Kurukh language

{{Short description|Dravidian language of eastern India}} {{Infobox language | name = Kurukh | altname = Kurux, Oraon, Uraon | nativename = {{huge|{{lang|kru-Tols|𑷊𑶲̃𑷗𑶲𑷖}}}} {{lang|kru-Deva|कुँड़ुख़ (उराँव)}} , {{lang|kru-Beng|কুড়ুখ্}} , {{lang|kru-Orya|କୁଡ଼ୁଖ୍}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|kru|kũɽux|}} | image = Kurukh in Kurukh Banna and Tolong Siki.png | imagescale = 1 | imagealt = 'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom) | imagecaption = 'Kuṛux' or 'Kuṁṛux' in Kurukh Banna alphabet (top) and Tolong Siki alphabet (bottom) | states = India, Bangladesh, and Nepal | region = Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Bihar, Tripura, Odisha<ref name="Kurux">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kru|title=Kurux|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-11|language=en}}</ref> | ethnicity = {{unbulleted list|Kurukh|Kisan}} | speakers = 2.28 million | date = 2002–2011 | ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref><ref name="Kurux"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kxl|title=Kurux, Nepali|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-11|language=en}}</ref> | familycolor = Dravidian | fam2 = Northern Dravidian | fam3 = Kurukh–Malto | dia1 = Oraon | dia2 = Kisan | dia3 = Dhangar | script = * Kurukh script * Tolong Siki * Kurukh Banna * Devanagari * Odia | lc1 = kru | ld1 = Kurux | lc2 = kxl | ld2 = Nepali Kurux (Dhangar) | lc3 = xis | ld3 = Kisan | glotto = kuru1301 | glottorefname = Kurux | nation = India * Jharkhand (additional) * West Bengal (additional) | map = Kurukh language distribution.svg | mapcaption = Distribution of Kurukh speakers in Blue. | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapscale = 1 | mapcaption2 = Kurukh is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger'' | notice = IPA }} {{Infobox ethnonym|person=Kūr̤uk͟hāḷ|people=Kūr̤uk͟haṟ|language=Kūr̤uk͟h Kācchi|country=Kūr̤uk͟h Nāṛ|root=Kurukh}} '''Kurukh''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʊr|ʊ|x}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʊr|ʊ|k}};<ref>{{OED|Kurukh}}</ref> Devanagari: कुँड़ुख़, {{IPA|kru|kũɽux|ipa}}), also '''Kurux''', '''Oraon''' or '''Uranw''' (Devanagari: उराँव, {{IPA|kru|uraːũ̯|ipa}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nepa1253 |title = Glottolog 4.5 - Nepali Kurux}}</ref> is a North Dravidian language spoken by the Kurukh (Oraon) and Kisan people of East India. It is spoken by about two million people in the Indian states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal, Assam and Tripura, as well as by 65,000 in northern Bangladesh, 28,600 of a dialect called Uranw in Nepal and about 5,000 in Bhutan. The most closely related language to Kurukh is Malto; together with Brahui, all three languages form the North Dravidian branch of the Dravidian language family. It is marked as being in a "vulnerable" state in UNESCO's list of endangered languages.<ref name=guardian-unesco-list>{{cite web|last1=Evans|first1=Lisa|title=Endangered Languages: The Full List|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/apr/15/language-extinct-endangered|work=The Guardian|date=15 April 2011 }}</ref> The Kisan dialect has 206,100 speakers as of 2011.

==Etymology== According to Edward Tuite Dalton, "Oraon" is an exonym assigned by neighbouring Munda people, meaning "to roam". They call themselves Kurukh.<ref>Dalton E. T. ''The Oraons: Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal''. 1872. Section 1, page 215.</ref> According to Sten Konow, Uraon will mean ''man'' as in the Dravidian Kurukh language, the word Urapai, Urapo and Urang means ''Man''. The word Kurukh may be derived from the word ''Kur'' or ''Kurcana'' means "shout" and "stammer". So Kurukh will mean 'a speaker'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4I3l9WL4BIC&pg=PR11|title=Grammar of the Kurukh Language|publisher=Mittal Publications|author=Ferdinand Hahn|page=xii|year=1985|access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref>

