{{Short description|Splitting of a plant structure to release contents}} {{Other uses|Dehiscence (disambiguation){{!}}Dehiscence}} [[Image:Milkweed-in-seed.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Dehiscence of the [[Follicle (fruit)|follicular]] fruit of milkweed (''[[Asclepias syriaca]]'') revealing seeds within]] '''Dehiscence''' is the splitting of a mature plant structure along a built-in line of weakness to release its contents. This is common among [[fruit]]s, [[anther]]s and [[sporangia]]. Sometimes this involves the complete detachment of a part. Structures that open in this way are said to be '''dehiscent'''. Structures that do not open in this way are called '''indehiscent''', and rely on other mechanisms such as decay, digestion by herbivores, or predation to release the contents.
A similar process to dehiscence occurs in some flower buds (e.g., ''[[Platycodon]]'', ''[[Fuchsia]]''), but this is rarely referred to as dehiscence unless [[wikt:circumscissile|circumscissile]] dehiscence is involved; [[anthesis]] is the usual term for the opening of flowers. Dehiscence may or may not involve the loss of a structure through the process of [[abscission]]. The lost structures are said to be '''[[wikt:caducous|caducous]]'''.
== Association with crop breeding == Manipulation of dehiscence can improve crop yield since a [[Trait (biological)|trait]] that causes seed dispersal is a disadvantage for farmers, whose goal is to collect the seed. Many agronomically important plants have been bred for reduced [[Shattering (agriculture)|shattering]].
== Mechanisms ==
=== Explosive dehiscence === Explosive dehiscence is a [[Seed dispersal#Ballistic|ballistic]] form of [[biological dispersal|dispersal]] that flings seeds or spores far from the parent plant. This [[rapid plant movement]] can achieve limited dispersal without the assistance of animals. A notable example is the sandbox tree (''[[Hura crepitans]]''), which can fling seeds 100 meters (300 ft) and has been called the "boomer plant" due to the loud sound it generates. Another example is ''[[Impatiens]]'', whose explosive dehiscence is triggered by being touched, leading it to be called the "touch-me-not". ''[[Ecballium|Ecballium elaterium]]'', the "squirting cucumber", uses explosive dehiscence to disperse its seeds, ejecting them from matured fruit in a stream of mucilaginous liquid. Explosive dehiscence of sporangia is a characteristic of ''[[Sphagnum]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/bbs/Resources/galleryold2.htm|title=Image Gallery - page 2|website=rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk}}</ref>
=== Septicidal and loculicidal dehiscence ===
In loculicidal dehiscence, the locule wall splits between the septa, leaving the latter intact, while in septicidal dehiscence the split is at the septum that separates the loculi. Septicidal and loculicidal dehiscence may not be completely distinct; in some cases both the septa and the walls of the locules split. <gallery> File:Rhododendron tomentosum 004.JPG|Septicidal dehiscence. The septa between the locules of ''[[Ledum palustre]]'' capsules split as the fruit opens, and the seeds are released. File:Crepe myrtle 1.jpg|Loculicidal dehiscence. The locules of ''[[Lagerstroemia]]'' capsules split as the fruit opens, and the septa remain intact. File:Peganum harmala Baikonur 09.jpg|Loculicidal dehiscence in ''[[Peganum harmala]]'' File:Hibiscus trionum 3.jpg|A complex form of dehiscence. The calyx of ''[[Hibiscus trionum]]'' has opened apically to reveal the capsule (ovary) inside. The capsule has split vertically in the centre, as well as through the locule walls. </gallery>
== Types == Dehiscence occurs through breakage of various parts of the enclosing structure; the mechanisms can be classified in various ways, but intermediate forms also occur.
<gallery> File:Anther morphology dehiscence transverse.png|Transverse dehiscence of a pair of anthers File:Anther morphology dehiscence longitudinal.png|Longitudinal dehiscence of a pair of anthers File:Anther morphology dehiscence valvular.png|Valvular dehiscence of a pair of anthers File:Anther morphology dehiscence poricidal.png|Poricidal dehiscence of a pair of anthers </gallery>
=== Poricidal dehiscence ===
Dehiscence through a small hole (pore) is referred to as poricidal dehiscence. The pore may have a cover ('''operculate poricidal dehiscence''' or '''operculate dehiscence''') that is referred to as an '''[[Operculum (botany)|operculum]]''' or it may not ('''inoperculate poricidal dehiscence''' or '''inoperculate dehiscence''').
