Defence mechanism

{{Short description|Unconscious psychological mechanism}} {{For|the biological concept|Biological defense (disambiguation){{!}}Biological defense}} {{missing information|scientific status and criticism of validity|date=January 2020}} {{Use British English|date=December 2022}} {{Psychoanalysis |Concepts}}

In psychoanalytic theory, '''defense mechanisms''' are unconscious psychological processes that protect the self from anxiety-producing thoughts and feelings related to internal conflicts and external stressors.<ref>{{cite book |author= <!-- not stated --> |chapter = Criteria Sets and Axes Provided for Further Study |date = 2000 |title = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |edition = IV - TR |publisher = American Psychiatric Association |page = 807 |isbn = 978-0-89042-024-9 |quote = Defense mechanisms (or coping styles) are automatic psychological processes that protect the individual against anxiety and from the awareness of internal or external dangers or stressors.}}</ref> Defences are automatically used to protect ourselves from threats and affects to maintain psychological balance and homeostasis.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = McWilliams |first1 = Nancy |last2 = Shedler |first2 = Jonathan |chapter = Personality Syndromes – P Axis |date = 2017 |editor-last1 = Lingiardi |editor-first1 = Vittorio |editor-last2 = McWilliams |editor-first2 = Nancy |title = Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual |edition = 2 |publisher = The Guilford Press |page = 73 |isbn = 978-1-4625-3054-0 |quote = The term 'defenses' refers to the characteristic ways in which we protect ourselves from psychological threats and aversive affect states, and attempt to maintain psychological equilibrium and homeostasis in the face of challenges and hardships. In contrast to 'coping' mechanisms, defenses operate in a mostly automatic manner, partially or wholly out of awareness.}}</ref> Defenses are automatic responses to external stressors or internal conflicts.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Caligor |first1 = Eve |last2 = Kernberg |first2 = Otto |last3 = Clarkin |first3 = John |last4 = Yeomans |first4 = Frank |chapter = Personality and Personality Disorders Within the Framework of Object Relations Theory |date = 2018 |title = Psychodynamic Therapy for Personality Disorder: Treating Self and Interpersonal Functioning |publisher = American Psychiatric Association |page = 58 |isbn = 978-1-58562-459-1 |quote = Defenses are an individual's automatic psychological response to external stressors or psychological conflict.}}</ref>

Healthy people have a fully developed sense of "object constancy", knowing that bad and good can exist at the same time in the same person.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Cabaniss |first1 = Deborah |last2 = Cherry |first2 = Sabrina |last3 = Douglas |first3 = Carolyn |last4 = Schwartz |first4 = Anna |chapter = Assessing Domains of Function |date = 2017 |title = Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: A Clinical Manual |edition = 2 |publisher = WILEY Blackwell |page = 31 |isbn = 978-1-119-14198-3 |quote = Whether people's defenses are based primarily on repression or splitting is related to whether they have achieved object constancy. [...] object constancy is knowing that bad and good can exist in the same person.}}</ref> A defense mechanism can become pathological when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of defense mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot cope at that moment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029737/defence-mechanism |title=defence mechanisms -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=www.britannica.com |access-date=2008-03-11 }}</ref>

==Examples== Examples of defense mechanisms include: ''repression'', the exclusion of unacceptable desires and ideas from consciousness; ''identification'', the incorporation of some aspects of an object into oneself;<ref>Chalquist, Craig. [http://www.terrapsych.com/freud.html "A Glossary of Freudian Terms"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228105226/http://www.terrapsych.com/freud.html |date=2018-12-28 }} 2001. Retrieved on 05 October 2013.</ref> ''rationalization'', the justification of one's behaviour by using apparently logical reasons that are acceptable to the ego, thereby further suppressing awareness of the unconscious motivations;<ref>{{cite web |title=Rationalization |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/rationalization |website=American Psychological Association}}</ref> and ''sublimation'', the process of channeling libido into "socially useful" disciplines, such as artistic, cultural, and intellectual pursuits, which indirectly provide gratification for the original drives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sublimation |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/sublimation |website=American Psychological Association}}</ref>