==Classification== Kurukh belongs to the Northern Dravidian group of the Dravidian family languages,<ref>{{cite book |last=Stassen |first=Leon |title=Intransitive Predication |publisher=Oxford University Press |series = Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory |year=1997 |isbn=978-0199258932 |page=220 }}</ref> and is closely related to Sauria Paharia and Kumarbhag Paharia, which are often together referred to as Malto.<ref>PS Subrahmanyam, "Kurukh", in ELL2. ''Ethnologue'' assigns Nepali Kurux a separate iso code, ''kxl''.</ref> thumb|Dravidian language tree

==Writing systems== {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 320 | image1 = Kurukh Banna script chart.png | alt1 = | caption1 = Kurukh Banna script chart for the Kurukh language | image2 = Tolong_Siki_Narayan_Oraon.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = Tolong Siki script (bold), next to Devanagari and Latin script | footer = | direction = horizontal }}

Kurukh is written in Devanagari, a script also used to write Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali and other Indo-Aryan languages.

In 1991, Basudev Ram Khalkho from Odisha released the Kurukh Banna script. In Sundargarh district of Odisha, the Kurukh Banna alphabet is taught and promoted by Kurukh Parha. Fonts have been developed and people use it widely in books, magazines and other material. The alphabet is also used by Oraon people in the states of Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Assam.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mandal |first1=Biswajit |title=Kurukh Banna |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/kurukhbanna.htm |website=Omniglot}}</ref>

In 1999, Narayan Oraon, a doctor, invented the alphabetic Tolong Siki script specifically for Kurukh. Many books and magazines have been published in Tolong Siki, and it saw official recognition by the state of Jharkhand in 2007. The Kurukh Literary Society of India has been instrumental in spreading the Tolong Siki script for Kurukh literature.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ager |first1=Simon |title=Tolong Siki alphabet and the Kurukh language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tolongsiki.htm |website=Omniglot |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Pandey |first1=Anshuman |title=Preliminary Proposal to Encode the Tolong Siki Script in the UCS |url=http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10106-n3811-tolongsiki.pdf |access-date=19 December 2019 |date=8 April 2010}}</ref>

==Geographical distribution== {{Pie chart |caption=Distribution of Kurukh in India, 2011 census |value1 = 47.89 |label1 = Jharkhand |value2 = 25.99 |label2 = Chhattisgarh |value3 = 8.65 |label3 = West Bengal |value4 = 6.84 |label4 = Odisha |value5 = 4.43 |label5 = Bihar |value6 = 3.69 |label6 = Assam |other = yes |other-color = pink }} In India, Kurukh is mostly spoken in Raigarh, Surguja, Jashpur of Chhattisgarh, Gumla, Ranchi, Lohardaga, Latehar, Simdega of Jharkhand; Jharsuguda, Sundargarh and Sambalpur district of Odisha.

It is also spoken in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, as well as Assam and Tripura states by Kurukh who are mostly tea-garden workers.<ref name="Kurux"/>

==Speakers== It is spoken by 2,053,000 people from the Oraon and Kisan tribes, with 1,834,000 and 219,000 speakers respectively. The literacy rate is 23% in Oraon and 17% in Kisan. Despite the large number of speakers, the language is considered to be endangered.<ref>Daniel Nettle and Suzanne Romaine. ''Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Page 9.</ref> The governments of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh have introduced the Kurukh language in schools with majority Kurukhar students. Jharkhand and West Bengal both list Kurukh as an official language of their respective states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/west-bengal-grants-official-language-status-to-kurukh-1488780574-1|title=Kurukh given official language status in West Bengal|date=2017-03-06|website=Jagranjosh.com|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> Bangladesh also has some speakers.

