase new chips to keep up with competing miners even though the older chips are still functional. In some cases, miners even discard their chips earlier than this timeframe to maximize profitability.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /> However, this leads to a significant buildup in waste, as outdated application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC computer chips) cannot be reused or repurposed.<ref name="de Vries-2019" /> Most computer chips used to mine Bitcoin are ASIC chips, whose sole function is to mine Bitcoin, rendering them useless for other cryptocurrencies or operation in any other piece of technology.<ref name="de Vries-2019" /> Therefore, outdated ASIC chips can only be disposed of since they cannot be repurposed.

The bitcoin e-waste problem is further exacerbated by the fact that many countries and corporations lack recycling programs for ASIC chips.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /> Developing a recycling infrastructure for bitcoin mining may prove to be beneficial, though, as the aluminum heat sinks and metal casings in ASIC chips can be recycled into new technology.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /> Much of this responsibility falls onto Bitmain, the leading manufacturer of bitcoin, which currently lacks the infrastructure to recycle waste from bitcoin mining.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /> Without such programs, much of bitcoin waste ends up in landfill along with 83.6% of the global total of e-waste.<ref name="de Vries-2021" />

Many argue for relinquishing the proof-of-work model altogether in favor of the proof-of-stake one. This model selects a single miner to validate transactions on the blockchain, rather than having all miners compete for the right to do so.<ref name="Saleh-2020">{{Cite SSRN |last=Saleh |first=Fahad |date=7 July 2020 |title=Blockchain Without Waste: Proof-of-Stake |language=en |ssrn=3183935}}</ref> With no competition, the processing speed of miners' rigs would not matter.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /> Any device could be used for validating the blockchain, so there would be no incentive to use single-use ASIC chips or continually purchase new ones and dispose of old ones.<ref name="de Vries-2021" /><ref name="Saleh-2020" />

== Environmental impact == thumb|Old keyboards and a mouse

The processes of dismantling and disposing of electronic waste in developing countries led to many environmental impacts. Liquid and atmospheric releases end up in bodies of water, groundwater, soil, and air, and therefore in land and sea animals – both domesticated and wild, in crops eaten by both animals and humans, and in drinking water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frazzoli |first1=Chiara |last2=Orisakwe |first2=Orish Ebere |last3=Dragone |first3=Roberto |last4=Mantovani |first4=Alberto |year=2010 |title=Diagnostic health risk assessment of electronic waste on the general population in developing countries' scenarios |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=388–399 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2009.12.004|bibcode=2010EIARv..30..388F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhardwaj |first1=Laxmi Kant |last2=Rath |first2=Prangya |last3=Jain |first3=Harshita |last4=Choudhury |first4=Moharana |title=Exploring the effects of e-waste on soil, water quality and human health |journal=Discover Civil Engineering |date=2025 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=12 |doi=10.1007/s44290-025-00167-2 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

One study of environmental effects in Guiyu, China, found the following:<ref name="Sthiannopkao S 2012" /> * Airborne dioxins – one type found at 100 times the levels previously measured * Levels of carcinogens in duck ponds and rice paddies exceeded international standards for agricultural areas, and cadmium, copper, nickel, and lead levels in rice paddies were above international standards * Heavy metals found in road dust – lead over 300 times that of a control village's road dust and copper over 100 times

The Agbogbloshie area of Ghana, where about 40,000 people live, illustrates how e-waste contamination can pervade the daily lives of nearly all residents. Into this area—one of the largest informal e-waste dumping and processing sites in Africa—about 215,000 tons of secondhand consumer electronics, primarily from Western Europe, are imported annually. Because this region has considerable overlap among industrial, commercial, and residential zones, Pure Earth (formerly Blacksmith Institute) has ranked Agbogbloshie as one of the world's 10 worst toxic threats (Blacksmith Institute 2013).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heacock Michelle |last2=Kelly Carol Bain |last3=Asante Kwadwo Ansong |last4=Birnbaum Linda S. |last5=Bergman Åke Lennart |last6=Bruné Marie-Noel |last7=Buka Irena |last8=Carpenter David O. |last9=Chen Aimin |last10=Huo Xia |last11=Kamel Mostafa |date=1 May 2016 |title=E-Waste and Harm to Vulnerable Populations: A Growing Global Problem |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=124 |issue=5 |pages=550–555 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1509699 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |pmc=4858409 |pmid=26418733|bibcode=2016EnvHP.124..550H }}</ref> Improper disposal of electronic waste contributes to the release of contaminants into soil, water, and air, allowing pollutants to spread through multiple environmental pathways and increasing the risk of ecological and human exposure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Afrose Meem |first=Romana |display-authors=etal |date=2021-08-27 |title=A Review on the environmental and health impacts due to electronic waste disposal in Bangladesh |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354276056_A_Review_on_the_environmental_and_health_impacts_due_to_electronic_waste_disposal_in_Bangladesh |journal=GSC Online Press |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=116-125}}</ref>

A separate study at the Agbogbloshie e-waste dump in Ghana found lead levels as high as 18,125 ppm in the soil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caravanos |first=Jack |date=January 2013 |title=Exploratory Health Assessment of Chemical Exposures at E-Waste Recycling and Scrapyard Facility in Ghana |journal=Journal of Health and Pollution |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=11–22 |doi=10.5696/2156-9614-3.4.11 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |doi-access=free}}</ref> US EPA standard for lead in soil in play areas is 400 ppm and 1200 ppm for non-play areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lead Toxicity: What Are U.S. Standards for Lead Levels? |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=34&po=8 |access-date=12 January 2019 |website=Agency for Toxicology Substances & Disease Registry |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312005513/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=34&po=8 }}</ref> Scrap workers at the Agbogbloshie e-waste dump regularly burn electronic components and auto harness wires for copper recovery,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chasant |first=Muntaka |date=9 December 2018 |title=Videos and Photos of Agbogbloshie, Ghana |url=https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/video-photos-agbogbloshie-ghana |access-date=13 January 2019 |website=ATC MASK |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215022111/https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/video-photos-agbogbloshie-ghana |url-status=usurped }}</ref> releasing toxic chemicals like lead, dioxins and furans<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2008 |title=Poisoning the poor – Electronic Waste in Ghana |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/en/news/features/poisoning-the-poor-electroni/ |access-date=13 January 2019 |website=GREENPEACE}}</ref> into the environment.

Researchers such as Brett Robinson, a professor of soil and physical sciences at Lincoln University in New Zealand, warn that wind patterns in Southeast China disperse toxic particles released by open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta Region, home to 45 million people. In this way, toxic chemicals from e-waste enter the "soil-crop-food pathway," one of the most significant routes of human exposure to heavy metals. These chemicals are not biodegradable—they persist in the environment for long periods, increasing the risk of exposure.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Noor |first=Jawad Al |title=Impacts of e-waste in the environment |url=https://www.academia.edu/38517363 |language=en |website=Academia}}</ref>

In the agricultural district of Chachoengsao, in the east of Bangkok, local villagers had lost their main water source due to e-waste dumping. The cassava fields were transformed in late 2017, when a nearby Chinese-run factory began bringing in foreign e-waste, such as crushed computers, circuit boards, and cables, for recycling to extract valuable metals like copper, silver, and gold. But the items also contain lead, cadmium, and mercury, which are highly toxic if mishandled during processing. Apart from feeling faint from noxious fumes emitted during processing, a local claimed the factory has also contaminated her water. "When it was raining, the water went through the pile of waste and passed our house and went into the soil and water system. Water tests conducted in the province by environmental group Earth and the local government both found toxic levels of iron, manganese, lead, nickel, and, in some cases, arsenic and cadmium. The communities observed that when they used water from the shallow well, there was some development of skin disease, or there were foul smells", founder of Earth, Penchom Saetang, said: "This is proof that it is true, as the communities suspected, there are problems happening to their water sources."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Diss |first=Kathryn |date=16 July 2019 |title=This is the new dumping ground for the world's high-tech trash |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-16/recycled-tech-from-western-nations-destroying-thai-villages/11274578 |access-date=10 January 2020 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |+The environmental impact of the processing of different electronic waste components<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wath |first1=Sushant B. |last2=Dutt |first2=P. S. |last3=Chakrabarti |first3=T. |year=2011 |title=E-waste scenario in India, its management and implications |url=http://neeri.csircentral.net/384/1/EMAS_Publication.pdf |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |volume=172 |issue=1–4 |pages=249–262 |doi=10.1007/s10661-010-1331-9 |pmid=20151189 |bibcode=2011EMnAs.172..249W |s2cid=8070711}}</ref> |- ! E-waste Component !! Process Used !! Potential Environmental Hazard |- | Cathode ray tubes (used in TVs, computer monitors, ATM, video cameras, and more) || Breaking and removal of yoke, then dumping || Lead, barium, and other heavy metals leaching into the groundwater and release of toxic phosphor |- | Printed circuit board (image behind table – a thin plate on which chips and other electronic components are placed) || De-soldering and removal of computer chips; open burning and acid baths to remove metals after chips are removed. || Air emissions and discharge into rivers of glass dust, tin, lead, brominated dioxin, beryllium, cadmium, and mercury |- | Chips and other gold-plated components || Chemical stripping using nitric and hydrochloric acid and burning of chips || PAHs, heavy metals, brominated flame retardants discharged directly into rivers, acidifying fish and flora. Tin and lead contamination of surface and groundwater. Air emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy metals, and PAHs |- | Plastics from printers, keyboards, monitors, etc. || Shredding and low temp melting to be reused || Emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons |- | Computer wires || Open burning and stripping to remove copper || PAHs released into air, water, and soil. |}

Depending on the age and type of the discarded item, the chemical composition of e-waste may vary. Most e-waste consists of a mixture of metals, including Cu, Al, and Fe. They might be attached to, covered with, or even mixed with various types of plastics and ceramics. E-waste has a significant effect on the environment, and it is important to dispose of it with an [https://sustainableelectronics.org/r2/ R2 certified] recycling facility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Brett H. |date=20 December 2009 |title=E-waste: An assessment of global production and environmental impacts |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=408 |issue=2 |pages=183–191 |bibcode=2009ScTEn.408..183R |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.09.044 |issn=0048-9697 |pmid=19846207|s2cid=4378676 |doi-access= }}</ref>

== Information security == Discarded data-processing equipment may still contain readable data that could be considered sensitive to its previous users. Also, deleting the data and performing a factory reset might not completely erase it. Thus, this data may be recovered by unethical or malicious actors, sometimes even resulting in a data breach.<ref>{{Cite web |title=E-Waste and Data Security: What You Need to Know |url=https://www.4thbin.com/blogs/e-waste-and-data-security |access-date=2025-11-03 |website=4thbin.com |language=en}}</ref>

A recycling plan for such equipment can support information security by ensuring proper steps are followed to erase the sensitive information. This may include such steps as re-formatting of storage media and overwriting with random data to make data unrecoverable, or even physical destruction of media by shredding to ensure all data is obliterated. For example, on many operating systems, deleting a file may still leave the physical data file intact on the media, allowing data to be retrieved by routine methods.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-01 |title=Proper Disposal of Electronic Devices |publisher=CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/news/proper-disposal-electronic-devices |access-date=2025-11-03 |language=en}}</ref>

== Recycling == {{main|Electronic waste recycling}}

{{See also|Appliance recycling|Mobile phone recycling}}

[[File:Recycling Computers.jpg|thumb|right|Computer monitors are typically packed into low stacks on wooden pallets for recycling and then shrink-wrapped.]] Recycling can greatly reduce the leakage of toxic materials into the environment and mitigate against the depletion of natural resources. However, it needs to be encouraged by local authorities and through community education. Less than 20% of e-waste is formally recycled, with 80% either ending up in landfill or being informally recycled – much of it by hand in developing countries, exposing workers to hazardous and carcinogenic substances such as mercury, lead, and cadmium.<ref name="Tarter">{{Citation |last=Tarter |first=Andrew |title=Environment Programme, UN (UNEP) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Crisis Management |year=2013 |entry=Environment Programme, UN (UNEP) |publisher=SAGE Publications |doi=10.4135/9781452275956.n127 |isbn=978-1-4522-2612-5}}</ref> Despite its high resource value, only a small fraction of global e-waste is formally recycled, making it very wasteful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Kang |last2=Tan |first2=Quanyin |last3=Yu |first3=Jiadong |last4=Wang |first4=Mengmeng |date=2023-03-01 |title=A global perspective on e-waste recycling |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2773167723000055 |journal=Circular Economy |volume=2 |issue=1 |article-number=100028 |doi=10.1016/j.cec.2023.100028 |issn=2773-1677|doi-access=free }}</ref>