== History == In the first definitive book on defence mechanisms, ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence'' (1936),<ref name="autogenerated1937">Freud, A. (1936). ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence'', London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis. (Revised edition: 1966 (US), 1968 (UK))</ref> Anna Freud enumerated the ten defence mechanisms that appear in the works of her father, Sigmund Freud: repression, regression, reaction formation, isolation, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against one's own person, reversal into the opposite, and sublimation or displacement.<ref name="Szondi1956">Lipot Szondi (1956) [http://www.szondiforum.org/II.%20Szondi%20Ego%20Defenses%20and%20Sublimination.pdf ''Ego Analysis''] Ch. XIX, translated by Arthur C. Johnston, p. 268</ref>

Sigmund Freud posited that defence mechanisms work by distorting id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious or conscious blockage of these impulses.<ref name="autogenerated1937"/> Anna Freud considered defense mechanisms as intellectual and motor automatisms of various degrees of complexity, that arose in the process of involuntary and voluntary learning.<ref>{{cite book |last= Romanov|first= E.S. |date= 1996 |title=Mechanisms of psychological defense: genesis, functioning, diagnostics}}</ref>

Anna Freud introduced the concept of signal anxiety; she stated that it was "not directly a conflicted instinctual tension but a signal occurring in the ego of an anticipated instinctual tension".<ref name="autogenerated1937"/> The signalling function of anxiety was thus seen as crucial, and biologically adapted to warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. The anxiety is felt as an increase in bodily or mental tension, and the signal that the organism receives in this way allows for the possibility of taking defensive action regarding the perceived danger.

Both Freuds studied defence mechanisms, but Anna spent more of her time and research on five main mechanisms: repression, regression, projection, reaction formation, and sublimation. All defence mechanisms are responses to anxiety and how the consciousness and unconscious manage the stress of a social situation.<ref name="Hock, Roger R 2013">Hock, Roger R. "Reading 30: You're Getting Defensive Again!" Forty Studies That Changed Psychology. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2013. 233–38. Print.</ref>

*''Repression'': the exclusion of unacceptable desires and ideas from consciousness, though in certain circumstances they may resurface in a disguised or distorted form *''Regression'': falling back into an early state of mental/physical development seen as "less demanding and safer"<ref name="Hock, Roger R 2013"/> *''Projection'': possessing a feeling that is deemed as socially unacceptable and instead of facing it, that feeling or "unconscious urge" is seen in the actions of other people<ref name="Hock, Roger R 2013"/> *''Reaction formation'': acting the opposite way that the unconscious instructs a person to behave, "often exaggerated and obsessive". For example, if a wife is infatuated with a man who is not her husband, reaction formation may cause her to – rather than cheat – become obsessed with showing her husband signs of love and affection.<ref name="Hock, Roger R 2013"/> *''Sublimation'': seen as the most acceptable of the mechanisms, an expression of anxiety in socially acceptable ways<ref name="Hock, Roger R 2013"/>

Robert Plutchik's (1979) theory views defences as derivatives of basic emotions, which in turn relate to particular diagnostic structures. According to his theory, reaction formation relates to joy (and manic features), denial relates to acceptance (and histrionic features), repression to fear (and passivity), regression to surprise (and borderline traits), compensation to sadness (and depression), projection to disgust (and paranoia), displacement to anger (and hostility) and intellectualization to anticipation (and obsessionality).<ref>Plutchik, R., Kellerman, H., & Conte, H. R. (1979). A structural theory of ego defences and emotions. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 229–-257). New York: Plenum Press.</ref>

Different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defence mechanisms. Large reviews of theories of defence mechanisms are available from Paulhus, Fridhandler and Hayes (1997)<ref>Paulhus, D.L., Fridhandler B., and Hayes S. (1997). Psychological defense: Contemporary theory and research. In {{cite book |author1=Briggs, Stephen |author2=Hogan, Robert Goode |author3=Johnson, John W. |title=Handbook of personality psychology |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=1997 |pages=543–579 |isbn=978-0-12-134646-1 }}</ref> and Cramer (1991).<ref>Cramer, P. (1991). The Development of Defense Mechanisms: Theory, Research, and Assessment. New York, Springer-Verlag.</ref> The ''Journal of Personality'' published a special issue on defence mechanisms (1998).<ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.1998.66.issue-6/issuetoc Special issue] [on defense mechanisms], ''Journal of Personality'' (1998), '''66''' (6): 879–1157</ref>