==Phonology== {{main|Kurukh phonology}}

=== Vowels === Kurukh has five cardinal vowels. Each vowel has long, short nasalized and long nasalized counterparts.{{sfn|Kobayashi|Tirkey|2017|pp=23–24}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |+ Kurukh simple vowels ! !Front !Central !Back |- !High |{{IPA link|i}} | |{{IPA link|u}} |- !Mid |{{IPA link|e}} | |{{IPA link|o}} |- !Low | |{{IPA link|a}} | |}

=== Consonants === The table below illustrates the articulation of the consonants.{{sfn|Kobayashi|Tirkey|2017|p=33}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |+Kurukh consonants ! colspan="3" | ! Labial ! Dental/ Alveolar ! Retroflex ! Palatal ! Velar ! Glottal |- ! colspan="3" | Nasal | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | ({{IPA link|ɳ}}) | {{IPA link|ɲ}} | {{IPA link|ŋ}} | |- ! rowspan="4" | Plosive/ Affricate ! rowspan="2" | {{small|voiceless}} ! {{small|plain}} | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t}} | {{IPA link|ʈ}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|ʔ}} |- ! {{small|aspirated}} | {{IPA link|pʰ}} | {{IPA link|tʰ}} | {{IPA link|ʈʰ}} | {{IPA link|tʃʰ}} | {{IPA link|kʰ}} | |- ! rowspan="2" | {{small|voiced}} ! {{small|plain}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} | {{IPA link|ɖ}} | {{IPA link|dʒ}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- ! {{small|aspirated}} | {{IPA link|bʱ}} | {{IPA link|dʱ}} | {{IPA link|ɖʱ}} | {{IPA link|dʒʱ}} | {{IPA link|ɡʱ}} | |- ! colspan="3" | Fricative | | {{IPA link|s}} | | ({{IPA link|ʃ}}) | {{IPA link|x}}{{efn-ua|In Kurukh, the modern voiceless velar fricative {{IPAslink|x}} developed diachronically from an ancestral geminated voiceless velar plosive {{IPAslink|kː}}.}} | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Rhotic ! {{small|plain}} | | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|ɽ}}{{efn-ua|In Kurukh, the modern voiced retroflex flap {{IPAslink|ɽ}} developed diachronically from an ancestral geminated voiced retroflex plosive {{IPAslink|ɖː}}.}} | | | |- ! {{small|aspirated}} | | | {{IPA link|ɽʱ}} | | | |- ! colspan="3" | Glide | {{IPA link|w}} |{{IPA link|l}}{{efn-ua|Driven by intensive language contact with neighboring Indo-Aryan languages that lack the retroflex lateral, Kurukh underwent a phonemic merger where the voiced retroflex lateral *{{IPAslink|ɭ}} shifted entirely into the voiced alveolar lateral {{IPAslink|l}}.}} | | {{IPA link|j}}{{efn-ua|Driven by intensive language contact with neighboring Indo-Aryan languages that lack retroflex non-stops, Kurukh underwent a phonemic merger where the unique acoustic voiced retroflex approximant *{{IPAslink|ɻ}} shifted into the voiced palatal approximant {{IPAslink|j}} or sometimes voiced retroflex flap {{IPAslink|ɽ}} that can traced.}} | | |} {{notelist-ua}}

* Medially voiced aspirates and voiced plosives + /h/ contrast, there are some minimal pairs like /dʱandha:/ "astonishment" and /dʱandʱa:/ "exertion". Clusters of voiced aspirates and /h/ are possible too as in /madʒʱhi:/ "middle" and /madʒʱis/ "zamindar's agent".{{sfnp|Kobayashi |Tirkey|2017|p=35}} * Of the nasals, /m, n/ are phonemic; [ɳ] only occurs before retroflex plosives; /ŋ/ mostly occurs before other velars but can occur finally with deletion of previous /g/, there are cases where /ŋg/ and /ng/ contrast; /ɲ/ mostly occurs before post alveolars but /j/ can become /ɲ/ around nasal vowels as in /paɲɲa:/ (or /pãjja:/).{{sfnp|Kobayashi |Tirkey|2017|p=36}}

==Morphology== Kurukh, like other Dravidian languages, is an agglutinative language. The sentence structure is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV). In its morphological construction, there is suffixation but there are no infixes or prefixes.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Vitality and Endangerment of Contemporary Kurukh | url=https://rupkatha.com/V9/n2/v9n235.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903184029/http://rupkatha.com/V9/n2/v9n235.pdf | archive-date=2017-09-03}}</ref>