There are generally three methods of extracting precious metals from electronic waste, namely hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and hydro-pyrometallurgical methods. Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, as well as the potential to produce toxic waste.<ref name="Holuszko 2022"/>

One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards from electronic waste. The circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum, etc., and such base metals as copper, iron, aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit boards, burning cable sheathing to recover copper wire, and open-pit acid leaching to separate valuable metals.<ref name="Sthiannopkao S 2012" /> Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding and separation but the recycling efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition have been studied for printed circuit board recycling,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=C. |last2=Zhang |first2=H. C. |last3=McKenna |first3=G. |last4=Korzeniewski |first4=C. |last5=Li |first5=J. |year=2007 |title=Experimental Studies on Cryogenic Recycling of Printed Circuit Board |journal=International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology |volume=34 |issue=7–8 |pages=657–666 |doi=10.1007/s00170-006-0634-z |s2cid=109520016}}</ref> and some other methods are still under investigation. In 2023, an AF aerogel using protein fibrils in an aerogel matrix was developed for the adsorption of gold from circuit boards.<ref name="Peydayesh2024">{{cite journal |last1=Peydayesh |first1=M |last2=Boschi |first2=E |last3=Donat |first3=F |last4=Mezzenga |first4=R |title=Gold Recovery from E-Waste by Food-Waste Amyloid Aerogels |journal=Advanced Materials |date=May 2024 |volume=36 |issue=19 |article-number=e2310642 |doi=10.1002/adma.202310642 |pmid=38262611|bibcode=2024AdM....3610642P |hdl=20.500.11850/658267 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Properly disposing of or reusing electronics can help prevent health problems, reduce greenhouse-gas emissions, and create jobs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fela |first=Jen |date=April 2010 |title=Developing countries face e-waste crisis |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=117 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295-8.3.116 |jstor=20696446 |doi-access=free}}<!--|access-date=18 December 2013--></ref>

=== Consumer awareness efforts === thumb|right|A campaign to promote E-waste recycling in Ghana The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages electronic recyclers to become certified by demonstrating to an accredited, independent third-party auditor that they meet specific standards for safely recycling and managing electronics. This should work to ensure the highest environmental standards are maintained. Two certifications for electronic recyclers currently exist and are endorsed by the EPA. Customers are encouraged to choose certified electronics recyclers. Responsible electronics recycling reduces environmental and human health impacts, increases the use of reusable and refurbished equipment, and conserves limited resources while reducing energy use. The two EPA-endorsed certification programs are Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards. Certified companies ensure they meet strict environmental standards that maximize reuse and recycling, minimize exposure to human health and the environment, ensure the safe management of materials, and require the destruction of all data stored on electronics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Data Destruction |url=http://www.pureplanetrecycling.co.uk/data-destruction/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518094046/http://www.pureplanetrecycling.co.uk/data-destruction/ |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015 |publisher=www.pureplanetrecycling.co.uk}}</ref> Certified electronics recyclers have demonstrated through audits and other means that they continually meet specific high environmental standards and safely manage used electronics. Once certified, the recycler is held to the specific standard through continual oversight by the independent, accredited certifying body. A certification board accredits and oversees certifying bodies to ensure they meet specific responsibilities and are competent to audit and issue certifications.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=E-cycling certification |url=http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/certification.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412042126/http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/certification.htm |archive-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref>

Some U.S. retailers offer consumers opportunities to recycle discarded electronic devices.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=Best Buy Recycles |url=http://www.bestbuy.com/site/Global-Promotions/Recycling-Electronics/pcmcat149900050025.c?id=pcmcat149900050025 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326105703/http://www.bestbuy.com/site/Global-Promotions/Recycling-Electronics/pcmcat149900050025.c?id=pcmcat149900050025 |archive-date=26 March 2013 |publisher=Bestbuy.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=Staples recycling and eco-stapling |url=http://www.staples.com/sbd/cre/marketing/easy-on-the-planet/recycling-and-eco-services.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318031032/http://www.staples.com/sbd/cre/marketing/easy-on-the-planet/recycling-and-eco-services.html |archive-date=18 March 2013 |publisher=Staples.com}}</ref> In the US, the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) urges consumers to dispose properly of end-of-life electronics through its [http://greenergadgets.org/ recycling locator]. This list includes only manufacturer and retailer programs that use the strictest standards and third-party-certified recycling locations, providing consumers with assurance that their products will be recycled safely and responsibly. CEA research has found that 58 percent of consumers know where to take their end-of-life electronics, and the electronics industry would very much like to see that level of awareness increase. Consumer electronics manufacturers and retailers sponsor or operate more than 5,000 recycling locations nationwide and have vowed to recycle one billion pounds annually by 2016,<ref>{{Cite web |title=CEA – eCycle |url=http://www.ce.org/News/Environment/eCycle.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106161107/http://www.ce.org/News/Environment/eCycle.aspx |archive-date=6 January 2015 |access-date=6 January 2015 |website=ce.org}}</ref> a sharp increase from 300 million pounds industry recycled in 2010.

The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge was created by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2012.<ref name="US EPA SMM Electronics Challenge">{{Cite web |date=22 September 2012 |title=Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronics Challenge |url=https://www.epa.gov/electronics-batteries-management/sustainable-materials-management-smm-electronics-challenge-0 |access-date=14 May 2019 |website=Sustainable Management of Electronics |publisher=US EPA}}</ref> Participants of the Challenge are manufacturers of electronics and electronic retailers. These companies collect end-of-life (EOL) electronics at various locations and send them to a certified, third-party recycler. Program participants can then publicly promote and report 100% responsible recycling for their companies.<ref>United States Environmental Protection Agency, Sustainable Materials Management Electronics Challenge. Retrieved from {{Cite web |title=SMM Electronics Challenge |url=http://www.epa.gov/wastes/conserve/smm/electronics/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403093537/http://www.epa.gov/wastes/conserve/smm/electronics/index.htm |archive-date=3 April 2013 |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home – Electronics TakeBack Coalition |url=http://www.electronicstakeback.com |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226011520/http://www.electronicstakeback.com/ |archive-date=26 February 2015 |access-date=8 November 2012 |publisher=Electronicstakeback.com}}</ref> is a campaign aimed at protecting human health and limiting environmental effects where electronics are being produced, used, and discarded. The ETBC aims to place responsibility for the disposal of technology products on electronic manufacturers and brand owners, primarily through community promotions and legal enforcement initiatives. It provides recommendations for consumer recycling and a list of recyclers judged environmentally responsible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Find a Responsible Recycler |url=http://www.electronicstakeback.com/recycling/find_a_responsible_recycler_withmap.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508101606/http://www.electronicstakeback.com/recycling/find_a_responsible_recycler_withmap.htm |archive-date=8 May 2009 |publisher=Electronics TakeBack Coalition}}</ref> While there have been major benefits from the rise in recycling and waste collection created by producers and consumers, such as valuable materials being recovered and kept away from landfill and incineration, there are still many problems present with the EPR system including "how to ensure proper enforcement of recycling standards, what to do about waste with positive net value, and the role of competition" (Kunz et al.). Many stakeholders agreed that there needs to be a higher standard of accountability and efficiency to improve recycling systems everywhere, and that the growing amount of waste is more of an opportunity than a problem, since it gives us more opportunities to create efficient systems. To make recycling competition more cost-effective, the producers agreed that there needs to be a higher drive for competition because it allows them to have a wider range of producer responsibility organizations to choose from for e-waste recycling.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kunz |first=Nathan |date=2018 |title=Stakeholder Views on Extended Producer Responsibility and the Circular Economy |journal=California Management Review |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=45–70 |doi=10.1177/0008125617752694 |s2cid=158615408}}</ref>

The Certified Electronics Recycler program<ref>{{Cite web |title=Default Parallels Plesk Panel Page |url=http://www.certifiedelectronicsrecycler.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222122629/http://www.certifiedelectronicsrecycler.com/ |archive-date=22 December 2012 |access-date=8 November 2012 |publisher=Certifiedelectronicsrecycler.com}}</ref> for electronic recyclers is a comprehensive, integrated management system standard that incorporates key operational and continual improvement elements for quality, environmental, and health and safety performance. The grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition promotes human health and addresses environmental justice issues arising from toxins in technology. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) is an organization dedicated to improving the quality of exported electronics, encouraging better recycling standards in importing countries, and improving practices through "Fair Trade" principles. Take Back My TV (possibly discontinued)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Take Back My TV |url=http://www.takebackmytv.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227094713/http://www.takebackmytv.com/ |archive-date=27 December 2010}}</ref> is a project of The Electronics TakeBack Coalition and grades television manufacturers to find out which are responsible, in the coalition's view, and which are not.

There have also been efforts to raise awareness of the potentially hazardous conditions of the dismantling of e-waste in American prisons.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/wp-solutions/2025-100/ |title=Reducing hearing loss in recycling workers. |date=2024-12-01 |publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |doi=10.26616/nioshpub2025100 |language=en}}</ref> The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, prisoner-rights activists, and environmental groups released a Toxic Sweatshops report that details how prison labor is being used to handle e-waste, resulting in health consequences among the workers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 December 2006 |title=E-waste recycling in U.S. prisons |url=https://grist.org/article/the-chain-gangs-of-the-information-age/}}</ref> These groups allege that, since prisons do not have adequate safety standards, inmates are dismantling the products under unhealthy and unsafe conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=E-Waste Problem Overview |url=http://www.electronicstakeback.com/resources/problem-overview/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113200321/http://www.electronicstakeback.com/resources/problem-overview/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=13 November 2010}}</ref>

A group in Argentina known as Argentina's Cyber Dumpster Divers specializes in collecting e-waste from the streets and repurposing it for good. This group takes e-waste and turns it into new things, such as cameras and video game consoles. This activism came especially critical during the Covid pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-27 |title='Old things work': Argentines giving new life to e-waste |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250827-old-things-work-argentines-giving-new-life-to-e-waste |access-date=2025-11-03 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Processing techniques === [[File:Recycling lead in a lead-acid battery recovery facility.jpg|thumb|Recycling lead from batteries]]

In many developed countries, electronic waste processing usually begins with dismantling the equipment into various parts (metal frames, power supplies, circuit boards, plastics), often by hand but increasingly by automated shredding equipment. A typical example is the NADIN electronic waste processing plant in Novi Iskar, Bulgaria—the largest facility of its kind in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2010 |title=40 Million BGN Invested in Bulgaria's 1st Appliances Recycle Plant |work=Sofia News Agency |url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=117588 |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012085612/http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=117588 |archive-date=12 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 July 2010 |title=Bulgaria Opens Largest WEEE Recycling Factory in Eastern Europe |work=Ask-eu.com |url=http://www.ask-eu.com/Default.asp?Menue=142&Bereich=5&SubBereich=16&KW=130&NewsPPV=8492 |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904124647/http://www.ask-eu.com/Default.asp?Menue=142&Bereich=5&SubBereich=16&KW=130&NewsPPV=8492 |archive-date=4 September 2011 }}</ref> The advantages of this process are the human worker's ability to recognize and save working and repairable parts, including chips, transistors, RAM, etc. The disadvantage is that the labor is cheapest in countries with the lowest health and safety standards.

In an alternative bulk system,<ref name="Sims">{{Cite web |title=WEEE recycling resources |url=http://www.simsrecycling.co.uk/Resources/WEEE-Recycling |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106162925/http://www.simsrecycling.co.uk/Resources/WEEE-Recycling |archive-date=6 January 2015 |access-date=6 January 2015 |publisher=Simsrecycling.co.uk}}</ref> a hopper conveys material for shredding into an unsophisticated mechanical separator, with screening and granulating machines to separate constituent metal and plastic fractions, which are sold to smelters or plastics recyclers. Such recycling machinery is enclosed and employs a dust collection system. Scrubbers and screens catch some of the emissions. Magnets, eddy currents, and Trommel screens are employed to separate glass, plastic, and ferrous and nonferrous metals, which can then be further separated at a smelter.