=== DSM-IV-TR classification === The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (''DSM-IV'') published by the American Psychiatric Association (1994) includes a tentative diagnostic axis for defence mechanisms.<ref>American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.</ref> This classification is largely based on Vaillant's hierarchical view of defences, but has some modifications. Examples include: denial, fantasy, rationalization, regression, isolation, projection, and displacement. However, additional defense mechanisms are still proposed and investigated by different authors. For instance, in 2023, time distortion was proposed in a publication as a newly identified ego defense.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fowler |first=Alexander |date=2023 |title=On the Distortion of Time: An Unexplored Ego Defense Mechanism |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377399205 |journal=International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology, and Science |issn=2582-5208}}</ref>

*High adaptive level<ref name=DSM-Defenses>{{cite book |author= <!-- not stated --> |chapter = Criteria Sets and Axes Provided for Further Study |date = 2000 |title = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |edition = IV - TR |publisher = American Psychiatric Association |pages = 808–809 |isbn = 978-0-89042-024-9}}</ref> **''Anticipation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Affiliation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Altruism''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Humor''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Self-Assertion''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Self-Observation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Sublimation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Suppression''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> *Mental inhibitions (compromise formation) level<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Displacement''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Dissociation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Intellectualization''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Isolation of Affect''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Reaction Formation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Repression''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Undoing''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> * Minor image-distorting level<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Devaluation''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Idealization''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Omnipotence''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> *Disavowal level<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Denial''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Projection''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Rationalization''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> * Major image-distorting level<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Autistic fantasy''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Projective identification''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Splitting of self-image or image of others''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> *Action level<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Acting Out''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Apathetic withdrawal''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Help-rejecting complaining''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Passive aggression''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> *Level of defensive dysregulation<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Delusional projection''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Psychotic denial''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/> **''Psychotic distortion''<ref name=DSM-Defenses/>

== PDM-2 classification == *Healthy level of organization<ref name=PDM2>{{cite book |last1 = McWilliams |first1 = Nancy |last2 = Shedler |first2 = Jonathan |chapter = Personality Syndromes – P Axis |date = 2017 |editor-last1 = Lingiardi |editor-first1 = Vittorio |editor-last2 = McWilliams |editor-first2 = Nancy |title = Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual |edition = 2 |publisher = The Guilford Press |pages = 20–24 |isbn = 978-1-4625-3054-0}}</ref> **Flexibility (personality)<ref name=PDM2/> *Neurotic level of organization<ref name=PDM2/> **Rigidity (psychology)<ref name=PDM2/> **Inner conflict<ref name=PDM2/> *Borderline level of organization<ref name=PDM2/> **Defenses ("primitive", "immature", or "costly")<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Splitting''<ref name=PDM2/> ****Identity diffusion<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Projective identification''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Denial''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Withdrawal''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Omnipotent control''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Acting out''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Somatization''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Dissociation''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Primitive idealization''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Primitive devaluation''<ref name=PDM2/> **Emotional dysregulation<ref name=PDM2/> **Relational problems<ref name=PDM2/> **Self-destructive behavior<ref name=PDM2/> **Impulsivity<ref name=PDM2/> *Psychotic level of organization<ref name=PDM2/> **Defenses to terrifying anxieties<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Psychotic denial''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Autistic withdrawal''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Distortion''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Delusional projection''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Fragmentation''<ref name=PDM2/> ***''Concretization''<ref name=PDM2/> **Thought disorder<ref name=PDM2/> **Inappropriateness<ref name=PDM2/> **Annihilation anxiety<ref name=PDM2/> **Certainty<ref name=PDM2/> **Identity diffusion<ref name=PDM2/> **Severe deficits in reality testing<ref name=PDM2/> **Delusions<ref name=PDM2/>