=== Pronouns === {{main|Pronouns in Kurukh}}

The pronominal system of Kurukh is highly regular, agglutinative, and strongly preserves ancient Proto-Dravidian structures, remaining free from neighboring Indo-Aryan grammatical influences. In Kurukh grammar, personal pronouns change based on singular and plural numbers, and their basic nominative forms historically feature long vowels. A complete structural analysis of these forms, including full case declension tables, internal increments, and sound changes, is documented on the dedicated pronouns sub-page.

The language maintains a strict clusivity distinction in the first-person plural, separating the exclusive form '''{{tlit|kru|ēm}}''' (we, excluding the listener) and the inclusive form '''{{tlit|kru|nām}}''' (we, including the listener). Structurally, because an inclusive meaning naturally requires a group of speech participants, an inclusive singular form is morphologically impossible. Furthermore, personal and reflexive pronouns do not take case suffixes directly onto their nominative forms. Instead, the language uses a systematic sound mutation where the underlying long vowels undergo shortening, and specific internal consonants are added based on number; singular forms add a nasal velar augment (''-ṅ(g)-''), while plural forms undergo nasal labial gemination (''-m(m)-'') to act as an oblique base buffer before case markers are attached.{{sfn|Hahn|1911}}

Third-person references function entirely through a five-vowel demonstrative system inherited from Proto-Dravidian, as the language lacks independent third-person roots. This system coordinates physical distance using distal ''ā-'', proximal ''ī-'', and medial ''ū-'' bases, while handling conversational awareness through interrogative ''ē-'' and relative ''ō-'' bases. Additionally, the reflexive pronouns '''{{tlit|kru|tān}}''' (singular) and '''{{tlit|kru|tām}}''' (plural) serve a dual purpose. Beyond normal self-reference, they function as logophoric pronouns in reported speech to track identity across long narratives, eliminating any syntactic ambiguity about whether a speaker is referring to themselves or someone else.{{sfn|Hahn|1911}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin-top: 1em; width: 64%;" |+ Kurukh pronouns{{sfn|Hahn|1911}} ! scope="col" style="background:#f2f3f4;" | Person / Type ! scope="col" style="background:#f2f3f4;" | Singular ! scope="col" style="background:#f2f3f4;" | Plural (exclusive) ! scope="col" style="background:#f2f3f4;" | Plural (inclusive) |- | '''First person''' | '''{{tlit|kru|ēn}}''' (I) | '''{{tlit|kru|ēm}}''' (We, excluding you) | '''{{tlit|kru|nām}}''' (We, including you) |- | '''Second person''' | '''{{tlit|kru|nīn}}''' (You) | colspan="2" | '''{{tlit|kru|nīm}}''' (You all) |- | '''Third person (distal)''' | '''{{tlit|kru|ās}}''' (Masc.) '''{{tlit|kru|ād}}''' (Fem./Neut.) | colspan="2" | '''{{tlit|kru|ār}}''' (Human) '''{{tlit|kru|abṛā}}''' (Non-Human) |- | '''Reflexive / Logophoric''' | '''{{tlit|kru|tān}}''' (Oneself) | colspan="2" | '''{{tlit|kru|tām}}''' (Themselves) |}

===Nouns===

Kurukh nouns have three grammatical genders, namely masculine, feminine and neuter. To the Kurukh only men are masculine ; women and goddesses (evil spirits) are feminine ; all others are neutral. Masculine nouns of the third person singular have two forms, the indefinite and the definite. The indefinite is the simplest form of the noun, thus ''āl'' man. The definite form is made by adding ''-as'' for the singular, thus ''ālas'', ("the man").<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | title=Kurukh grammar | date=1911 | publisher=Calcutta Bengal Secretariat Press | url=https://archive.org/details/kurukhgrammar00hahnuoft/page/10/mode/2up }}</ref>

There are only two grammatical numbers, the singular and the plural.<ref name="auto1"/>