Copper, gold, palladium, silver, and tin are valuable metals sold to smelters for recycling. Hazardous smoke and gases are captured, contained, and treated to mitigate environmental threats. These methods allow for safe reclamation of all valuable computer construction materials. Hewlett-Packard product recycling solutions manager Renee St. Denis describes its process as: "We move them through giant shredders about 30 feet tall and it shreds everything into pieces about the size of a quarter. Once your disk drive is shredded into pieces about this big, it's hard to get the data off".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kwiat_Environmental Educatioin |publisher=Learning Ace |url=http://www.learningace.com/doc/4352558/4f7ade1e955b0100f4b000490b9ac82a/kwiat_environmental-education}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> An ideal electronic waste recycling plant combines dismantling for component recovery with increased cost-effective processing of bulk electronic waste. Reuse is an alternative to recycling because it extends a device's lifespan. Devices still need to be recycled eventually, but by allowing others to purchase used electronics, recycling can be postponed, and value can be gained from device use.

In early November 2021, the U.S. state of Georgia announced a joint effort with Igneo Technologies to build an $85 million large electronics recycling plant in the Port of Savannah. The project will focus on lower-value, plastics-heavy devices in the waste stream using multiple shredders and furnaces using pyrolysis technology.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leif |first=Dan |date=3 November 2021 |title=Igneo targets low-grade scrap electronics with $85M plant |url=https://resource-recycling.com/recycling/2021/11/02/igneo-targets-low-grade-scrap-electronics-with-85m-plant/ |access-date=28 November 2021}}</ref>

=== Benefits of recycling === Recycling raw materials from end-of-life electronics is the most effective solution to the growing e-waste problem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seif |first1=Rania |last2=Salem |first2=Fatma Zakaria |last3=Allam |first3=Nageh K. |title=E-waste recycled materials as efficient catalysts for renewable energy technologies and better environmental sustainability |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |date=2023 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=5473–5508 |doi=10.1007/s10668-023-02925-7 |doi-access=free|pmid=36691418 |pmc=9848041 }}</ref> Most electronic devices contain a variety of materials, including metals that can be recovered for future uses. By dismantling and enabling reuse, intact natural resources are conserved, and air and water pollution from hazardous disposal is avoided. Additionally, recycling reduces greenhouse gas emissions from manufacturing new products.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Benefits of Recycling |url=http://www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/the-environment/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106175444/http://www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/the-environment/ |archive-date=6 January 2015 |access-date=6 January 2015 |publisher=hardrawgathering.co.uk}}</ref> Another benefit of recycling e-waste is that many of the materials can be recycled and reused. Materials that can be recycled include "ferrous (iron-based) and non-ferrous metals, glass, and various types of plastic." "Non-ferrous metals, mainly aluminum and copper can all be re-smelted and re-manufactured. Ferrous metals such as steel and iron also can be re-used."<ref>{{Cite web |title=What can be recycled from e-waste? |url=http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/e-waste/what-can-be-recycled-from-e-waste |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305004541/http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/e-waste/what-can-be-recycled-from-e-waste |archive-date=5 March 2016 |access-date=29 February 2016 |publisher=zerowaste.sa.gov.au}}</ref> Due to the recent surge in popularity in 3D printing, certain 3D printers have been designed (FDM variety) to produce waste that can be easily recycled, which decreases the amount of harmful pollutants in the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Print 3D Parts Better |url=http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/blog/environmental-impacts-3d-printing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160227004728/http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/blog/environmental-impacts-3d-printing |archive-date=27 February 2016 |access-date=29 February 2016 |publisher=sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com}}</ref> The excess plastic from these printers that comes out as a byproduct can also be reused to create new 3D printed creations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zero or close to zero waste |url=http://www.plasticscribbler.com/item/8-real-world-benefits-of-3d-printing |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306065057/http://www.plasticscribbler.com/item/8-real-world-benefits-of-3d-printing |archive-date=6 March 2016 |access-date=29 February 2016 |publisher=plasticscribbler.com}}</ref>

The benefits of recycling are extended when responsible recycling methods are used. In the U.S., responsible recycling aims to minimize the risks to human health and the environment posed by disposed and dismantled electronics. Responsible recycling ensures best management practices for the electronics being recycled, worker health and safety, and consideration of the environment locally and abroad.<ref>Interagency Task Force on Electronics Stewardship. (20 July 2011). National Strategy for Electronics Stewardship</ref> In Europe, metals that are recycled are returned to companies of origin at a reduced cost.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE FUTURE OF ELECTRONIC WASTE RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES: Obstacles and Domestic Solution |url=http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Namias_Thesis_07-08-13.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003074643/http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Namias_Thesis_07-08-13.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2016 |access-date=29 February 2016 |publisher=sea.columbia.edu/}}</ref> Through a committed recycling system, manufacturers in Japan have been pushed to make their products more sustainable. Since many companies were responsible for recycling their own products, this imposed a new responsibility on manufacturers, requiring many to redesign their infrastructure. As a result, manufacturers in Japan have the added option to sell the recycled metals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Characteristics of E-waste Recycling System in Japan and China |url=http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/internet/documents/S2CN10%20Characteristics%20of%20E-waste%20Recycling%20Systems%20in%20Japan%20and%20China.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012184926/http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/internet/documents/S2CN10%20Characteristics%20of%20E-waste%20Recycling%20Systems%20in%20Japan%20and%20China.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2016 |access-date=29 February 2016 |publisher=workspace.unpan.org}}</ref>

Improper management of e-waste is resulting in a significant loss of scarce and valuable raw materials, such as gold, platinum, cobalt, and rare earth elements. As much as 7% of the world's gold may currently be contained in e-waste, with 100 times more gold in a tonne of e-waste than in a tonne of gold ore.<ref name="Tarter" />

== Financial incentives for electronic waste recycling == '''Financial incentives''' are policy tools used by governments and organizations to encourage the proper collection, recycling, and disposal of electronic waste (e-waste). These measures aim to reduce informal recycling, increase recovery of valuable materials, and support environmentally sound waste management practices. E-waste contains valuable metals such as gold, silver, and copper, often at concentrations higher than those found in natural ores.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Kang |last2=Tan |first2=Quanyin |last3=Yu |first3=Jiadong |last4=Wang |first4=Mengmeng |date=2023-03-01 |title=A global perspective on e-waste recycling |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2773167723000055 |journal=Circular Economy |volume=2 |issue=1 |article-number=100028 |doi=10.1016/j.cec.2023.100028 |issn=2773-1677|doi-access=free }}</ref> Global E-waste monitoring reports indicate that formal e-waste collection remains low, with only 22.3% collected and recycled globally in 2022.<ref name="Balde_2024">{{cite report |url=https://ewastemonitor.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/GEM_2024_18-03_web_page_per_page_web.pdf |title=The Global E-Waste Monitor 2024 |last=Baldé |first=Cornelis P. |last2=Kuehr |first2=Ruediger |last3=Yamamoto |first3=Tales |last4=McDonald |first4=Rosie |last5=D'Angelo |first5=Elena |last6=Althaf |first6=Shahana |last7=Bel |first7=Garam |last8=Deubzer |first8=Otmar |last9=Fernandez-Cubillo |first9=Elena |last10=Forti |first10=Vanessa |last11=Gray |first11=Vanessa |last12=Herat |first12=Sunil |last13=Honda |first13=Shunichi |last14=Iattoni |first14=Giulia |last15=Khetriwal |first15=Deepali S. |publisher=ITU and UNITAR |isbn=978-92-61-38781-5 |first16=Vittoria |last16=Luda di Cortemiglia |first17=Yuliya |last17=Lobuntsova |first18=Innocent |last18=Nnorom |first19=Noémie |last19=Pralat |first20=Michelle |last20=Wagne}}</ref>

=== Types of Financial Incentives === Deposit–refund systems (DRS) require consumers to pay a surcharge when purchasing an electronic device, which is refunded when the product is returned at the end of life. Mathematical models show that such systems can increase return rates compared to no incentive mechanisms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yi |last2=Liu |first2=Weihua |last3=Li |first3=Chunsheng |date=2024-07-12 |title=Recycling Models of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment under Market-Driven Deposit-Refund System: A Stackelberg Game Analysis |journal=Mathematics |language=en |volume=12 |issue=14 |page=2187 |doi=10.3390/math12142187 |issn=2227-7390 |doi-access=free}}</ref> However, effectiveness varies depending on the waste type; for instance, deposit systems for portable batteries have shown limited impact on collection rates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 4, 2022 |title=A deposit refund scheme is not an effective instrument for increasing the collection of portable batteries |url=https://www.epbaeurope.net/news/a-deposit-refund-scheme-is-not-an-effective-instrument-for-increasing-the-collection-of-portable-batteries |access-date=2025-12-11 |website=EPBA Europe |language=en}}</ref>

Some governments provide subsidies, grants, or tax incentives to certified recyclers to support formal e-waste recycling. Evidence from Taiwan suggests that combining financial incentives with public education campaigns improves recycling outcomes and reduces reliance on informal recycling sectors.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Tsai |first=Wen-Tien |date=2020-07-07 |title=Recycling Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and the Management of Its Toxic Substances in Taiwan—A Case Study |journal=Toxics |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=48 |bibcode=2020Toxic...8...48T |doi=10.3390/toxics8030048 |issn=2305-6304 |pmc=7560359 |pmid=32645852 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional analysis demonstrate that subsidies can enhance the operational efficiency of formal e-waste reverse-logistics systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Deyuan |last2=Cao |first2=Yushu |last3=Wang |first3=Yingjie |last4=Ding |first4=Guoyu |date=2020-01-01 |title=Operational effectiveness of funding for waste electrical and electronic equipment disposal in China: An analysis based on game theory |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344919304203 |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=152 |article-number=104514 |bibcode=2020RCR...15204514Z |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104514 |issn=0921-3449 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) places financial or organizational responsibility for end-of-life management on producers. According to international policy reviews, EPR is a key instrument for shifting waste-management costs from governments to manufacturers and encourages better product design and take-back systems.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2024/04/extended-producer-responsibility_4274765d/67587b0b-en.pdf |title=Extended Producer Responsibility: Basic facts and key principles |date=April 2024 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> In the European Union, EPR is implemented through the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, which mandates producer financing for collection, treatment, and recycling of electrical and electronic equipment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Consolidated text: Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (recast) (Text with EEA relevance) |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/19/2018-07-04/eng |access-date=2025-12-11 |website=EUR-Lex |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/waste-and-recycling/waste-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-weee_en |access-date=2025-12-11 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>

Investment in e-waste treatment infrastructure, such as certified dismantling plants and collection systems, that correlate with improved formal recycling rates.<ref name="Van Yken_2021"/> Regions with robust infrastructure show reduced reliance on informal recycling, thereby lowering environmental and health risks associated with unregulated processing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chi |first1=Xinwen |last2=Streicher-Porte |first2=Martin |last3=Wang |first3=Mark Y. L. |last4=Reuter |first4=Markus A. |date=2011-04-01 |title=Informal electronic waste recycling: A sector review with special focus on China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X10005696 |journal=Waste Management |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=731–742 |bibcode=2011WaMan..31..731C |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2010.11.006 |issn=0956-053X |pmid=21147524 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Examples of Global Implementation === In the European Union, the WEEE Directive enforces EPR and sets legal requirements for the collection, reuse, and recycling of e-waste. However, evaluations reveal significant variation in implementation across member states and ongoing challenges in meeting collection and recycling targets.<ref>{{cite web |title=EVALUATION of the Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) |url=https://content.euissuetracker.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2025/07/02-JULY-25_EC-Staff-working-document-evaluation-of-the-Directive-201219EU-on-waste-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-WEEE.pdf}}</ref>

