Darkling beetle

{{Short description|Family of beetles}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = {{fossil range|Late Jurassic|Recent}} | image = Onymacris unguicularis MHNT.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Onymacris unguicularis]]'' ([[Tenebrioninae]]: [[Adesmiini]]) Scale bar (bottom left) is 10 mm | taxon = Tenebrionidae | display_parents = 3 | authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802 | subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies | subdivision = See text | synonyms = Alleculidae }}

'''Darkling beetle''' is the [[common name]] for members of the [[beetle]] family '''Tenebrionidae''', comprising over 20,000 [[species]] in a cosmopolitan distribution.

==Taxonomy== ''Tenebrio'' is the Latin [[genus|generic]] name that [[Carl Linnaeus]] assigned to some [[flour beetle]]s in his ''[[10th edition of Systema Naturae]]'' 1758–59.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/carolilinniani00linn |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=Caroli Linnæi ... Animalium specierum in classes, ordines, genera, species, methodica dispositio .. |page=134 |place=Leiden |publisher=Theodor Haak |language=Latin |year=1759}}</ref> The name means "lover of darkness";<ref name= "Jaeger">{{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Edmund Carroll |author-link=Edmund Jaeger|title=A source-book of biological names and terms |publisher=Charles C. Thomas |location=Springfield, IL |orig-date=1959 |date=1978 |edition=6th printing, 3rd |page=259 |isbn=0398009163 |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofbiol0000jaeg/page/258/mode/2up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}</ref> the English language term 'darkling' means "characterised by darkness or obscurity";<ref name= "isbn0-19-861271-0">{{cite book |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Lesley |title=The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles, Vol. 1, A–M |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1993 |page=594 |isbn=0198612710 |url=https://archive.org/details/newshorteroxford00lesl |url-access=registration }}</ref> see also English 'tenebrous', figuratively "obscure, gloomy."<ref name=Onions>{{cite book |editor-last=Onions |editor-first=C. T. |editor-link=C. T. Onions |title=The shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles, Vol. 2, N-Z |page=2261 |edition=Reset with revised etymologies and addenda, 3rd |place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://archive.org/details/shorteroxfordeng0000litt/page/2260/mode/2up |url-access=registration |date=1973|isbn=978-0-19-861116-5 }}</ref>

Many Tenebrionidae species inhabit dark places; in [[genera]] such as ''Stenocara'' and ''Onymacris'', they are active by day and inactive at night.

The family covers a varied range of forms, such that classification presents great difficulties. These eleven subfamilies were listed in the 2021 review by Bouchard, Bousquet, ''et al.'', updating a similar catalog from 2005.<ref name=Bouchard2021/><ref name="BLDN">Bouchard, Patrice; Lawrence, John F.; Davies, Anthony E.; Newton, Alfred F. (2005) [https://www.miiz.waw.pl/periodicals/annales-zoologici/abstracts/AZ_55-4abs.pdf "Synoptic Classification of the World Tenebrionidae (Insecta: Coleoptera) with a Review of Family-Group Names"]. ''Annales Zoologici'' (Warszawa), 55(4): 499–530.</ref> * [[Alleculinae]] Laporte, 1840 * [[Blaptinae]] Leach, 1815 * [[Diaperinae]] Latreille, 1802 * [[Kuhitangiinae]] G.S. Medvedev, 1962 * [[Lagriinae]] Latreille, 1825 * [[Nilioninae]] Oken, 1843 * [[Phrenapatinae]] Solier, 1834 * [[Pimeliinae]] Latreille, 1802 * [[Stenochiinae]] Kirby, 1837 * [[Tenebrioninae]] Latreille, 1802 * [[Zolodininae]] Watt, 1975

Ongoing phylogenetic studies are showing that some taxonomic changes are needed. For instance the tribal classification of tribe [[Pedinini]] has recently been altered.<ref name="Kaminski2019">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zly033|title=Molecular phylogeny of Pedinini (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) and its implications for higher-level classification|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=185|issue=1|pages=77–97|year=2019|last1=Kamiński |first1=M.J. |last2=Kanda |first2=K. |last3=Lumen |first3=R. |last4=Smith |first4=A.D. |last5=Iwan |first5=D.}}</ref>