The following is an example declension table for a masculine noun "āl", meaning "man" <ref name="auto">{{cite web | title=Kurukh grammar | date=1911 | publisher=Calcutta Bengal Secretariat Press | url=https://archive.org/details/kurukhgrammar00hahnuoft/page/14/mode/2up }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Case !! Singular !! Definite !! Plural |- | Nominative || āl || āl'''as''' || āl'''ar''' |- | Genitive || āl || āl'''as gahi'''|| āl'''ar gahi''' |- | Dative || āl || āl'''as gē''' || āl'''ar gē''' |- | Accusative || āl'''an''' || āl'''asin''' || āl'''arin''' |- | Ablative || āl'''tī''' || āl'''as tī''' || āl'''artī''' , āl'''arintī''' |- | Instrumental || āl '''trī''', āl '''trū''' || - || ālar '''ṭrī''', ālar '''trū''' |- |Vocative |'''ē''' āl'''ayо̄''' | - |'''ē''' āl'''arо̄''' |- |Locative |āl |āl'''as nū''' |āl'''ar nū''' |}

The feminine declension is almost identical to the masculine, but lacks a definite form. The following example is for "mukkā" ("woman").<ref name="auto"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Case !! Singular !! Plural |- | Nominative || mukkā || mukk'''ar''' |- | Genitive || mukkā '''gahi''' || mukk'''ar gahi''' |- | Dative || mukkā'''gē''' || mukk'''ar gē''' |- | Accusative || mukk'''an''' || mukk'''arin''' |- | Ablative || mukk'''antī''' || mukk'''artī''' , mukk'''arintī''' |- | Instrumental || mukkā '''trī''', mukkā '''trū''' || mukkar '''trī''', mukkar '''trū''' |- |Vocative |'''ē''' mukk'''ai''' |'''ē''' mukk'''arо̄''' |- |Locative |mukkā '''nū''' |mukk'''ar nū''' |}

The neuter declension for "allā" ("dog") shows almost identical singular forms, but a difference in pluralization.<ref name="auto"/>

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Case !! Singular !! Plural |- | Nominative || allā || allā '''guṭhi''' |- | Genitive || allā '''gahi''' || allā '''guṭhi gahi''' |- | Dative || allā '''gē''' || allā '''guṭhi gē''' |- | Accusative || all'''an''' || allā '''guṭhin''' |- | Ablative || all'''antī''' || allā '''guṭhi tī''' , allā '''guṭhintī''' |- | Instrumental || allā '''trī''', allā '''trū''' || allā '''guṭhi trī''', allā '''guṭhi trū''' |- |Vocative |'''ē''' allā |'''ē''' allā '''guṭhi''' |- |Locative |allā '''nū''' |allā '''guṭhi nū''' |}

==Education== The Kurukh language is taught as a subject in the schools of Jharkhand, Chhattishgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Shiv Sahay |date=2017-03-02 |title=Kurukh gets official language status in West Bengal |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/revitalising-a-language/article17395995.ece |access-date=2022-05-02 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Sample phrases== {| class="wikitable" |- ! Phrases !! English Translation |- | Nighai endra naame? || What is your name? |- আপনার নাম কি? |Neen ekase ra'din? || How are you? (Girl) |- আপনি কেমন আছেন? |Neen ekase ra'dai? || How are you? (Boy) |- আপনি কেমন আছেন? |Een korem ra'dan. || I am fine. |- আমি ভালো আছি। |Neen ekshan kalalagdin? || Where are you going? (Girl) |- আপনি কোথায় যাচ্ছেন? |Neen ekshan kalalagday? || Where are you going? (Boy) |- আপনি কোথায় যাচ্ছেন? |Endra manja? || What happened? |- কি হইছে? |Ha'an|| Yes |- হ্যাঁ। |Malla || No |- না। |Een mokha Lagdan. || I am eating. |- আমি খাচ্ছি। |Neen mokha.|| You eat. |- |Neen ona. || You drink |- তুমি খাও। |Aar mokha lagnar. || They are eating. |- তারা খাচ্ছে। |Daw makha |Good Night |}

==Sample text== ===English=== All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