Poricidal dehiscence occurs in many unrelated organisms, in fruit, causing the release of seeds, and also in the [[sporangia]] of many organisms (flowering plants, ferns, fungi, [[Myxogastria|slime molds]]). Poricidal [[anther]]s of various flowers are associated with [[buzz pollination]] by insects.
=== Circumscissile dehiscence === Circumscissile dehiscence involves a horizontal opening that causes a lid to separate completely. This type of dehiscence occurs in some fruit and anthers<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hickey, M. |author2=King, C. |year=2001 |title= The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> and also in some flower buds.
== Anther dehiscence == {{Main|Stamen}} Anther dehiscence is the final function of the anther that causes the release of pollen grains. This process is coordinated precisely with pollen differentiation, floral development, and flower opening.
The anther wall breaks at a specific site. Usually this site is observed as an indentation between the [[locule]]s of each [[theca]] and runs the length of the anther, but in species with ''poricidal'' anther dehiscence it is instead a small pore. If the pollen is released from the anther through a split on the outer side (relative to the center of the flower), this is '''extrorse''' dehiscence, and if the pollen is released from the inner side, this is '''introrse''' dehiscence. If the pollen is released through a split that is positioned to the side, towards other anthers, rather than towards the inside or outside of the flower, this is '''latrorse''' dehiscence.
The '''stomium''' is the region of the anther where dehiscence occurs. The degeneration of the stomium and [[septum]] cells is part of a developmentally timed cell-death program. Expansion of the endothecial layer and subsequent drying are also required for dehiscence. The endothecium tissue is responsible for the [[tension (mechanics)|tension]]s that lead to splitting of the anther. This tissue is usually one to several layers thick, with cells walls of uneven thickness due to uneven [[lignification]]. The cells lose water, and the uneven thickness causes the thinner walls of the cells to stretch to a greater extent. This creates a tension that eventually leads to the anther being split along its line of weakness and releasing pollen grains to the atmosphere.
<gallery> image:Milk Pea dehiscence.jpg|Before/During images of anther dehiscence in the common Milk Pea image:Solanum anther-terminal-pores.jpg|Poricidal anther dehiscence image:Anther dehiscence in Lilium.jpg|Longitudinal latrorse anther dehiscence </gallery>
== Flower buds == Flower buds of ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' and related genera open with circumscissile dehiscence. A small cap separates from the remainder of the bud along a circular horizontal zone. <gallery> image:Eucalyptus ficifolia dehiscent flower bud.jpg|''[[Corymbia ficifolia]]'' image:Eucalyptus_globulus_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-147.jpg|''[[Eucalyptus globulus]]'' </gallery>
== Fruit dehiscence ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Sundew]] --> There are many different types of fruit dehiscence involving different types of structures. Some fruits are indehiscent, and do not open to disperse the seeds. '''Xerochasy''' is dehiscence that occurs upon drying, and '''hygrochasy''' is dehiscence that occurs upon wetting, the fruit being [[Hygroscopy#Hygroscopic-assisted propagation examples|hygroscopic]]. Dehiscent fruits that are derived from one [[carpel]] are [[Follicle (fruit)|follicles]] or [[legume]]s, and those derived from multiple carpels are [[Capsule (fruit)|capsules]] or [[silique]]s.<ref name=Esau>Esau, K. 1977. ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York.</ref>