The misspelling "Te'''r'''ebrionidae" occurs frequently enough to be easily overlooked.<ref name="Hill1997">{{cite book|author=Dennis S. Hill|title=The Economic Importance of Insects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RKQIAqMyBJgC&pg=PA109|year=1997|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0412498008|pages=109–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Egyptian Beetle (Blaps polychresta) - by Graeme Ruck - JungleDragon |url=https://www.jungledragon.com/image/12213/egyptian_beetle_blaps_polychresta.html |access-date=2023-02-02 |website=www.jungledragon.com |language=en}}</ref> The error appears to have no particular significance, but to be the product of misreadings, mis-scans and mis-typings. [[File:Tenebrionidae Beetle, Little Stsimons Island, Georgia, face 2016-02-03-17.04 (24717881181).jpg|thumb|''Tenebrionidae'' head]]

The oldest known member of the family is ''[[Jurallecula]]'' from the [[Late Jurassic]] [[Karabastau Formation]] of Kazakhstan, assigned to the subfamily Alleculinae.

==Characteristics== The Tenebrionidae may be identified by a combination of features, including: * Their eleven-segmented [[Antenna (biology)|antenna]]e that may be [[wikt:filiform|filiform]], [[Antenna (biology)|moniliform]] or weakly clubbed * First abdominal [[sternite]] is entire and not divided by the hind [[Arthropod coxa|coxa]]e * Eyes notched by a frontal ridge * Four segments in the hind pair of [[Arthropod leg|tarsi]] and five in the fore and mid-legs (5–5–4), with simple claws

==Biology and ecology== Tenebrionid beetles occupy [[ecological niche]]s in mainly deserts and forests as plant [[scavenger]]s. Most species are generalistic [[omnivores]], and feed on decaying leaves, rotting wood, fresh plant matter, dead insects, and fungi as larvae and adults.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bugguide.net/node/view/7187|title=Species Bolitotherus cornutus – Forked Fungus Beetle}}</ref> Several genera, including ''Bolitotherus'', are specialized [[fungivores]] which feed on [[polypore]]s. Many of the larger species are flightless, and those that are capable, such as [[Tenebrio molitor|''T. molitor'']], often rarely do so.<ref>{{YouTube|id=rGDd3S8XOYI|title=Flying Mealworm Beetle (Tenebrio molitor)}}</ref><ref name="bugguide.net">{{Cite web |title=Family Tenebrionidae - Darkling Beetles |url=https://bugguide.net/node/view/152 |access-date=2023-02-02 |website=bugguide.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americaninsects.net/b/bolitotherus-cornutus.html|title=Bolitotherus cornutus|access-date=2015-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122536/http://www.americaninsects.net/b/bolitotherus-cornutus.html|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:Eleodes (Eleodes) tribulus larva.jpg|thumb|A tenebrionid larva (''[[Eleodes]]'' sp.)]] The [[larvae]], known as [[mealworms]] or false wireworms, are usually [[fossorial]], heavily [[Sclerotization|sclerotized]] and nocturnal. They may possibly be an important resource for certain [[invertebrates]] and small [[mammals]]. Adults of many species have chemical defenses and are relatively protected against predators.<ref name="bugguide.net"/> Adults of most species, except grain pests, have slow metabolisms, and live long lives compared to other insects, ranging from approximately six months to two years.

[[Namib Desert beetle|Some species]] live in intensely dry deserts such as the [[Namib desert|Namib]], and have evolved adaptions by which they collect droplets of fog that deposit on their [[Elytron|elytra]]. As the droplets accumulate the water drains down the beetles' backs to their mouthparts, where they swallow it.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Desert beetles inspire aircraft design that doesn't freeze|url=http://www.zmescience.com/research/technology/desert-beetles-aicraft-freeze-042352/|website=ZME Science|access-date=2016-01-27|language=en-US|date=2016-01-25}}</ref>

Humans spread some species such that they have become cosmopolitan, such as ''[[Tribolium castaneum]]'', the red flour beetle, which was spread through grain products.