===Devanagari script=== {{lang|kru|होर्मा आलारिन् हक् गहि बारे नू मल्लिन्ता अजादि अरा आण्टें मन्ना गहि हक़् ख़खर्कि रै। आरिन् लुर् अरा जिया गहि दव् बौसा ख़खकि रै अरा तम्है मझि नू मेल्-प्रें गहि बेव्हार् नन्ना चहि।}}

===Latin script=== Hōrmā ālārin hak gahi bāre nū mallintā azādi arā aṅṭēm mannā gahi haq xakharki raī. Ārin lur arā jiyā gahi dav bausā xakhakī raī arā tamhai majhi nū mēl-prēm gahi bēvhār nannā nā cahi.

==Alternative names and dialects== Kurukh has a number of alternative names such as Uraon, Kurux, Kunrukh, Kunna, Urang, Morva, and Birhor. Two dialects, Oraon and Kisan, have 73% intelligibility between them. Oraon but not Kisan is currently being standardised. Kisan is currently endangered, with a rate of decline of 12.3% from 1991 to 2001.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement8.aspx|title=Census of India: Growth of Non-Scheduled Languages-1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001|last=ORGI|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref>

==References== {{reflist}}

==Sources== * {{cite book |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Masato |last2=Tirkey |first2=Bablu |title=The Kurux Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v9BCDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Brill |publication-place=Boston |date=2017 |isbn=978-90-04-34766-3}} * [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4H1BAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=kurukh+grammar&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiDp82LkMOJAxXQzzgGHc68NY0Q6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Kurukh Grammer by the Rev. Ferdiand Hahn] * [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC&pg=PA80&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q&f=false The Dravadian Languages by Bhadriraju Krishnamurti] Grignard's Kurukh Classification. * {{cite book |last=Hahn |first=Ferdinand |year=1911 |title=Kurukh Grammar |publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press |url=https://archive.org/details/kurukhgrammar00hahnuoft}}

==Further reading== {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last=Andronov |first=M. S. |title=Elements of Kurux Historical Phonology |journal=Anthropos |publisher=Anthropos Institut |volume=69 |issue=1/2 |year=1974 |issn=0257-9774 |jstor=40458519 |pages=250–253 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40458519 |url-access=subscription |access-date=5 March 2025}} * {{cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |title=Viewing Proto-Dravidian from the Northeast |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=140 |issue=2 |date=19 September 2021 |issn=2169-2289 |doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.2.0467 |doi-access=free |url=https://lockwoodonlinejournals.com/index.php/jaos/article/download/713/562 }} * Perumalsamy, P. (2002) "Kisan" in [https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/34817/download/38505/LSI_ORISSA.pdf Linguistic Survey of India: Orissa volume], New Delhi: Office of Registrar General, pp: 497-515. * {{cite book |title=The Linguistic Survey of India: Jharkhand |location=India |publisher=Language Division, Office of the Registrar General |date=2021 |chapter=Kurukh/ Oraon |author=N. Gopalakrishnan |pages=206-276}} * {{cite thesis |title= Documentation of the Kurux, an endangered Dravidian language |first=Albin Rico |last=Xalxo |publisher=University of Hyderabad |date=2024 |type=PhD |hdl=10603/642551 |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/642551}}

;Current issues: * {{cite journal |title=Vitality and Endangerment of Contemporary Kurukh |author1=Alisha Vandana Lakra1 |author2=Md. Mojibur Rahman |journal=Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities |issn=0975-2935 |volume=IX |issue=2 |date=2017 |doi=10.21659/rupkatha.v9n2.35 |url=http://rupkatha.com/V9/n2/v9n23}} * {{cite journal |last=Sultana |first=Asifa |date=2024 |title=What About the Indigenous Languages of the Plains?: The Case of Kurukh in Bangladesh |journal=Journal of Language, Identity & Education |volume=June |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1080/15348458.2024.2372019}} * {{cite journal |author1=Asifa Sultana |author2=Dripta Piplai (Mondal) |author3=Indrani Roy |date=2026 |title=Shaping the Status of Indigenous Languages through Policy: Kurukh in Bengal |journal=Current Issues in Language Planning |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=304–22 |doi=10.1080/14664208.2025.2478353 |url=https://www.academia.edu/128767631/Shaping_the_status_of_indigenous_languages_through_policy_Kurukh_in_Bengal}}