In the United States, '''e-waste policy''' is largely state-driven. Some states operate producer-funded take-back systems or periodic collection events, and offer consumer incentives such as rebates or vouchers to encourage formal recycling.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2015-09-15 |title=Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: Facts and Figures Report |url=https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/advancing-sustainable-materials-management |access-date=2025-12-11 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Countries including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan employ comprehensive EPR systems or deposit–refund programs to reduce informal recycling and improve material recovery.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Tsai |first=Wen-Tien |date=2020-07-07 |title=Recycling Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and the Management of Its Toxic Substances in Taiwan—A Case Study |journal=Toxics |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=48 |bibcode=2020Toxic...8...48T |doi=10.3390/toxics8030048 |issn=2305-6304 |pmc=7560359 |pmid=32645852 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Kang |last2=Tan |first2=Quanyin |last3=Yu |first3=Jiadong |last4=Wang |first4=Mengmeng |date=2023-03-01 |title=A global perspective on e-waste recycling |journal=Circular Economy |volume=2 |issue=1 |article-number=100028 |doi=10.1016/j.cec.2023.100028 |issn=2773-1677 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Comparative studies suggest that formal, regulated take-back systems achieve higher capture rates than unregulated, informal disposal methods.<ref name=":3" />

=== Impact, Effectiveness, and Challenges === Financial incentives can significantly increase participation in formal e-waste collection and reduce environmental harms associated with informal recycling.<ref name="Van Yken_2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Van Yken |first1=Jonovan |last2=Boxall |first2=Naomi J. |last3=Cheng |first3=Ka Yu |last4=Nikoloski |first4=Aleksandar N. |last5=Moheimani |first5=Navid R. |last6=Kaksonen |first6=Anna H. |date=2021-08-19 |title=E-Waste Recycling and Resource Recovery: A Review on Technologies, Barriers and Enablers with a Focus on Oceania |journal=Metals |volume=11 |issue=8 |page=1313 |doi=10.3390/met11081313 |issn=2075-4701 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nevertheless, several challenges persist: enforcement and regulatory compliance vary widely, infrastructure may be inadequate or unevenly distributed, and many informal or illegal e-waste flows still escape formal systems.<ref>{{Cite news |title=World 'losing the battle' against electronic waste, UN finds |url=https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/world-losing-battle-against-electronic-waste-un-finds-2024-03-20/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240925135150/https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/world-losing-battle-against-electronic-waste-un-finds-2024-03-20/ |archive-date=2024-09-25 |access-date=2025-12-11 |work=Reuters |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Economic and Environmental Benefits === Proper e-waste recycling helps recover valuable materials (such as metals and rare earth elements), reduces pressure on virgin resource extraction, creates jobs, and supports circular-economy goals.<ref name=":2"/> By turning discarded electronics into a resource, recycling contributes to sustainable materials management and can reduce the environmental footprint of electronics consumption.<ref name="Balde_2024"/>

== Repair as waste reduction method == There are several ways to curb the environmental hazards arising from the recycling of electronic waste. One of the factors that exacerbates the e-waste problem is the diminishing lifetime of many electrical and electronic goods. There are two drivers (in particular) for this trend. On the one hand, consumer demand for low-cost products undermines product quality and leads to short product lifetimes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cassidy |first=Nigel |date=2 May 2014 |title=Getting in a spin: Why washing machines are no longer built to last |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-27253103}}</ref> On the other, manufacturers in some sectors encourage a regular upgrade cycle, and may even enforce it though restricted availability of spare parts, service manuals and software updates, or through planned obsolescence.

Consumer dissatisfaction with this state of affairs has led to a growing repair movement. Often, this is at a community level, such as through repair cafés or the "restart parties" promoted by the Restart Project.<ref name="RestartProject">{{Cite web |title=The Restart Project |url=https://therestartproject.org |website=therestartproject.org}}</ref>

The right to repair movement in the US is spearheaded by farmers dissatisfied with the lack of service information, specialized tools, and spare parts for their high-tech farm machinery. But the movement extends far beyond farm machinery, with, for example, Apple's restricted repair options coming in for criticism. Manufacturers often counter with safety concerns resulting from unauthorized repairs and modifications.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Solon |first=Olivia |date=6 March 2017 |title=The Guardian: A right to repair: why Nebraska farmers are taking on John Deere and Apple |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/mar/06/nebraska-farmers-right-to-repair-john-deere-apple}}</ref>

An easy way to reduce the electronic waste footprint is to sell or donate electronic devices rather than dispose of them. Improperly disposed e-waste is becoming increasingly hazardous, especially as its sheer volume increases. For this reason, large brands like Apple, Samsung, and others have started offering customers options to recycle old electronics. Recycling allows the expensive electronic parts inside to be reused. This may save significant energy and reduce the need to mine additional raw materials or manufacture new components. Electronic recycling programs may be found locally with a simple online search; for example, by searching "recycle electronics" along with the city or area name.

Cloud services have proven useful for storing data, which is then accessible from anywhere in the world without the need to carry storage devices. Cloud storage also allows for large storage at a low cost. This offers convenience, while reducing the need for manufacture of new storage devices, thus curbing the amount of e-waste generated.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2018 |title=How to Reduce Electronic Waste and its Problems: 10 Simple Tips |url=https://get-green-now.com/reduce-ewaste-hazards/}}</ref>

== Electronic waste classification == The market offers many types of electrical products. To categorize these products, it is necessary to group them into sensible and practical categories. Classification of products may even help determine the process to be used for their disposal. In general, making classifications helps describe e-waste. Classifications have not defined special details, for example, when they do not pose a threat to the environment. On the other hand, classifications should not be too aggregated because of differences in interpretation between countries.<ref name="Kuehr R.-2018">{{Cite web |author=Forti V. |author2=Baldé C.P. |author3=Kuehr R. |date=2018|title=E-waste Statistics: Guidelines on Classifications, Reporting and Indicators, second edition |url=https://globalewaste.org/publications/?page=1 |website=The Global E-waste Statistics Partnership}}</ref> The UNU-KEYs system closely follows the harmonized statistical (HS) coding. It is an international nomenclature, an integrated system that allows classification on a common basis for customs purposes.<ref name="Kuehr R.-2018" />

== Electronic waste substances == [[File:Button cells and 9v cells (3).png|thumb|Several sizes of button and coin cell with 2 9v batteries as a size comparison. They are all recycled in many countries since they often contain lead, mercury, and cadmium.]]

Some computer components can be reused in assembling new computer products, while others are reduced to metals that can be reused in applications as varied as construction, flatware, and jewelry. Substances found in large quantities include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminum. Elements found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium.<ref name="sl2007">{{Cite web |title=Chemical fact sheet: Thallium |url=http://www.speclab.com/elements/thallium.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221222321/http://www.speclab.com/elements/thallium.htm |archive-date=21 February 2008 |access-date=2 February 2008 |publisher=Spectrum Laboratories}}</ref> Elements found in trace amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium,<ref name="Klaus">{{Cite book |last=Hieronymi |first=Klaus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b4VMKs95U5YC&q=germanium+e+waste&pg=PA53 |title=E-Waste Management: From Waste to Resource |date=14 June 2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-29911-7 }}</ref> silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. The following are ordinary applications:

=== Hazardous === [[File:Recyclers with old computers São Paulo March 2012.jpg|thumb|Recyclers in the street in São Paulo, Brazil, with old computers]]

{| class="wikitable" |+Hazardous waste material from e-waste |- !E-waste Component!!Electric Appliances in which they are found!!Adverse Health Effects |- | Americium || The radioactive source in smoke alarms. || It is known to be carcinogenic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Americium, Radioactive |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/toxnet/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012185429/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+7383 |archive-date=12 October 2016 |website=TOXNET Toxicology Data Network}}</ref> |- | Lead || Solder, CRT monitor glass, lead–acid batteries, some formulations of PVC. A typical 15-inch cathode ray tube may contain 1.5 pounds of lead,<ref name="sb">{{Cite news |last=Morgan, Russell |date=21 August 2006 |title=Tips and Tricks for Recycling Old Computers |url=http://www.smartbiz.com/article/articleprint/1525/-1/58 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415152712/http://www.smartbiz.com/article/articleprint/1525/-1/58 |archive-date=15 April 2009 |access-date=17 March 2009 |publisher=SmartBiz}}</ref> but other CRTs have been estimated as having up to 8 pounds of lead. || Adverse effects of lead exposure include impaired cognitive function, behavioral disturbances, attention deficits, hyperactivity, conduct problems, and lower IQ.<ref name=chen /> These effects are most damaging to children whose developing nervous systems are very susceptible to damage caused by lead, cadmium, and mercury.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Aimin |last2=Dietrich |first2=Kim N. |last3=Huo |first3=Xia |last4=Ho |first4=Shuk-mei |date=1 April 2011 |title=Developmental neurotoxicants in e-waste: an emerging health concern |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=119 |issue=4 |pages=431–438 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1002452 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |issn=1552-9924 |pmc=3080922 |pmid=21081302|bibcode=2011EnvHP.119..431C }}</ref> |- | Mercury || Found in fluorescent tubes (numerous applications), tilt switches (mechanical doorbells, thermostats),<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2013 |title=Question 8 |url=http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/comp-dic/lca-sum/ques8.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326214824/http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/comp-dic/lca-sum/ques8.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref> and ccfl backlights in flat screen monitors. || Health effects include sensory impairment, dermatitis, memory loss, and muscle weakness. In utero exposure causes fetal deficits in motor, attention, and verbal domains.<ref name="chen">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=A. |last2=Dietrich |first2=K. N. |last3=Huo |first3=X. |last4=Ho |first4=S.-M. |year=2011 |title=Developmental Neurotoxicants in E-Waste: An Emerging Health Concern |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=119 |issue=4 |pages=431–438 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1002452 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |pmc=3080922 |pmid=21081302|bibcode=2011EnvHP.119..431C }}</ref> Environmental effects in animals include death, reduced fertility, and slower growth and development. |- | Cadmium || Found in light-sensitive resistors, corrosion-resistant alloys for marine and aviation environments, and nickel–cadmium batteries. The most common form of cadmium is found in nickel–cadmium rechargeable batteries. These batteries tend to contain between 6 and 18% cadmium. The sale of nickel–cadmium portable batteries has been banned in the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The end of cadmium batteries in portable applications |url=https://www.etaplighting.com/en/blog/end-of-cadmium-batteries-portable-applications |access-date=3 November 2025 |website=ETAP lighting |date=19 July 2025 }}</ref> When not properly recycled, it can leach into the soil, harming microorganisms and disrupting the soil ecosystem. Exposure is caused by proximity to hazardous waste sites and factories, as well as to workers in the metal refining industry. || The inhalation of cadmium can cause severe damage to the lungs and is also known to cause kidney damage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cadmium (Cd) – Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects |url=http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cd.htm#ixzz1MpuZHWfr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515101400/http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cd.htm#ixzz1MpuZHWfr |archive-date=15 May 2014 |access-date=2 June 2014 |publisher=Lenntech.com}}</ref> Cadmium is also associated with deficits in cognition, learning, behavior, and neuromotor skills in children.<ref name=chen /> |- | Hexavalent chromium || Used in metal coatings to protect from corrosion. || A known carcinogen after occupational inhalation exposure.<ref name=chen /> There is also evidence of cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of some chemicals, which have been shown to inhibit cell proliferation, induce cell membrane lesions, cause single-strand DNA breaks, and elevate Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels.<ref name="liulin2">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang Liulin |last2=Hou Meiling |last3=An Jing |last4=Zhong Yufang |last5=Wang Xuetong |last6=Wang Yangjun |last7=Wu Minghong |last8=Bi Xinhui |last9=Sheng Guoying |last10=Fu Jiamo |year=2011 |title=The cytotoxic and genetoxic effects of dust and soil samples from E-waste recycling area on L02 cells |journal=Toxicology and Industrial Health |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=831–839 |doi=10.1177/0748233711399313 |pmid=21421680 |bibcode=2011ToxIH..27..831W |s2cid=208360586}}</ref> |- | Sulfur || Found in lead–acid batteries. || Health effects include liver damage, kidney damage, heart damage, eye and throat irritation. When released into the environment, it can create sulfuric acid through sulfur dioxide. |- | Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) || Used as flame retardants in plastics in most electronics. Includes PBBs, PBDE, DecaBDE, OctaBDE, PentaBDE. || Health effects include impaired development of the nervous system, thyroid problems, and liver problems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birnbaum |first1=LS |last2=Staskal |first2=DF |date=2004 |title=Brominated flame retardants: Cause for concern? |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=9–17 |doi=10.1289/ehp.6559 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |pmc=1241790 |pmid=14698924|bibcode=2004EnvHP.112....9B }}</ref> Environmental effects: similar effects as in animals as humans. PBBs were banned from 1973 to 1977. PCBs were banned during the 1980s. |- | Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) || Used as an antistatic additive in industrial applications and found in electronics, also found in non-stick cookware (PTFE). PFOAs are formed synthetically through environmental degradation. || Studies in mice have found the following health effects: Hepatotoxicity, developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, hormonal effects, and carcinogenic effects. Studies have found increased maternal PFOA levels to be associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) and stillbirth. Increased maternal PFOA levels are also associated with decreases in mean gestational age (preterm birth), mean birth weight (low birth weight), mean birth length (small for gestational age), and mean APGAR score.<ref name="wu">{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=K. |last2=Xu |first2=X. |last3=Peng |first3=L. |last4=Liu |first4=J. |last5=Guo |first5=Y. |last6=Huo |first6=X. |year=2012 |title=Association between maternal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from electronic waste recycling and neonatal health outcomes |journal=Environment International |volume=41 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2012.06.018 |pmid=22820015|bibcode=2012EnInt..48....1W }}</ref> |- | Beryllium oxide || Filler in some thermal interface materials such as thermal grease used on heatsinks for CPUs and power transistors,<ref name="apmag">{{Cite journal |last1=Becker, Greg |last2=Lee, Chris |last3=Lin, Zuchen |date=July 2005 |title=Thermal conductivity in advanced chips: Emerging generation of thermal greases offers advantages |url=http://www.apmag.com/ |journal=Advanced Packaging |pages=2–4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000621233638/http://www.apmag.com/ |archive-date=21 June 2000 |access-date=4 March 2008}}</ref> magnetrons, X-ray-transparent ceramic windows, heat transfer fins in vacuum tubes, and gas lasers. || Occupational exposures associated with lung cancer, other common adverse health effects are beryllium sensitization, chronic beryllium disease, and acute beryllium disease.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Health Effects |url=https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/beryllium/healtheffects.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012190831/https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/beryllium/healtheffects.html |archive-date=12 October 2016 |access-date=30 October 2016 |publisher=United States Department of Labor}}</ref> |- |Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) |Commonly found in electronics and is typically used as insulation for electrical cables.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://p3-raw.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/what-s-in-electronic-devices/bfr-pvc-toxic/|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/9650/20200404033823/http://p3-raw.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/what-s-in-electronic-devices/bfr-pvc-toxic/|archive-date=2020-04-04|title=Why BFRs and PVC should be phased out of electronic devices|website=Greenpeace International}}</ref> |In the manufacturing phase, toxic and hazardous raw materials, including dioxins, are released. PVC, such as chlorine, tends to bioaccumulate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flame retardants & PVC in electronics |url=http://www.electronicstakeback.com/toxics-in-electronics/flame-retardants-pvc-and-electronics/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904033836/http://www.electronicstakeback.com/toxics-in-electronics/flame-retardants-pvc-and-electronics/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> Over time, the compounds that contain chlorine can become pollutants in the air, water, and soil. This poses a problem as humans and animals can ingest them. Additionally, exposure to toxins can result in reproductive and developmental health effects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) |url=https://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/chemicals.php?id=84 |access-date=30 May 2018 |archive-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710150733/https://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/chemicals.php?id=84 }}</ref> |}