== Transference-focused psychotherapy classification == {{Main|Transference-focused psychotherapy}} Otto F. Kernberg developed a theory of borderline personality organization of which one consequence may be borderline personality disorder. His theory is based on ego psychological object relations theory. Borderline personality organization develops when the child cannot integrate helpful and harmful mental objects together. Kernberg views the use of primitive defence mechanisms as central to this personality organization. Primitive psychological defences are projection, denial, dissociation or splitting and they are called borderline defence mechanisms. Also, devaluation and projective identification are seen as borderline defences.<ref name="pmid4861171">{{cite journal |author=Kernberg O |title=Borderline personality organization |journal=J Am Psychoanal Assoc |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=641–85 |date=July 1967 |pmid=4861171 |doi= 10.1177/000306516701500309|s2cid=32199139 }}</ref>

*Mature defenses<ref name=TFP>{{cite book |last1 = Caligor |first1 = Eve |last2 = Kernberg |first2 = Otto |last3 = Clarkin |first3 = John |last4 = Yeomans |first4 = Frank |chapter = Personality and Personality Disorders Within the Framework of Object Relations Theory |date = 2018 |title = Psychodynamic Therapy for Personality Disorder: Treating Self and Interpersonal Functioning |publisher = American Psychiatric Association |page = 59 |isbn = 978-1-58562-459-1}}</ref> **''Suppression''<ref name=TFP/> **''Anticipation''<ref name=TFP/> **''Altruism''<ref name=TFP/> **''Humor''<ref name=TFP/> **''Sublimation''<ref name=TFP/> *Repression-based defenses<ref name=TFP/> **''Repression''<ref name=TFP/> **''Isolation of affect''<ref name=TFP/> **''Intellectualization''<ref name=TFP/> **''Reaction formation''<ref name=TFP/> **''Neurotic projection''<ref name=TFP/> **''Displacement''<ref name=TFP/> *Splitting-based defenses<ref name=TFP/> **''Splitting''<ref name=TFP/> **''Projective identification''<ref name=TFP/> **''Lower-level idealization''<ref name=TFP/> **''Devaluation''<ref name=TFP/> **''Omnipotent control''<ref name=TFP/> **''Lower-level denial''<ref name=TFP/>

== Gabbard's classification == *Most adaptive<ref name=Gabbard>{{cite book |last1 = Cabaniss |first1 = Deborah |last2 = Cherry |first2 = Sabrina |last3 = Douglas |first3 = Carolyn |last4 = Schwartz |first4 = Anna |chapter = Assessing Domains of Function |date = 2017 |title = Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: A Clinical Manual |edition = 2 |publisher = WILEY Blackwell |page = 37 |isbn = 978-1-119-14198-3 |quote=adapted from Gabbard}}</ref> **''Humor''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Altruism''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Sublimation''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Suppression''<ref name=Gabbard/> *More adaptive<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Isolation of affect''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Intellectualization''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Rationalization''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Displacement''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Somatization''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Undoing''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Reaction formation''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Identification''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Excessive emotionality''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Externalization''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Sexualization''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Repression''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Turning against the self''<ref name=Gabbard/> *Less adaptive<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Splitting''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Projection''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Pathological idealization and devaluation''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Projective identification''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Denial''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Dissociation''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Acting out''<ref name=Gabbard/> **''Regression''<ref name=Gabbard/>

== Vaillant's categorization == Psychiatrist George Eman Vaillant introduced a four-level classification of defence mechanisms.<ref name="Cramer">{{cite book |title=Protecting the Self |last=Cramer |first=Phebe |publisher=The Guilford Press |date=May 2006 |isbn=9781593855284 |page=17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Vaillant |first=George |date=1994 |title=Ego mechanisms of defense and personality psychopathology |url=http://web.vu.lt/uki/s.kontrimiene/files/2011/10/Vaillant.-Ego-mechanisms-of-defense.pdf |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=44–50 |doi=10.1037/0021-843X.103.1.44 |pmid=8040479 |archive-date=2022-09-26 |access-date=2020-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926022044/http://web.vu.lt/uki/s.kontrimiene/files/2011/10/Vaillant.-Ego-mechanisms-of-defense.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Much of this work is derived from his observations while overseeing the Grant Study, a longitudinal investigation that began in 1937 and continues to the present.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vaillant |first=George E. |title=Aging Well: Surprising Guideposts to a Happier Life from the Landmark Harvard Study of Adult Development |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2002 |isbn=9780316989362}}</ref> In monitoring a cohort of Harvard men from their freshman year through late adulthood, Vaillant sought to determine which psychological mechanisms influenced long-term adaptation and life outcomes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vaillant |first=George E. |title=Adaptation to Life |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=1977 |isbn=0-316-89520-2}}</ref> The hierarchy of defences was found to correlate with overall psychological maturity and the capacity to adapt effectively to life’s challenges.<ref name="Vaillant1986">{{cite journal |last1=Vaillant |first1=George E. |last2=Bond |first2=Michael |last3=Vaillant |first3=Carolyn O. |year=1986 |title=An empirically validated hierarchy of defence mechanisms |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=43 |pages=786–794 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800190080012}}</ref> The overarching aim of the study was to define the characteristics of mental health rather than psychopathology.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vaillant |first=George E. |title=Aging Well: Surprising Guideposts to a Happier Life from the Landmark Harvard Study of Adult Development |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2002 |isbn=9780316989362 |page=12}}</ref>