One example of a dehiscent fruit is the [[silique]]. This fruit develops from a [[Carpel|gynoecium]] composed of two fused [[carpel]]s,<ref name=Esau/> which, upon fertilization, grow to become a silique that contains the developing [[seed]]s. After seed maturation, dehiscence takes place, and valves detach from the central [[septum (botany)|septum]], thus freeing the seeds. This is also known as '''shattering''' and can be important as a [[Seed dispersal#Mechanical dispersal|seed dispersal]] mechanism. This process is similar to anther dehiscence and the region that breaks (dehiscence zone) runs the entire length of the fruit between the '''valves''' (the outer walls of the ovary) and the '''replum''' (the persisting septa of the ovary). At maturity, the dehiscence zone is effectively a non-lignified layer between two regions of lignified cells in the valve and the replum. Shattering occurs due to the combination of cell wall loosening in the dehiscence zone and the tensions established by the differential hygro-responsive properties of the drying cells.<ref name="Huss">{{cite journal |last1=Huss |first1=Jessica C. |last2=Gierlinger |first2=Notburga |title=Functional packaging of seeds |journal=New Phytologist: International Journal of Plant Science |date=June 2021 |volume=230 |issue=6 |pages=2154–2163 |doi=10.1111/nph.17299 |pmid=33629369 |pmc=8252473 |bibcode=2021NewPh.230.2154H }}</ref>
<gallery> image:Pavot.JPG|[[Poppy]] fruit showing poricidal dehiscence; the seeds exit through pores beneath the "crown" image:Peanut 9417.jpg|[[Peanut]]s: an indehiscent subterranean [[legume]] fruit image:Microthlaspi perfoliatum ENBLA05.jpg|''[[Thlaspi arvense]]'', with fruit that are dehiscent siliques image:Illustration Ledum palustre0.jpg|''[[Rhododendron]]'' capsules have septicidal dehiscence; the fruit splits through the septa between the carpels image:Starr 071024-0245 Unknown iridaceae.jpg|[[Iridaceae]] capsules have loculicidal dehiscence; the fruit splits through the ovary wall of each carpel, allowing the seeds to exit directly from the [[locule]] image:Anagallis spp Sturm60.jpg|''[[Anagallis]]'' fruits open with circumscissile dehiscence. A small cap separates from the remainder of the fruit along a circular horizontal zone. image:Lysimachia arvensis pyxis.jpg|''Anagallis'' fruit, circumscissile dehiscence image:Spathoglottis plicata (Philippine ground orchid) capsule dehisced.jpg|''[[Spathoglottis plicata]]'' capsules, like in most [[orchid]]s, split longitudinally along three to six slits while remaining closed at both ends </gallery>
== Sporangium dehiscence in bryophytes == {{Expand section|date=January 2010}} '''Endothecium''' tissue found in [[moss]] capsules functions in a similar way in dehiscence to the endothecium in the walls of anthers (see above).
== Sporangium dehiscence in ferns == {{Expand section|date=April 2022}} Many [[leptosporangiate ferns]] have an [[annulus (botany)|annulus]] around the sporangium, which ejects the spores. [[Eusporangiate fern]]s do not generally have specialized dehiscence mechanisms.
<gallery> image:Botrychium lunaria-matricariae nf.jpg|Sporangium dehiscence through a horizontal slit in ''Botrychium'', a eusporangiate fern. </gallery>
== Sporangium dehiscence in fungi and myxomycetes == {{Expand section|date=January 2010}} <gallery> image:Haeckel Mycetozoa.jpg|Various sporangia of myxomycetes that dehisce in varied ways </gallery>
== See also == * [[Abscission]]—separation of structures that leads to their loss * [[Anthesis]]—the opening of flowers * [[Elater]]s—structures that form inside a sporangium and aid in spore dispersal of horsetails, liverworts, and hornworts * [[Loment]]—a type of fruit that breaks apart but is not dehiscent * [[Schizocarp]]—a type of fruit that breaks apart and may or may not be dehiscent.
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Bibliography == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last1=Hickey|first1=Michael|last2=King|first2=Clive|title=The Cambridge illustrated glossary of botanical terms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Yja1lL_pJYC|date=2000|publisher=[[Cambridge University]] Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-79401-5}} {{refend}}
==External links== * {{cite web |title=Direction of anther dehiscence |url=https://ausflora.net/image-glossary/direction-of-anther-dehiscence/ |website=Flora of Australia |date=28 February 2018 |access-date=25 March 2024}} * {{cite web |title=Anther dehiscence |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/dehiscence |access-date=25 March 2024}}
[[Category:Fruit morphology]] [[Category:Plant physiology]] [[Category:Plant morphology]]