=== Generally non-hazardous === [[File:Repurposed Imac.JPG|thumb|An iMac G4 that has been repurposed into a lamp (photographed next to a Macintosh Classic and a Motorola MicroTAC)]]

{| class="wikitable" |+Recycling non-hazardous waste<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OMS |date=10 November 2014 |title=Regulatory and Guidance Information by Topic: Waste – Guide for Industrial Waste Management |url=https://www.epa.gov/regulatory-information-topic/regulatory-and-guidance-information-topic-waste#solid |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref> |- ! E-waste component !! Process used |- | Aluminum || Nearly all electronic goods using more than a few watts of power (heatsinks), ICs, electrolytic capacitors |- | Copper || Copper wire, printed circuit board tracks, ICs, component leads |- | Germanium<ref name=Klaus /> || 1950s–1960s transistorized electronics (bipolar junction transistors) |- | Gold || Connector plating, primarily in computer equipment |- | Lithium || Lithium-ion batteries |- | Nickel || Nickel–cadmium batteries |- | Silicon || Glass, transistors, ICs, printed circuit boards |- | Tin || Solder, coatings on component leads |- | Zinc || Plating for steel parts |}

== Human health and safety ==

=== Residents living near recycling sites === Residents living around e-waste recycling sites, even if they are not involved in e-waste recycling activities, can also face environmental exposure due to contamination of food, water, and the environment from e-waste, as they can easily come into contact with e-waste-contaminated air, water, soil, dust, and food sources. In general, there are three main exposure pathways: inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact.<ref name="Grant-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=Kristen |last2=Goldizen |first2=Fiona C |last3=Sly |first3=Peter D |last4=Brune |first4=Marie-Noel |last5=Neira |first5=Maria |last6=van den Berg |first6=Martin |last7=Norman |first7=Rosana E |date=December 2013 |title=Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: a systematic review |journal=The Lancet Global Health |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=e350–e361 |doi=10.1016/s2214-109x(13)70101-3 |issn=2214-109X |pmid=25104600 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Studies show that people living near e-waste recycling sites have higher daily intake of heavy metals and a greater body burden of these metals. Studies also show that children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parvez |first=Sarker M. |last2=Jahan |first2=Farjana |last3=Brune |first3=Marie-Noel |last4=Gorman |first4=Julia F. |last5=Rahman |first5=Musarrat J. |last6=Carpenter |first6=David |last7=Islam |first7=Zahir |last8=Rahman |first8=Mahbubur |last9=Aich |first9=Nirupam |last10=Knibbs |first10=Luke D. |last11=Sly |first11=Peter D. |date=December 2021 |title=Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: an updated systematic review |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8674120/ |journal=The Lancet. Planetary Health |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e905–e920 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00263-1 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=8674120 |pmid=34895498}}</ref> Potential health risks include mental health damage, impaired cognitive function, and general physical health damage<ref name="Song-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Qingbin |last2=Li |first2=Jinhui |date=January 2015 |title=A review on human health consequences of metals exposure to e-waste in China |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=196 |pages=450–461 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.11.004 |issn=0269-7491 |pmid=25468213|bibcode=2015EPoll.196..450S }}</ref> (''see also Electronic waste#Hazardous''). DNA damage was also found to be more prevalent in all the e-waste-exposed populations (i.e., adults, children, and neonates) than in the populations in the unexposed control area.<ref name="Song-2015" /> DNA breaks can increase the likelihood of wrong replication and thus mutation, as well as lead to cancer if the damage is to a tumor suppressor gene.<ref name="liulin2" /> Studies show workers involved in e-waste recycling are particularly at risk, as they are directly exposed to hazardous substances through dismantling, burning, and acid-leaching processes, leading to measurable levels of toxic chemicals in their bodies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scheepers |first=Paul T J |date=2021-12-09 |title=HBM4EU Occupational Biomonitoring Study on e-Waste—Study Protocol |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8701897/ |journal=Pubmed Central |volume=18 |issue=24}}</ref>

==== Prenatal exposure and neonates' health ==== Prenatal exposure to e-waste has been found to increase the human body burden of pollutants in neonates. In Guiyu, one of the most famous e-waste recycling sites in China, higher cord blood lead concentrations in neonates were associated with parents' participation in e-waste recycling and with the length of time mothers spent living in Guiyu and working in e-waste recycling factories or workshops during pregnancy.<ref name="Grant-2013" /> Besides, a higher placental metallothionein (a small protein marking the exposure of toxic metals) was found among neonates from Guiyu as a result of Cd exposure, while the higher Cd level in Guiyu's neonates was related to the involvement in e-waste recycling of their parents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Yan |last2=Huo |first2=Xia |last3=Liu |first3=Junxiao |last4=Peng |first4=Lin |last5=Li |first5=Weiqiu |last6=Xu |first6=Xijin |date=17 August 2010 |title=Assessment of cadmium exposure for neonates in Guiyu, an electronic waste pollution site of China |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=177 |issue=1–4 |pages=343–351 |doi=10.1007/s10661-010-1638-6 |issn=0167-6369 |pmid=20714930 |s2cid=207130613}}</ref> High PFOA exposure of mothers in Guiyu is related to adverse effect on growth of their new-born and the prepotency in this area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Kusheng |last2=Xu |first2=Xijin |last3=Peng |first3=Lin |last4=Liu |first4=Junxiao |last5=Guo |first5=Yongyong |last6=Huo |first6=Xia |date=November 2012 |title=Association between maternal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from electronic waste recycling and neonatal health outcomes |journal=Environment International |volume=48 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2012.06.018 |issn=0160-4120 |pmid=22820015|bibcode=2012EnInt..48....1W }}</ref>

Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling can also lead to several adverse birth outcomes (stillbirth, low birth weight, low Apgar scores, etc.) and long-term effects such as behavioral and learning problems of the neonates in their future life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Xijin |last2=Yang |first2=Hui |last3=Chen |first3=Aimin |last4=Zhou |first4=Yulin |last5=Wu |first5=Kusheng |last6=Liu |first6=Junxiao |last7=Zhang |first7=Yuling |last8=Huo |first8=Xia |date=January 2012 |title=Birth outcomes related to informal e-waste recycling in Guiyu, China |journal=Reproductive Toxicology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=94–98 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2011.12.006 |issn=0890-6238 |pmid=22198181|bibcode=2012RepTx..33...94X }}</ref>

==== Children ==== Children are especially sensitive to e-waste exposure because of several reasons, such as their smaller size, higher metabolism rate, larger surface area in relation to their weight, and multiple exposure pathways (for example, dermal, hand-to-mouth, and take-home exposure).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bakhiyi |first1=Bouchra |last2=Gravel |first2=Sabrina |last3=Ceballos |first3=Diana |last4=Flynn |first4=Michael A. |last5=Zayed |first5=Joseph |date=January 2018 |title=Has the question of e-waste opened a Pandora's box? An overview of unpredictable issues and challenges |journal=Environment International |volume=110 |pages=173–192 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2017.10.021 |issn=0160-4120 |pmid=29122313|bibcode=2018EnInt.110..173B }}</ref><ref name="Song-2015" /> They were measured to have an 8-time potential health risk compared to the adult e-waste recycling workers.<ref name="Song-2015" /> Studies have found significantly higher blood lead levels (BLL) and blood cadmium levels (BCL) of children living in e-waste recycling areas compared to those living in control areas.<ref name="Huo-2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Huo |first1=X |last2=Peng |first2=L |last3=Xu |first3=X |last4=Zheng |first4=L |last5=Qiu |first5=B |last6=Qi |first6=Z |last7=Zhang |first7=B |last8=Han |first8=D |last9=Piao |first9=Z |date=July 2007 |title=Elevated blood lead levels of children in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=115 |issue=7 |pages=1113–7 |doi=10.1289/ehp.9697 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |pmc=1913570 |pmid=17637931|bibcode=2007EnvHP.115.1113H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Liangkai |last2=Wu |first2=Kusheng |last3=Li |first3=Yan |last4=Qi |first4=Zongli |last5=Han |first5=Dai |last6=Zhang |first6=Bao |last7=Gu |first7=Chengwu |last8=Chen |first8=Gangjian |last9=Liu |first9=Junxiao |date=September 2008 |title=Blood lead and cadmium levels and relevant factors among children from an e-waste recycling town in China |journal=Environmental Research |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=15–20 |bibcode=2008ER....108...15Z |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2008.04.002 |issn=0013-9351 |pmid=18514186}}</ref> For example, one study found that the average BLL in Guiyu was nearly 1.5 times compared to that in the control site (15.3&nbsp;μg/dL compared to 9.9&nbsp;μg/dL),<ref name="Huo-2007" /> while the CDC of the United States has set a reference level for blood lead at 5&nbsp;μg/dL.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2019 |title=Lead |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911143911/https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/ |archive-date=11 September 2017 |website=Centers of Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> The highest concentrations of lead were found in the children of parents whose workshop dealt with circuit boards, and the lowest was among those who recycled plastic.<ref name="Huo-2007" />