* Level I – pathological defences (psychotic denial, delusional projection) * Level II – immature defences (fantasy, projection, passive aggression, acting out) * Level III – neurotic defences (intellectualization, reaction formation, dissociation, displacement, repression) * Level IV – mature defences (humour, sublimation, suppression, altruism, anticipation)

===Level 1: pathological=== When predominant, the mechanisms on this level are almost always severely pathological. These defences permit the individual to radically reshape external reality in order to avoid coping with it. Pathological users of these mechanisms may appear irrational or insane to others. These are the “pathological” defences, commonly observed in overt psychosis, although they also appear in dreams and in normal childhood development.<ref name="Vaillant1986"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Laplanche |first=Jean |last2=Pontalis |first2=Jean-Bertrand |title=The Language of Psycho-Analysis |publisher=Karnac Books |year=1973 |isbn=9780946439861 |pages=390–392}}</ref>

They include: * ''Delusional projection'': Delusions about external reality, usually of a persecutory nature. * ''Denial'': Refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening; resolving emotional conflict and reducing anxiety by rejecting or failing to acknowledge unpleasant aspects of reality. * ''Distortion'': A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal needs.

===Level 2: immature=== These mechanisms are often present in adults. They lessen distress and anxiety produced by threatening people or by an uncomfortable reality. Excessive use of such defences is seen as socially undesirable, in that they are immature, difficult to deal with, and seriously out of touch with reality. These defences are often seen in major depression and personality disorders.<ref name="Vaillant1986"/>

They include: * ''Acting out'': Direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse in action, without conscious awareness of the emotion that drives the expressive behavior. * ''Hypochondriasis'': An excessive preoccupation or worry about having a serious illness. * ''Passive-aggressive behavior'': Indirect expression of hostility. * ''Projection'': A primitive form of paranoia. Projection reduces anxiety by allowing the expression of undesirable impulses or desires without conscious awareness; attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts and emotions to another. * ''Schizoid fantasy'': Tendency to retreat into fantasy in order to resolve inner and outer conflicts. * ''Splitting''.<ref name="McWilliams">{{cite book |title=Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process, Second Edition |last=McWilliams |first=Nancy |publisher=The Guilford Press |year=2011 |isbn=9781609184940 |location=New York, NY |pages=60, 63, 103}}</ref>

===Level 3: neurotic=== These mechanisms are considered neurotic, but fairly common in adults. Such defences have short-term advantages in coping but can cause long-term problems in relationships, work, and enjoyment of life when used as one's primary coping style.<ref name="Vaillant1986"/>

They include: * ''Displacement'': Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable or less threatening target. * ''Dissociation'': Temporary drastic modification of one's personal identity or character to avoid emotional distress. * ''Intellectualization'': Excessively analytical or abstract thought patterns used to block out conflicting or disturbing feelings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bailey |first1=Ryan |last2=Pico |first2=Jose |title=Defense Mechanisms |date=2022 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/ |work=StatPearls |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32644532 |access-date=2022-06-28}}</ref> * ''Isolation of affect'': Detachment of emotion from an idea, making it "flat." Frequently observed in obsessive–compulsive disorder and in non-disordered people following traumatic events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Isolation of affect |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012916 |access-date=2022-06-28 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en}}</ref> * ''Reaction formation'': Converting unconscious wishes or impulses perceived as dangerous or unacceptable into their opposites. * ''Repression'': Attempting to repel desires toward pleasurable instincts by moving them into the unconscious.<ref name="LaplancheP390">Laplanche pp. 390, 392 {{full citation needed|date=May 2017}}</ref><ref>[http://www.eric.vcu.edu/home/resources/pipc/Other/Personality/Table_Defenses.pdf Psychological Defenses from DSM-IV (see Repression)], Virginia Commonwealth University. Retrieved December 12, 2014.</ref>