==Notable types== The [[larva]]l stages of several species are cultured as [[feeder insect]]s for captive [[insectivore]]s or as laboratory subjects: * ''[[Tenebrio molitor]]'', or [[mealworm]], is commonly used to feed terrestrial [[amniote]]s kept in [[terrarium|terraria]]. * ''[[Tribolium castaneum]]'' is a laboratory animal useful as a [[model organism]], especially in studies of [[intragenomic conflict]] and population ecology. * ''[[Zophobas morio]]'', or [[superworm]], is valued as a feed for captive reptiles; it contains less [[chitin]] than ''Tenebrio molitor''. * ''[[Alphitobius diaperinus]]'', lesser mealworm<ref name=alphdi/> * Many tenebrionids are pests of [[cereal]] and [[flour]] [[Storage silo|silo]]s and other storage facilities, including ''T. castaneum'', other ''[[Tribolium (beetle)|Tribolium]]'' species such as ''[[Tribolium confusum]]'' and ''[[Tribolium destructor]]'', and ''[[Gnatocerus cornutus]].'' * In southwestern North America, species of the genus ''[[Eleodes]]'' (particularly ''[[Eleodes obscura|E. obscura]]'') are well known as "[[pinacate beetle]]s" or "desert stink beetles". * Several genera, such as ''[[Stenocara]]'' and ''[[Onymacris]]'', are of interest in ecological studies of arid conditions and their associated adaptations. * ''[[Ulomoides dermestoides]]'', known as "Chinese weevil", "peanut beetle", "cancer beetle", or "asthma beetle", is eaten in Argentina where it is thought to be a treatment for cancer, asthma, and other illnesses. * ''[[Luprops tristis]]'' is found in India, where it is known as the Mupli beetle. It is notorious for a defensive secretion that causes skin burns. Since they congregate in large numbers, they can easily become a pest.

== Gallery == {{Gallery |mode=packed |Diaperis boleti MHNT Fronton.jpg|''[[Diaperis boleti]]'' under bark of [[oak]]. |Lagria sp.jpg|''[[Lagria]]'' sp. ([[Lagriinae]]) in [[Tanzania]] |Tenebrionid sal.jpg|''[[Platynotus excavatus]]'', India |Stenocara dentata.jpg|''[[Stenocara dentata]]'' in southern Africa |Gonopus tibialis (Fabricius, 1798) (3989862005).jpg|''[[Gonopus tibialis]]'' |Piedishbeetle.jpg|Pie dish beetle, ''[[Helea]]'' sp. in Australia |Hegemona sp. Darkling Beetle, Caves Branch Jungle Lodge, Belmopan, Belize.jpg|''Hegemona'' sp. (De Laporte, 1840) from Belize |Neomida bicornis male.jpg|''[[Neomida bicornis]]'', male |Neomida bicornis female.jpg|''Neomida bicornis'', female |Meracantha contracta.jpg|''[[Meracantha contracta]]'', USA }}

==References== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name=alphdi>[http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/livestock/poultry/lesser_mealworm.htm ''Alphitobius diaperinus'', lesser mealworm.] [[University of Florida]] [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences|IFAS]]</ref> <ref name=Bouchard2021> {{Cite journal | title = Review of genus-group names in the family Tenebrionidae (Insecta, Coleoptera) | date = 2021 | last1 = Bouchard | first1 = Patrice | last2 = Bousquet | first2 = Yves | last3 = Aalbu | first3 = Rolf L. | last4 = Alonso-Zarazaga | first4 = Miguel A. | last5 = Merkl | first5 = Ottó | last6 = Davies | first6 = Anthony E. | display-authors = 4 | journal = ZooKeys | issue = 1050 | pages = 1–633 | url = https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/64217/ | doi = 10.3897/zookeys.1050.64217 | pmid = 34385881 | pmc = 8328949 | hdl = 10261/250214 | hdl-access = free | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2021ZooK.1050....1B }}</ref>

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==External links== * [http://www.tenebrionidae.net Tenebrionidae.net- information and pictures about darkling beetles]

[[Category:Tenebrionidae|*]] [[Category:Beetle families]] [[Category:Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille]]