Exposure to e-waste can cause serious health problems to children. Children's exposure to developmental neurotoxins containing in e-waste such as lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, nickel <ref name="Lebbie-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Lebbie |first1=Tamba S. |last2=Moyebi |first2=Omosehin D. |last3=Asante |first3=Kwadwo Ansong |last4=Fobil |first4=Julius |last5=Brune-Drisse |first5=Marie Noel |last6=Suk |first6=William A. |last7=Sly |first7=Peter D. |last8=Gorman |first8=Julia |last9=Carpenter |first9=David O. |date=11 August 2021 |title=E-Waste in Africa: A Serious Threat to the Health of Children |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=16 |page=8488 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18168488 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=8392572 |pmid=34444234 |bibcode=2021IJERP..18.8488L |doi-access=free}}</ref> and PBDEs can lead to a higher risk of lower IQ, impaired cognitive function, exposure to known human carcinogens<ref name="Lebbie-2021" /> and other adverse effects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Aimin |last2=Dietrich |first2=Kim N. |last3=Huo |first3=Xia |last4=Ho |first4=Shuk-mei |date=April 2011 |title=Developmental Neurotoxicants in E-Waste: An Emerging Health Concern |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=119 |issue=4 |pages=431–438 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1002452 |doi-broken-date=14 January 2026 |issn=0091-6765 |pmc=3080922 |pmid=21081302|bibcode=2011EnvHP.119..431C }}</ref> In certain age groups, a decreased lung function of children in e-waste recycling sites has been found.<ref name="Grant-2013" /> Some studies also found associations between children's e-waste exposure and impaired coagulation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Zhijun |last2=Huo |first2=Xia |last3=Zhang |first3=Yu |last4=Xiao |first4=Zhehong |last5=Zhang |first5=Yuling |last6=Xu |first6=Xijin |date=12 May 2018 |title=Lead exposure is associated with risk of impaired coagulation in preschool children from an e-waste recycling area |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=25 |issue=21 |pages=20670–20679 |doi=10.1007/s11356-018-2206-9 |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=29752673 |bibcode=2018ESPR...2520670Z |s2cid=21665670}}</ref> hearing loss,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yu |last2=Huo |first2=Xia |last3=Xu |first3=Long |last4=Wei |first4=Xiaoqin |last5=Wu |first5=Wengli |last6=Wu |first6=Xianguang |last7=Xu |first7=Xijin |date=May 2018 |title=Hearing loss in children with e-waste lead and cadmium exposure |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=624 |pages=621–627 |bibcode=2018ScTEn.624..621L |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.091 |issn=0048-9697 |pmid=29272831}}</ref> and decreased vaccine antibody tilters<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Xinjiang |last2=Xu |first2=Xijin |last3=Zeng |first3=Xiang |last4=Xu |first4=Long |last5=Zeng |first5=Zhijun |last6=Huo |first6=Xia |date=January 2017 |title=Decreased vaccine antibody titers following exposure to multiple metals and metalloids in e-waste-exposed preschool children |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=220 |issue=Pt A |pages=354–363 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.071 |issn=0269-7491 |pmid=27692881|bibcode=2017EPoll.220..354L }}</ref> in e-waste recycling area. For instance, nickel exposure in boys aged 8–9 years at an e-waste site leads to lower forced vital capacity, decreased catalase activity, and significant increases in superoxide dismutase activity and malondialdehyde levels.<ref name="Lebbie-2021" />

=== E-waste recycling workers === [[File:E-waste workers.jpg|thumb|Agbogbloshie e-waste workers completing a burn for copper recovery, 2010]]The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has summarized several potential safety hazards of recycling workers in general, such as crushing hazards, hazardous energy released, and toxic metals.<ref name="osha.gov">{{Cite web |title=Recycling {{!}} Consumer Electronics |url=https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/recycling/recycling_consumer_electronics.html |access-date=24 November 2018 |website=www.osha.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Hazards applicable to recycling in general<ref name="osha.gov" /><ref name="cdph.ca.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CCDPHP/DEODC/OHB/HESIS/CDPH%20Document%20Library/eWaste.pdf|title=Electronic Waste Recycling: Working Safely}}</ref> !Hazards !Details |- |Slips, trips, and falls |They can happen during the collection and transportation of e-waste. |- |Crushing hazards |Workers can be stuck or crushed by the machine or the e-waste. Traffic accidents can occur during e-waste transport. Using machines with moving parts, such as conveyors, and rolling machines can also cause crush accidents, leading to amputations, including crushed fingers or hands. |- |Hazardous energy released |Unexpected machine startup can cause death or injury to workers. This can happen during the installation, maintenance, or repair of machines, equipment, processes, or systems. |- |Cuts and lacerations |Hands or body injuries and eye injuries can occur when dismantling e-waste that has sharp edges. |- |Noise |Working overtime near loud noises from drilling, hammering, and other tools that can make a great noise can lead to hearing loss. |- |Toxic chemicals (dusts) |Burning e-waste to extract metals emits toxic chemicals (e.g., PAHs, lead) from e-waste to the air, which can be inhaled or ingested by workers at recycling sites. This can lead to illness from toxic chemicals. |}

OSHA has also specified some chemical components of electronics that can potentially harm e-recycling workers' health, such as lead, mercury, PCBs, asbestos, refractory ceramic fibers (RCFs), and radioactive substances.<ref name="osha.gov" /> Besides, in the United States, most of these chemical hazards have specific Occupational exposure limits (OELs) set by OSHA, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). {| class="wikitable" |+Occupational exposure limits (OELs) of some hazardous chemicals !Hazardous chemicals !OELs (mg/m^3) !Type of OELs |- |Lead (Pb) |0.05<ref>{{Cite web |title=OSHA Occupational Chemical Database {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration, number 500 |url=https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=500 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628195443/https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=500 |archive-date=28 June 2019 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> |NIOSH recommended exposure limits (REL), time weighted average (TWA) |- |Mercury (Hg) |0.05<ref>{{Cite web |title=OSHA Occupational Chemical Database {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration, number 504 |url=https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=504 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215224525/https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=504 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> |NIOSH REL, TWA |- |Cadmium (Cd) |0.005<ref>{{Cite web |title=OSHA Occupational Chemical Database {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration, number 532 |url=https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=532 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215222755/https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=532 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> |OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL), TWA |- |Hexavalent chromium |0.005<ref>{{Cite web |title=OSHA Occupational Chemical Database {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration, number 537 |url=https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=537 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215224301/https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=537 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> |OSHA PEL, TWA |- |Sulfur dioxide |5<ref>{{Cite web |title=OSHA Occupational Chemical Database {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration, number 549 |url=https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=549 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216052701/https://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/chemResult.html?recNo=549 |archive-date=16 December 2018 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> |NIOSH REL, TWA |}

For the details of health consequences of these chemical hazards, see also Electronic waste#Electronic waste substances.

==== Informal and formal industries ==== The informal e-recycling industry refers to small e-waste recycling workshops with few (if any) automated procedures and personal protective equipment (PPE). On the other hand, the formal e-recycling industry comprises regular e-recycling facilities that sort e-waste materials using automated machinery and manual labor, with pollution control and PPE common.<ref name="Grant-2013" /><ref name="Ceballos-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Ceballos |first1=Diana Maria |last2=Dong |first2=Zhao |date=October 2016 |title=The formal electronic recycling industry: Challenges and opportunities in occupational and environmental health research |journal=Environment International |volume=95 |pages=157–166 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2016.07.010 |issn=0160-4120 |pmid=27568575 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016EnInt..95..157C }}</ref> Sometimes formal e-recycling facilities dismantle the e-waste to sort materials, then distribute it to other downstream recycling departments to further recover materials such as plastic and metals.<ref name="Ceballos-2016" />

The health impacts of e-waste recycling workers in the informal and formal sectors are expected to differ in extent.<ref name="Ceballos-2016" /> Studies in three recycling sites in China suggest that the health risks of workers from formal e-recycling facilities in Jiangsu and Shanghai were lower compared to those who worked in informal e-recycling sites in Guiyu.<ref name="Song-2015" /> The primitive methods used by unregulated backyard operators (e.g., the informal sector) to reclaim, reprocess, and recycle e-waste materials expose the workers to many toxic substances. Processes such as dismantling components, wet chemical processing, and incineration are used and result in direct exposure and inhalation of harmful chemicals. Burning is common in informal recycling practices to recover metals from electronic waste.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ádám |first=Balázs |last2=Göen |first2=Thomas |last3=Scheepers |first3=Paul T.J. |last4=Adliene |first4=Diana |last5=Batinic |first5=Bojan |last6=Budnik |first6=Lygia T. |last7=Duca |first7=Radu-Corneliu |last8=Ghosh |first8=Manosij |last9=Giurgiu |first9=Doina I. |last10=Godderis |first10=Lode |last11=Goksel |first11=Ozlem |last12=Hansen |first12=Karoline K. |last13=Kassomenos |first13=Pavlos |last14=Milic |first14=Natasa |last15=Orru |first15=Hans |date=2021 |title=From inequitable to sustainable e-waste processing for reduction of impact on human health and the environment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0013935121000220 |journal=Environmental Research |language=en |volume=194 |article-number=110728 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2021.110728}}</ref> Such informal recycling can occur at landfill sites, where waste is distributed, or in separate areas overseen by families. Children often perform recycling duties in these families, in which case e-waste pollution has greater impacts on their developing health.<ref name=":1" /> Safety equipment such as gloves, face masks, and ventilation fans is virtually unknown, and workers often have little idea of what they are handling.<ref name="Electronic waste {{!}} Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Electronic waste {{!}} Britannica |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=6 March 2024 |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste}}</ref>

In another study of e-waste recycling in India, hair samples were collected from workers at an e-waste recycling facility and an e-waste recycling slum community (informal industry) in Bangalore.<ref name="Ngoc Ha-2009"/> Levels of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Ti, and Pb were significantly higher in the workers at the e-waste recycling facility compared to the e-waste workers in the slum community. However, Co, Ag, Cd, and Hg levels were significantly higher among slum community workers than among facility workers.

Even in the formal e-recycling industry, workers can be exposed to excessive pollutants. Studies of formal e-recycling facilities in France and Sweden found workers' overexposure (compared to recommended occupational guidelines) to lead, cadmium, mercury, and other metals, as well as BFRs, PCBs, dioxins, and furans. Workers in the formal industry are also exposed to higher levels of brominated flame retardants than the reference groups.<ref name="Ceballos-2016" />

Much e-waste informal recycling occurs in low-income or developing countries and communities. For instance, a 2025 e-waste report from Transparency International Bangladesh (TIP) included a 2017 study by the Department of Environment, which found that 97 percent of e-waste was collected informally in the country <ref>https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/en/articles/research/7393</ref>. Informal collection and recycling in these regions are often undocumented and unregulated. This can greatly affect the health and safety of workers exposed to informal recycling and collection, since legislation may not record or address their working conditions.

==== Hazard controls ==== For the occupational health and safety of e-waste recycling workers, both employers and workers should take action. Suggestions for e-waste facility employers and workers, provided by the California Department of Public Health, are illustrated in the graphic. {| class="wikitable" |+Safety suggestion for e-waste recycling facilities employers and workers<ref name="cdph.ca.gov" /> !Hazards !What must employers do !What should workers do |- |General |Actions include:

# Determine the hazards in the workplace and take actions to control them; # Check and make corrections to the workplace condition regularly; # Supply safe tools and PPE to workers; # Provide workers with training about hazards and safe work practices; # A written document about injury and illness prevention. |Suggestions include:

# Wear PPE when working; # Talk with employers about ways to improve working conditions; # Report anything unsafe in the workplace to employers; # Share experience of how to work safely with new workers. |- |Dust |Actions include:

# Offer a clean eating area, cleaning area, supplies, uniforms and shoes, and lockers for clean clothes to the workers; # Provide tools to dismantle the e-waste.