===Level 4: mature=== These mechanisms are commonly found among emotionally healthy adults and are considered mature, even though many originate in earlier developmental stages. They are conscious processes adapted over time to optimise success in society and relationships. Their use enhances pleasure and feelings of control and helps integrate conflicting emotions and thoughts.<ref name="Vaillant1986"/>

Mature defences include: * ''Altruism'': Constructive service to others that brings pleasure and personal satisfaction. * ''Anticipation'': Realistic planning for future discomfort. * ''Humour'': Expression of ideas and feelings that gives pleasure to others while retaining some of their innate distress. * ''Sublimation'': Transformation of unhelpful emotions or instincts into healthy actions; for example, channeling aggression into a contact sport.<ref name="autogenerated483">Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner (2011), ''Psychology'' (2nd ed.), Worth Publishers, p. 483.</ref> * ''Suppression'': Conscious decision to delay attention to a thought, emotion, or need in order to cope with present reality.

== Perry's defence mechanism rating scale (DMRS) == The defence Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS) includes thirty processes of defence that are divided into 7 categories. Starting from the highest level of adaptiveness these levels include: high-adaptive, obsessional, neurotic, minor image-distorting, disavowal, major image-distorting, and action. The scale was originally created by J. Christopher Perry for the purpose of being able to provide patients with a "defence diagnosis."<ref name="Elsevier"/> Additions have been made by Mariagrazia Di Giuseppe and colleagues to enlarge the application of the DMRS, creating the DMRS self report and DMRS-Q sort.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Giuseppe |first1=Mariagrazia |last2=Perry |first2=John Christopher |last3=Lucchesi |first3=Matilde |last4=Michelini |first4=Monica |last5=Vitiello |first5=Sara |last6=Piantanida |first6=Aurora |last7=Fabiani |first7=Matilde |last8=Maffei |first8=Sara |last9=Conversano |first9=Ciro |date=2020 |title=Preliminary Reliability and Validity of the DMRS-SR-30, a Novel Self-Report Measure Based on the Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=11 |article-number=870 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00870 |doi-access=free |pmid=33005160 |issn=1664-0640|pmc=7479239 }}</ref>

Psychologist J. Perry follows a system that ranks defence mechanisms into seven levels, ranging from a high-adaptive defence level to a psychotic defence level. Assessments carried out when analyzing patients such as the Defence Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS) and Vaillant's hierarchy of defense mechanisms have been used and modified for over 40 years to provide numerical data on the state of a person's defensive functioning.<ref name="Elsevier">{{Citation |last1=Perry |first1=J. Christopher |title=Studying Defense Mechanisms in Psychotherapy using the Defense Mechanism Rating Scales |date=2004 |work=Defense Mechanisms - Theoretical, Research and Clinical Perspectives |pages=165–192 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4115(04)80034-7 |access-date=2024-05-02 |publisher=Elsevier |last2=Henry |first2=Melissa|series=Advances in Psychology |volume=136 |doi=10.1016/s0166-4115(04)80034-7 |isbn=978-0-444-51263-5 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Level 0: psychotic defences === Psychotic defence mechanisms (P-DMRS) occur when one confronts a stressor, eliciting ''psychotic denial'', ''autistic withdrawal'', ''distortion'', ''delusional projection'', ''fragmentation'', or ''concretization''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Berney |first1 = S. |last2 = De Roten |first2 = Y. |last3 = Beretta |first3 = V. |last4 = Kramer |first4 = U. |last5 = Despland |first5 = J. |date = 2014 |title = Identifying psychotic defenses in a clinical interview |url = https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22087 |journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume = 70 |issue = 5 |publisher = Wiley |pages = 428–439 |doi = 10.1002/jclp.22087 |access-date = 2026-03-11}}</ref>

=== Level 1: action defences === Action defence mechanisms are used unconsciously to help reduce stress. Examples include passive aggression, help-rejecting complaining, and acting out, which channel impulses into appropriate behaviors. These processes offer short-term relief but may prevent lasting improvements in the root causes.