; About the Dhangar (Oraon or Kurukh) in Nepal * {{Cite journal |last=Reinhard |first=Johan |date=1970 |title=The Dhanger: A Dravidian tribe in Nepal |journal=Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological Ethnological Research |volume=12 |pages=91-94}} * {{Cite journal |last=Sapkota |first=Suren |date=2008 |title=Personal pronouns in Dhangar/Jhangar |journal=Nepalese Linguistics |volume=23 |pages=343-354 |url=https://archivenepal.s3.amazonaws.com/digitalhimalaya/collections/journals/nepling/pdf/Nep_Ling_23.pdf}} * {{Cite journal |last=Sapkota |first=Suren |date=2009 |title=A morphosyntax of relativization in Uranw (Dhangar/Jhangar): a functional typological perspective |journal=Nepalese Linguistics |volume=24 |pages=317-326 |url=https://archivenepal.s3.amazonaws.com/digitalhimalaya/collections/journals/nepling/pdf/Nep_Ling_24.pdf}}

; Folktale collections: * {{cite book |chapter=URANW or KUNR'KH FOLK TALE |first=HUGH |last=RAYNBIRD |title=Trübner's record: a journal devoted to the literature of the East |volume=3 |date=1889 |pages=74-76 |url=https://books.google.com.br/books?id=NDySidSTLOcC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA74&dq=%22uranw%22&hl=pt-BR&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22uranw%22&f=false}} * {{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Raynbird |chapter=Appendix to Review of Linguistic and Anthropological Characteristics of the North Dravidian and Kolarian Races.—the Uranws. Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. Srpney Harrianp (Chairman), Mr. Huen Raynsirp, jun. (Secretary), Professor A. C, Happon, and Mr. J. L. MYRBS. |title=Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science |location=London |publisher=John Murray |date=1896 |pages=659-663 |url=https://archive.org/details/reportofbritisha96brit/page/659/mode/1up}} (contains three Oraon tales) * Hahn, Ferdinand. ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_tCZrRHPYF3UC/page/n70/mode/1up Blicke in die Geisteswelt der heidnischen Kols: Sammlung von Sagen, Märchen und Liedern der Oraon in Chota Nagpur]''. Gütersloh: C. Bertelsmann, 1906. * {{cite book |editor=A. Grignard |last=Hahn |title=Hahn's Oraon Folk-lore in the Original: a critical text with translation and notes |location=Guwahati; Delhi |publisher=Spectrum Publications |date=1931}} {{refend}}

==External links== {{incubator|kru}} *{{cite book|author=Ferdinand Hahn|title=Kuruḵh̲ (Orā̃ō)-English dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_frNJAQAAIAAJ|access-date=25 August 2012|year=1903|publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_frNJAQAAIAAJ/page/n133 126]–}} *{{cite book|author=Ferdinand Hahn|title=Kuruḵẖ grammar|url=https://archive.org/details/kurukhgrammar00hahnuoft|access-date=26 August 2012|year=1900|publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press}} *{{cite book|title=Kuruk̲h̲ folk-lore: in the original|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbS5AAAAIAAJ|access-date=25 August 2012|year=1905|publisher=The Bengal Secretariat Book Depot}} *[http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\drv\ned&limit=-1 Kurukh basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database] *[https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2023/23024-tolong-siki.pdf Proposal to encode Tolong Siki] *[http://omniglot.com/writing/tolongsiki.htm Omniglot's page on Tolong Siki] *[https://tolongsiki.com/ Tolong Siki script site]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kurukh Language}} Category:Agglutinative languages Category:Dravidian languages  Category:Languages of India Category:Languages of Jharkhand Category:Languages of West Bengal Category:Subject–object–verb languages Category:Brahmic scripts Category:Languages written in Devanagari

Kurukh language

Connections

Linked from (251 total)

Links to (80 total)