If the dust contains lead or cadmium:

# Measure the dust, lead, and cadmium levels in the air; # Provide cleaning facilities such as wet mops and vacuums; # Provide exhaust ventilation. If it is still not sufficient to reduce the dust, provide workers with respirators; # Provide workers with blood lead testing when lead level is not less than 30&nbsp;mg/m3. |Protective measures include:

# Clean the workplace regularly, and do not eat or smoke when dealing with e-waste; # Do not use brooms to clean the workplace since brooms can raise dust; # Before going home, shower, change into clean clothes, and separate the dirty work clothes and clean clothes; # Test the blood lead, even if the employers do not provide it; # Use a respirator, check for leaks every time before use, always keep it on your face in the respirator use area, and clean it properly after use. |- |Cuts and lacerations |Protective equipment, such as gloves, masks, and eye protection equipment, should be provided to workers |When handling glass or shredding materials, protect your hands and arms with special gloves and oversleeves. |- |Noise |Actions include:

# Measure the noise in the workplace, and use engineering controls when levels exceed the exposure limit; # Reduce the vibration of the working desk by rubber matting; # Provide workers with earmuffs when necessary. |Wear the hearing protection all the time when working. Ask the employer about the noise monitoring results. Test the hearing ability. |- |Lifting injuries |Provide facilities to lift or move the e-waste and adjustable work tables. |When handling e-waste, try to decrease the load per time. Try to get help from other workers when lifting heavy or big things. |}

== E-waste legislative frameworks == {{Worldwide-view|date=June 2023|2=European Union}} The European Union (EU) has addressed the issue of electronic Waste by introducing two pieces of legislation. The first, the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) came into force in 2003.<ref>https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:ac89e64f-a4a5-4c13-8d96-1fd1d6bcaa49.0004.02/DOC_1&format=PDF</ref> The main aim of this directive was to regulate and motivate electronic waste recycling and re-use in member states at that moment. It was revised in 2008, and the updated version came into force in 2014.<ref>https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32012L0019&from=EN</ref> Furthermore, the EU has also implemented the Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment from 2003.<ref>https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32002L0095&from=EN</ref> This document was additionally revised in 2012.<ref>https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32011L0065&from=EN</ref> When it comes to Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia adopted a Law on Batteries and Accumulators in 2010, followed by the Law on Management of electrical and electronic equipment in 2012. Serbia has regulated management of special waste stream, including electronic waste, by the National Waste Management Strategy (2010–2019).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Правно-информациони систем РС |url=https://pravno-informacioni-sistem.rs/SlGlasnikPortal/reg/viewAct/011043b3-7cee-4488-ba2c-e95f95271713 |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=pravno-informacioni-sistem.rs}}</ref> Montenegro has adopted Concessionary Act concerning electronic waste with ambition to collect 4&nbsp;kg of this waste annually per person until 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=propis.me ZAKONI CG |url=http://www.podaci.net/_gCGO/zakoni/Zakon_o_upravljanju_otpadom/usv9lp.html |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=www.podaci.net}}</ref> The Albanian legal framework is based on the draft act on waste from electrical and electronic equipment from 2011, which focuses on the design of electrical and electronic equipment. By contrast, Bosnia and Herzegovina still lacks a law regulating electronic waste. In Asia, countries such as Thailand and China have been fighting against e-waste imports. Thailand instituted a complete ban on e-waste imports in 2020, while China also did so in 2018. While these measures have had some success, loopholes have been exploited to circumvent these policies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-26 |title=Why your old mobile phone may be polluting Thailand |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cy9x4gpjdj2o |access-date=2025-12-14 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

As of 2024, 81 countries globally have established either a policy, legislation, or specific regulation to govern e-waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global E-waste Monitor 2024 |url=https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Environment/Pages/Publications/The-Global-E-waste-Monitor-2024.aspx |access-date=2025-11-01 |website=ITU |language=en-GB}}</ref> However, there is no clear indication that countries are following the regulations. Regions such as Asia and Africa have policies that are not legally binding and rather have only programmatic ones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=E-Waste Legislative Framework Map |url=https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/e-waste-legislative-framework-map/ |access-date=25 December 2020 |website=Mobile for Development }}</ref> Hence, this poses a challenge that e-waste management policies are yet not fully developed by some countries. For example, EU research has shown that legislation against e-waste has led to increased e-waste exports.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neves |first1=Sónia Almeida |last2=Marques |first2=António Cardoso |last3=de Sá Lopes |first3=Leonardo Batista |date=February 2024 |title=Is environmental regulation keeping e-waste under control? Evidence from e-waste exports in the European Union |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=216 |article-number=108031 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2023.108031|bibcode=2024EcoEc.21608031N |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Solving the e-waste Problem (StEP) initiative === {{Main|Solving the E-waste Problem}}

Solving the E-waste Problem is a membership organization part of the United Nations University that was created to develop solutions to address issues associated with electronic waste. Some of the most eminent players in the fields of Production, Reuse and Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE), government agencies and NGOs, as well as UN Organisations count themselves among its members. StEP encourages collaboration among all stakeholders involved in e-waste, emphasizing a holistic, scientific yet practical approach to the problem.:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ruediger |first=Kuehr |date=21 February 2018 |title=Developing Legislative Principles for e-waste policy in developing and emerging countries. |url=https://www.step-initiative.org/step-papers-copy.html |journal=Solving the E-Waste Problem |page=24}}</ref>

=== Waste electrical and electronic equipment === The European Commission (EC) of the EU has classified waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as waste generated by electrical devices and household appliances, such as refrigerators, televisions, and mobile phones, as well as other devices. In 2005, the EU reported a total of 9 million tonnes of waste, and in 2020, it estimated 12 million tonnes. This electronic waste, which contains hazardous materials, may severely affect our environment and cause fatal health issues if not managed properly. Disposing of these materials requires significant human resources and well-managed facilities. Not only the disposal but also the manufacturing of these materials requires large facilities and natural resources (aluminum, gold, copper, silicon, etc.), ultimately damaging our environment and causing pollution.

Considering the impact of WEEE materials on our environment, EU legislation has adopted two directives: the WEEE Directive and the RoHS Directive, which set rules for the use and restrictions of hazardous materials in the production of Electrical and Electronic Equipment.

====WEEE Directive==== The WEEE Directive was implemented in February 2003, focusing on recycling electronic waste. This Directive offered many electronic waste collection schemes free of charge to the consumers (Directive 2002/96/EC<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32002L0096|title=Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) - Joint declaration of the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission relating to Article 9|date=27 January 2003}}</ref>).

The EC revised this Directive in December 2008, since this has become the fastest-growing waste stream. In August 2012, the WEEE Directive was rolled out to handle the situation of controlling electronic waste and this was implemented on 14 February 2014 (Directive 2012/19/EU<ref>{{cite web | url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32012L0019 | title=Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (Recast) Text with EEA relevance | date=4 July 2012 }}</ref>). On 18 April 2017, the EC adopted a common principle for conducting research and a new regulation to monitor the amount of WEEE. It requires each member state to monitor and report its national market data.

Annex III to the WEEE Directive (Directive 2012/19/EU): Re-examination of the timelines for waste collection and setting up individual targets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1492586066210&uri=COM:2017:171:FIN|title=REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL on the review of the scope of Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment (the new WEEE Directive) and on the re-examination of the deadlines for reaching the collection targets referred to in Article 7(1) of the new WEEE Directive and on the possibility of setting individual collection targets for one or more categories of electrical and electronic equipment in Annex III to the Directive|date=20 February 2017}}</ref>

====WEEE Legislation====

On 4 July 2012, the EC passed legislation on WEEE (Directive 2012/19/EU [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32012L0019]). To know more about the progress in adopting the Directive 2012/19/EU (Progress [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/history_en.htm]).

On 15 February 2014, the EC revised the Directive. To know more about the old Directive 2002/96/EC, see (Report [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/old_en.htm]).

====RoHS Directive==== In 2003, the EC not only implemented legislation on waste collection but also the RoHS Directive on the alternative use of hazardous materials (Cadmium, mercury, flammable materials, polybrominated biphenyls, lead and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) used in the production of electronic and electric equipment (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32002L0095|title=Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment|date=27 January 2003}}</ref>).

This Directive was again revised in December 2008 and later again in January 2013 (RoHS recast Directive 2011/65/EU<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32011L0065|title=Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast) Text with EEA relevance|date=8 June 2011}}</ref>). In 2017, the EC has made adjustment to the existing Directive considering the impact assessmen<ref>{{cite web | url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1485526113751&uri=CELEX:52017SC0023 | title=COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT Accompanying the document Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Directive 2011/65/EU on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment | date=2017 }}</ref> and adopted to a new legislative proposal<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1485526057244&uri=CELEX:52017PC0038|title=Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Directive 2011/65/EU on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment|date=20 February 2017}}</ref> (RoHS 2 scope review<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/waste-and-recycling/rohs-directive_en|title=RoHS Directive - European Commission|website=environment.ec.europa.eu}}</ref>). On 21 November 2017, the European Parliament and Council published this legislation amending the RoHS 2 Directive in their official journal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1511965370860&uri=CELEX:32017L2102|title=Directive (EU) 2017/2102 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2017 amending Directive 2011/65/EU on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (Text with EEA relevance. )|date=15 November 2017}}</ref>

=== European Commission legislation on batteries and accumulators (Batteries Directive) === Each year, the EU reports that nearly 800,000 tons of automotive batteries, around 190,000 tons of industrial batteries, and around 160,000 tons of consumer batteries enter the European region. These batteries are among the most commonly used in household appliances and other battery-powered products in our day-to-day lives. The important issue to address is how this battery waste is properly collected and recycled, as improper handling can release hazardous materials into the environment and water resources. Generally, many components of these batteries and accumulators/capacitors can be recycled without releasing hazardous materials into the environment and contaminating natural resources. The EC has rolled out a new Directive to control the waste from batteries and accumulators known as the 'Batteries Directive'[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02006L0066-20131230&rid=1], aiming to improve the collection and recycling process of battery waste and control the impact of battery waste on our environment. This Directive also supervises and administers the internal market by implementing required measures. This Directive restricts the production and marketing of batteries and accumulators that contain hazardous materials, are harmful to the environment, and are difficult to collect and recycle. Batteries Directive [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02006L0066-20131230&rid=1] targets the collection, recycling, and other recycling activities of batteries and accumulators, also approving labels for the batteries which are environmentally neutral. On 10 December 2020, the EC proposed a new regulation (Batteries Regulation [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/batteries/pdf/Proposal_for_a_Regulation_on_batteries_and_waste_batteries.pdf]) on battery waste, which aims to make sure that batteries entering the European market are recyclable, sustainable, and non-hazardous (Press release [https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2312]).

Legislation: In 2006, the EC adopted the Batteries Directive, which it revised in 2013. - On 6 September 2006, the European Parliament and European Council launched Directives on waste from Batteries and accumulators (Directive 2006/66/EC [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02006L0066-20131230&rid=1]). - Overview of Batteries and accumulators Legislation [https://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/waste_management/l21202_en.htm]

Evaluation of Directive 2006/66/EC (Batteries Directive): Revising Directives could be based on the Evaluation [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/batteries/pdf/evaluation_report_batteries_directive.pdf] process, given the increasing use of batteries in multiple communication technologies, household appliances, and other small battery-powered products. The increase in demand for renewable energy and product recycling has also led to the launch of the 'European Batteries Alliance (EBA)', which aims to oversee the entire value chain for the production of improved batteries and accumulators within Europe under this new policy act. Though the adoption of the Evaluation [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/batteries/pdf/evaluation_report_batteries_directive.pdf] process has been broadly accepted, a few concerns have arisen, particularly regarding the management and monitoring of hazardous materials in battery production, the collection of battery waste, and the recycling of battery waste under the Directives. The evaluation process has definitely yielded good results in areas such as controlling environmental damage, increasing awareness of recycling and reusable batteries, and improving the efficiency of internal markets.

However, there are a few limitations in implementing the Batteries Directive in the collection of battery waste and the recovery of usable materials from it. The evaluation process sheds light on gaps in implementation and in collaborative technical aspects, as well as on new ways of use that complicate implementation, and this Directive maintains balance with technological advancements. The EC's regulations and guidelines have made the evaluation process more effective. The participation of several stakeholders in the evaluation process, who are invited to provide their views and ideas to improve the evaluation and information-gathering processes. On 14 March 2018, stakeholders and members of the association participated to share their findings and support, and to advance the Evaluation Roadmap [https://ec.europa.eu/smart-regulation/roadmaps/docs/2017_env_016_batteries_evaluation.pdf].