=== Level 2: major image-distorting defences === Major image-distorting mechanisms are used to guard a person's own image and their ego from perceived dangers, conflicts, or fears. These processes involve simplifying the way a person sees themselves and others. Splitting of one's self or other's image and projective identification both work on an unconscious level and help to alter reality, enabling these individuals to uphold a more positive view of their lives or situations.

=== Level 3: disavowal defences === Disavowal defence mechanisms include the rejection or denial of unpleasant ideas, emotions, or events. People sometimes distance themselves from certain parts of their identity, whether they are aware of it or not, in order to avoid feelings of unease or discomfort. Mechanisms such as autistic fantasy, rationalization, denial, and projection, can help shield one's ego from feelings of stress or guilt that arise when facing reality.

=== Level 4: minor image-distorting defences === Level four defence mechanisms serve the purpose of protecting an individual's self-esteem. There are several processes that people may use, such as devaluation and idealization of self-image and others-image, as well as omnipotence. These mechanisms assist in preserving a healthy self-perception during times of psychological instability.

=== Level 5: neurotic defences === These defences are strategies that the mind uses without conscious awareness in order to manage anxiety, which is often a result of ongoing conflicts. There are several mechanisms that people use to cope with distressing thoughts and emotions. These include repression, displacement, dissociation, and reaction formation. These defences may offer brief relief; however, they can inhibit development in oneself and contribute to harmful habits.

=== Level 6: obsessional defences === Obsessional defences refer to mental techniques that individuals utilize to cope with anxiety by exerting control over their thoughts, emotions, or behaviors. People may rely on strict routines, a desire for perfection, or a strong need for order to maintain a sense of control and avoid facing uncertainty or undesirable impulses. These defences, such as isolation of affects, intellectualization, and undoing, provide a short-term solution but can result in the development of obsessive-compulsive behaviors and hinder one's capacity to express and adapt to emotions.

=== Level 7: high-adaptative defences === This level of defences allow individuals to cope with stressors, challenges, and trauma. Mechanisms, such as sublimation, affiliation, self-assertion, suppression, altruism, anticipation, humor, and self-observation play a role in building resilience. They allow individuals to redefine challenges in a beneficial way that maximizes positivity. In doing so, they enhance their psychological well-being and encourage adaptation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Giuseppe |first1=Mariagrazia |last2=Perry |first2=J. Christopher |date=2021 |title=The Hierarchy of Defense Mechanisms: Assessing Defensive Functioning With the Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales Q-Sort |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |article-number=718440 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718440 |doi-access=free |pmid=34721167 |issn=1664-1078|pmc=8555762 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Perry |first1=J. Christopher |last2=Henry |first2=Melissa |title=Defense Mechanisms - Theoretical, Research and Clinical Perspectives |chapter=Studying Defense Mechanisms in Psychotherapy using the Defense Mechanism Rating Scales |series=Advances in Psychology |date=2004 |volume=136 |pages=165–192 |doi=10.1016/S0166-4115(04)80034-7 |isbn=978-0-444-51263-5 |chapter-url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-19502-009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The DMRS-Q |url=https://dmrs-q.com/dmrs-q |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=dmrs-q.com |language=it-it}}</ref>

== Relation with coping == {{See also|Coping}} {{Expand section|date=August 2016}} There are multiple different perspectives on how the construct of ''defence'' relates to the construct of ''coping.'' While the two concepts share multiple similarities, there is a distinct difference between them that depends on the state of consciousness the process is carried out in. The process of coping involves using logic and reason to stabilize negative emotions and stressors. This differs from defence, which is driven by impulse and urges.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haan |first=Norma |url=http://archive.org/details/copingdefendingp0000haan |title=Coping and defending : processes of self-environment organization |date=1977 |publisher=New York : Academic Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-12-312350-3}}</ref><ref name="Cramer 1998 919–946">{{Cite journal |last=Cramer |first=Phebe |date=1998 |title=Coping and Defense Mechanisms: What's the Difference? |url=https://www.academia.edu/28773917 |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=919–946 |doi=10.1111/1467-6494.00037 |issn=0022-3506}}</ref>

Similarities between coping and defense mechanisms have been extensively studied in relation to various mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felton |first1=Barbara J. |last2=Revenson |first2=Tracey A. |date=1984 |title=Coping with chronic illness: A study of illness controllability and the influence of coping strategies on psychological adjustment. |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/ccp/52/3/343 |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |language=en |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=343–353 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.52.3.343 |pmid=6747054 |issn=0022-006X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Research indicates that these mechanisms often follow specific patterns within different disorders, with some, like avoidant coping, potentially exacerbating future symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bornstein |first1=Robert F. |last2=Bianucci |first2=Violeta |last3=Fishman |first3=Daniel P. |last4=Biars |first4=Julia W. |date=2014-04-01 |title=Toward a Firmer Foundation for DSM-5.1 : Domains of Impairment in DSM-IV/DSM-5 Personality Disorders |url=http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/pedi_2013_27_116 |journal=Journal of Personality Disorders |language=en |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=212–224 |doi=10.1521/pedi_2013_27_116 |pmid=23786269 |issn=0885-579X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This aligns with the vulnerability-stress psychopathology model, which involves two core components: vulnerability (non-adaptive mechanisms and processes) and stress (life events).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nuechterlein |first1=K. H. |last2=Dawson |first2=M. E. |date=1984-01-01 |title=A Heuristic Vulnerability/Stress Model of Schizophrenic Episodes |url=https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/schbul/10.2.300 |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=300–312 |doi=10.1093/schbul/10.2.300 |pmid=6729414 |issn=0586-7614|doi-access=free }}</ref> These factors interact to create a threshold for the development of mental disorders. The types of coping and defense mechanisms used can either contribute to vulnerability or act as protective factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yank |first1=Glenn R. |last2=Bentley |first2=Kia J. |last3=Hargrove |first3=David S. |date=1993 |title=The vulnerability-stress model of schizophrenia: Advances in psychosocial treatment. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0079401 |journal=American Journal of Orthopsychiatry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=55–69 |doi=10.1037/h0079401 |pmid=8427312 |issn=1939-0025|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Coping and defence mechanisms work in tandem to balance out feelings of anxiety or guilt, categorizing them both as a "mechanisms of adaptation."<ref name="Cramer 1998 919–946"/>

== Criticism == Criticism regarding defence mechanisms focus on the lack of empirical evidence as most of the evidence for defence mechanisms comes from clinical observations and subjective interpretations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Defense Mechanisms - The Behavioral Scientist |url=https://www.thebehavioralscientist.com/glossary/defense-mechanisms |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=www.thebehavioralscientist.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Critics have stated that due to the difficult nature of studying defence mechanisms that future research should distinguish more between the theoretical constructs of defence mechanisms and actual behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mihalits |first1=Dominik Stefan |last2=Codenotti |first2=Marco |date=June 2020 |title=The Conceptual Tragedy in Studying Defense Mechanisms |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12124-020-09515-6 |journal=Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science |language=en |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=354–369 |doi=10.1007/s12124-020-09515-6 |pmid=31955367 |issn=1932-4502|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== See also == {{Div col}} * {{section link|Coherence therapy|Symptom coherence}} * Personality disorder – Maladaptive patterns of behavior * {{annotated link|Cognitive dissonance}} * {{annotated link|Experiential avoidance}} * {{annotated link|List of cognitive biases}} * {{annotated link|List of maladaptive schemas}} * {{annotated link|Motivated forgetting}} * {{annotated link|Motivated reasoning}} * {{annotated link|Narcissistic defences}} * {{annotated link|Psychological resistance}} * {{annotated link|Self-enhancement}} {{Div col end}}

==References== {{reflist|30em}}

==External links== *{{Commons category-inline}} *{{Cite web |title=Being Defensive: How psychotherapy sees you |url=https://informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/being-defensive/ |author=David McCandless |type=Figure |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Information is Beautiful |language=en }}

{{Defense mechanisms}} {{authority control}}

Category:Defence mechanisms Category:Psychoanalytic terminology Category:Psychological adjustment