=== European Union directives on e-waste === The European Union (EU) has addressed the e-waste issue by adopting several directives. In 2011, an amendment was made to Directive 2002/95/EC regarding the restriction of the use of hazardous materials in the planning and manufacturing processes for EEE. Directive 2011/65/EU states that the motivation for more specific restrictions on the use of hazardous materials in the planning and manufacturing processes of electronic and electrical devices was the disparity among EU Member States' laws. The need arose to set forth rules to protect human health and for the environmentally sound recovery and disposal of WEEE. (2011/65/EU, (2)) The Directive lists several substances subject to restriction. The Directive states restricted substances for maximum concentration values tolerated by weight in homogeneous materials are the following: lead (0.1%); mercury (0.1%), cadmium (0.1%), hexavalent chromium (0.1%), polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) (0.1%), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) (0.1 %). If technologically feasible and a substitution is available, its use is required.

There are, however, exemptions in cases in which substitution is not possible from the scientific and technical point of view. The allowance and duration of the substitutions should take into account the availability of the substitute and the socioeconomic impact of the substitute. (2011/65/EU, (18))

EU Directive 2012/19/EU regulates WEEE and sets out measures to safeguard the environment and human health by mitigating the impacts of WEEE generation and management. (2012/19/EU, (1)) The Directive takes a specific approach to the product design of EEE. It states in Article 4 that Member States are required to expedite the development of models and manufacturing processes, as well as cooperation between producers and recyclers, to facilitate the re-use, dismantling, and recovery of WEEE, its components, and materials. (2012/19/EU, (4)) The Member States should implement measures to ensure that producers of EEE use eco-design, meaning that manufacturing processes are selected that do not restrict the later reuse of WEEE. The Directive also imposes an obligation on Member States to ensure the separate collection and transport of different types of WEEE. Article 8 lays out the requirements of the proper treatment of WEEE. The minimum proper treatment required for every WEEE is the removal of all liquids. The recovery targets set are seen in the following figures.

Under Annex I of Directive 2012/19/EU, the categories of EEE covered are as follows:

# Large household appliances # Small household appliances # IT and telecommunications equipment # Consumer equipment and photovoltaic panels # Lighting equipment # Electrical and electronic tools (except large-scale stationary industrial tools) # Toys, leisure, and sports equipment # Medical devices (except all implanted and infected products) # Monitoring and control instruments # Autonomic dispensers

Minimum recovery targets referred to in Directive 2012/19/EU starting from 15 August 2018:

WEEE falling within category 1 or 10 of Annex I

- 85% shall be recovered, and 80% shall be prepared for re-use and recycled;

WEEE falling within category 3 or 4 of Annex I

- 80% shall be recovered, and 70% shall be prepared for re-use and recycled;

WEEE falling within categories 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 of Annex I

-75% shall be recovered, and 55% shall be prepared for re-use and recycled;

For gas and discharged lamps, 80% shall be recycled.

In 2021, the European Commission proposed implementing a standardization for iterations of USB-C in phone charger products, following the commissioning of two impact assessment studies and a technology analysis study. Regulations like this may reduce electronic waste by small but significant amounts and, in this case, increase device interoperability, convergence, and consumer convenience while decreasing resource needs and redundancy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 September 2021 |title=Apple opposes EU plans to make common charger port for all devices |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/23/apple-opposes-eu-plans-to-make-common-charger-port-for-all-devices |access-date=19 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Peltier |first=Elian |date=23 September 2021 |title=In a setback for Apple, the European Union seeks a common charger for all phones. |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/23/business/european-union-apple-charging-port.html |access-date=19 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2016 |title=One common charging solution for all |url=https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/electrical-engineering/red-directive/common-charger_en |access-date=19 October 2021 |website=Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs – European Commission |language=en}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2021}} The regulations were passed in June 2022, mandating that all phones sold in the EU to have USB-C charging ports by late 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Porter |first1=Jon |last2=Vincent |first2=James |date=7 June 2022 |title=USB-C will be mandatory for phones sold in the EU 'by autumn 2024' |url=https://www.theverge.com/2022/6/7/23156361/european-union-usb-c-wired-charging-iphone-lightning-ewaste |website=The Verge |access-date=7 June 2022}}</ref>

=== International agreements === A report by the United Nations Environment Management Group<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title="Supporting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by enhancing UN system-wide collaboration and coherent responses on environmental matters", United Nations System-wide Response to Tackling E-waste |url=https://unemg.org/images/emgdocs/ewaste/E-Waste-EMG-FINAL.pdf |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=unemg.org}}</ref> lists key processes and agreements made by various organizations globally in an effort to manage and control e-waste. Details about the policies can be found at the links below.

* International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) (73/78/97)<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) |url=http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622034749/http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx |archive-date=22 June 2015 |access-date=17 January 2022 |website=www.imo.org}}</ref> * Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Convention |first=Basel |date=22 March 1989 |title=Basel Convention > The Convention > Overview |url=http://www.basel.int/TheConvention/Overview/tabid/1271/Default.aspx |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=Basel Convention Home Page}}</ref> * Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances (1989)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer |url=https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=Ozone Secretariat}}</ref> * International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Chemicals, concerning safety in the use of chemicals at work (1990)<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 1990 |title=Convention C170 – Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170) |url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C170 |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=International Labour Organization}}</ref> * [https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0266 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Council Decision Waste Agreement (1992)] * [https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/what-is-the-united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate-change United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1994)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150826233746/http://www.who.int/ipcs/iccm4/en/ International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM) (1995)] * [http://www.pic.int/ Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998)] * Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Convention |first=Stockholm |date=19 February 2021 |title=Home page |url=http://chm.pops.int/ |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=Stockholm Convention}}</ref> * [https://www.who.int/about/governance/world-health-assembly World Health Organisation (WHO), World Health Assembly Resolutions (2006–2016)] * [http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/ShipRecycling/Pages/Default.aspx Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships (2009)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200123072432/http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/ShipRecycling/Pages/Default.aspx |date=23 January 2020 }} * Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mercury |first=Minamata Convention on |title=Minamata Convention on Mercury > Home |url=http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Home/tabid/3360/language/en-US/Default.aspx |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=Minamata Convention on Mercury > Home}}</ref> * Paris Climate Agreement (2015) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Paris Agreement |url=https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref> * [https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/LDCs/Pages/Connect-2020-Agenda.aspx Connect 2020 Agenda for Global Telecommunication/ICT Development (2014)]

== Potential Future Recommendations == To enhance policies and initiatives to reduce e-waste and its impacts, multiple avenues can be taken. Educating the public and increasing awareness about the harmful environmental and human health effects of e-waste may help individuals reduce their own e-waste. This may also involve electronic businesses, since awareness campaigns may aid the development of more sustainable, longer-lasting technologies.<ref>https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10815197/#sec8-ijerph-21-00025</ref> Educational efforts can also be extended to informal e-waste recycling workers to inform them about the potential health consequences of their work.

More concrete language surrounding the use of and waste materials should be investigated. This may help close loopholes in regulations such as the Basel Convention and the Ban Amendment.

Governments and businesses can also help implement formal recycling programs to improve worker safety without threatening worker economic stability that was achieved by informal recycling <ref>https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10815197/#sec8-ijerph-21-00025</ref>. This will be especially useful in LMICs where informal recycling workers depend on this work to provide for their families and themselves, such as in regions of Ghana <ref>https://lsa.umich.edu/sweetland/undergraduates/writing-prizes/2024-writing-prizes/redefining-global-ewaste-management.html#:~:text=Ghana%27s%20government%20and%20international%20organizations,-Yarwood%20&%20Adewumi%20295)</ref>. Ensuring that low-income areas receive equal waste management developments is also crucial and should be considered.

To specifically reduce the negative health effects of e-waste and e-waste recycling, medical programs and resources can be improved or introduced to regions of high exposure to e-waste pollution as well <ref>https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10815197/#sec8-ijerph-21-00025</ref>.

== See also == {{Portal|Environment|Electronics}} * Electronic waste recycling * Refurbishment (electronics) * Digger gold * Green computing * Mobile phone recycling * Material safety data sheet * Retrocomputing * Radio Row * Electronic waste in Japan * 2000s commodities boom * eDay

'''Policy and conventions:''' * Basel Action Network (BAN) * China RoHS * e-Stewards * Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) * Soesterberg Principles * Sustainable Electronics Initiative (SEI)

;<nowiki>Organizations:</nowiki> * Asset Disposal and Information Security Alliance (ADISA)<ref>{{Cite web |title=ADISA website |url=http://www.adisa.org.uk/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529211740/http://www.adisa.org.uk/ |archive-date=29 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015 |publisher=Asset Disposal and Information Security Alliance}}</ref> * Empa * iFixit * International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement * Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI) * Solving the E-waste Problem * World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association

'''Security:''' * Data erasure

'''General:''' * Retail hazardous waste * Waste * Waste management

== References == {{reflist}}

== Further reading == * {{Cite journal |last1=Hicks |first1=C. |last2=Dietmara |first2= R. |last3=Eugsterb |first3= M. |year=2005 |title=The recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic waste in China—legislative and market responses |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=459–471 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2005.04.007 |bibcode=2005EIARv..25..459H |issn=0195-9255}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Ogunseitan |first1=O. A. |author-link=Dele Ogunseitan |last2=Schoenung |first2=J. M. |last3=Saphores |first3=J-D. M. |last4=Shapiro |first4=A. A. |year=2009 |title=The Electronics Revolution: From E-Wonderland to E-Wasteland |journal=Science |volume=326 |issue=5953 |pages=670–671 |doi=10.1126/science.1176929 |pmid=19900918 |s2cid=33860709}} * {{Cite web |last1= Agarwal |first1=Ravi |last2= Ranjan |first2= Rakesh |last3= Sarkar |first3= Papiya |date=February 2003 |title=Scrapping the Hi-tech Myth: Computer waste in India |url=http://www.texasenvironment.org/downloadit.cfm?DocID=31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719131413/http://www.texasenvironment.org/downloadit.cfm?DocID=31 |archive-date=19 July 2011 |access-date=25 March 2011 |publisher=ToxicsLink.org|location=India }} * United Nations University: [http://i.unu.edu/media/unu.edu/news/52624/UNU-1stGlobal-E-Waste-Monitor-2014-large-optimized.pdf THE GLOBAL E-WASTE MONITOR 2014 – Quantities, flows and resources], 2015 * {{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=J. |last2=Zeng, X. |last3=Chen, M. |last4=Ogunseitan, O.A. |last5=Stevels, A. |year=2015 |title="Control-Alt-Delete": Rebooting Solutions for the E-Waste Problem |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/20g457zr |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |publisher=American Chemical Society |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=7095–7108 |bibcode=2015EnST...49.7095L |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b00449 |pmid=26007633 |s2cid=13177934}} *{{Cite book |last=United Nations University |url=https://globalewaste.org/proxy/?publication=/v1/file/271/The-Global-E-waste-Monitor-2020-Quantities-flows-and-the-circular-economy-potential.pdf |title=The Global E-waste Monitor 2020 Quantities, flows and the circular economy potential 2020 |date=2 June 2020 |publisher=Global E-waste Statistics Partnership |isbn=978-92-808-9114-0 |access-date=2 July 2020}} (13&nbsp;MB PDF) *{{cite journal |vauthors=Shiani A, Sharafi K, Omer AK, Kiani A, Karamimatin B, Massahi T, Ebrahimzadeh G |title=A systematic literature review on the association between exposures to toxic elements and an autism spectrum disorder |journal=Sci Total Environ |volume=857 |issue=Pt 2 |article-number=159246 |date=January 2023 |pmid=36220469 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159246 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.85759246S |s2cid=252769951 |url=}}

== External links == {{Commons category}} * {{Cite news |last=Carroll |first=Chris |date=January 2008 |title=High-Tech Trash |work=National Geographic Society |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/01/high-tech-trash/carroll-text.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318140559/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/01/high-tech-trash/carroll-text.html|archive-date=18 March 2008}} * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/wp-solutions/2025-100/ Reducing Hearing Loss in Recycling Workers], US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2025. * [https://archive.today/20160512055820/https://www.epa.gov/smm-electronics Sustainable Management of Electronics] * [https://online-learning.tudelft.nl/courses/waste-management-and-critical-raw-materials/ MOOC: Massive Online Open Course "Waste Management and Critical Raw Materials" on (amongst others) recycling and reuse of electronics.]

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Category:Electronic waste Category:Occupational safety and health