Culture of Madagascar

{{Image frame|content={{multiple image |border = infobox | total_width = 500 | perrow = 2/2/2/2/2/2/2|image2= Hiragasy in Ambositra 01.JPG |image3= Lamba of Madagascar - detail lambahoany.jpg |image4= Sihanaka woman in Antananariv, Madagascar playing a Valiha, pre 1912 A.D.jpg |image5= Original wooden manjakamiadana palace of Ranavalona I of Madagascar.jpg |image6= Madagaskar stew 2019-10-01.jpg |image7= Famadihana-–-dancing-with-dead.jpg |image8= Statue of Ranavalona III.jpg |image9= Anon-Madagascar - Antongona.jpg |image10= Fondation H, Antananarivo Madagascar (21980).jpg |image11= Fondation H, Antananarivo Madagascar (16402).jpg }}}}

{{Short description|none}}  The '''culture of Madagascar''' reflects the origins of the [[Malagasy people]] in [[Southeast Asia]], [[East Africa]] and [[Oceania]]. The influence of [[Arabs]], Indians, British, French and Chinese settlers is also evident.

The most emblematic musical instrument of [[Madagascar]], the ''[[valiha]]'', is a [[bamboo]] [[tube zither]] carried to the island by early settlers from [[South Kalimantan|southern Borneo]], and is very similar in form to those found in [[Music of Indonesia|Indonesia]] and the [[Music of the Philippines|Philippines]] today.<ref name="Blench, R. 1982 pp. 81-93">{{cite journal | last = Blench | first = Roger | title = Evidence for the Indonesian origins of certain elements of African culture | journal = African Music | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–93 | year = 1982 | doi = 10.21504/amj.v6i2.1118 | jstor = 30249759| doi-access = }}</ref> Traditional [[Architecture of Madagascar|houses in Madagascar]] are likewise similar to those of southern [[Borneo]] in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kus |first1 = Susan |last2 = Raharijaona |first2 = Victor | title = House to Palace, Village to State: Scaling up Architecture and Ideology |journal = American Anthropologist |series=New Series |issue = 102 |volume = 1 |pages = 98–113 |year = 2000 |doi = 10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.98}}</ref> Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.<ref name="Acquier, Jean-Louis.">Acquier (1997), pp. 143–175</ref>

The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven ''[[lamba (garment)|lamba]]'', has evolved into a varied and refined art.<ref>Kusimba, Odland & Bronson (2004), p. 12</ref> The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in [[Malagasy cuisine]], in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.<ref name="Antal" />

African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. [[Cattle raiding|Cattle rustling]], originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.<ref name="Camp93">{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Gwyn | title = The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 | journal = The International Journal of African Historical Studies | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | year = 1993 | pages = 111–148 | doi = 10.2307/219188 | jstor = 219188 }}</ref>

==Worldview and religions== {{Pie chart | thumb = left | caption = Religion in Madagascar (2020) according to the [[Pew Research Center]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar/religious_demography|title=Religions in Madagascar | PEW-GRF|access-date=2023-08-15|archive-date=2021-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514155022/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar/religious_demography|url-status=dead}}</ref> | label1 = [[Christian]] | value1 = 85.4 | color1 = Blue | label3 = [[Muslim]] | value3 = 3 | color3 = Green | label2 = [[Animism|Folk religions]] | value2 = 4.6 | color2 = Beige | label4 = Unaffiliated/Other | value4 = 7 | color4 = Grey }}

===Traditional worldview=== [[File:Mahafaly tomb painted carved south Madagascar.jpg|200px|thumb|alt=Low rectangular tomb carved and painted with geometric shapes |Mahafaly tomb with traditional painted decoration]] 4.6% of the Island's population is solely adherent to the traditional religion of [[Sakalava people|Fomba-gasy]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Possessed and the Dispossessed |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft6t1nb4hz&chunk.id=s3.3.11&toc.id=s2.3.7&toc.depth=1&brand=ucpress&anchor.id=d0e1989 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref> which tends to emphasize links between the living and the ''razana'' (ancestors). The [[Veneration of the dead|veneration of ancestors]] has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the ''[[famadihana]]'', whereby a deceased family member's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere.<ref name="Muhammadan">{{cite news|last=Bearak |first=Barry |title=Dead Join the Living in a Family Celebration |newspaper=New York Times |page=A7 |date=5 September 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127041227/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html |archive-date=27 January 2012 |access-date=13 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Across the island, many Malagasy make offerings out of respect to the ancestors, such as by pouring the first cap-full of each newly opened bottle of rum into the northeastern corner of the room.<ref>Nativel & Rajaonah (2009), p. 165</ref>

Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to ''[[Fady (taboo)|fady]]'', taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called [[Zanahary]] or Andriamanitra.<ref name="Bradtbeliefs">Bradt (2011), pp. 13–20</ref>

===Social structure and values=== Each of the many ethnic sub-groups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize ''fihavanana'' (solidarity), ''vintana'' (destiny), ''tody'' (karma), and ''[[Hasina (Madagascar)|hasina]]'', a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.<ref name="Bradtbeliefs" /><ref name="LOC">{{cite web| last = Metz | first = Helen Chapin |author-link=Helen Chapin Metz |year = 1994 | title = Library of Congress Country Studies: Madagascar | url=http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ | access-date =1 February 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051109090930/http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ | url-status = live |archive-date = 9 November 2005}}</ref>[[File:Hira gasy musicians 2008.jpg|thumb|Hiragasy musicians wearing coordinating lambas]]Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity and roles within the community.<ref>Middleton (1999), pp. 259–262, 272, 309</ref> Malagasy people traditionally consult ''Mpanandro'' ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or ''famadihana'', according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ''ombiasy'' (from ''olona-be-hasina'', "man of much virtue") of the southeastern [[Antemoro people|Antemoro]] ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.<ref>Ames (2003), p. 101</ref>

===Introduced religions=== Majority of the Malagasy population adheres to [[Christianity]], with practitioners of [[Protestantism]] slightly outnumbering adherents to [[Roman Catholicism in Madagascar|Roman Catholicism]].<ref name=BGNote>{{cite web|last=Bureau of African Affairs |title=Background Note: Madagascar |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=3 May 2011 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm |access-date=24 August 2011 }}</ref> Today, most Malagasy Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring their ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a [[minister (Christianity)|Christian minister]] to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial.<ref name="Muhammadan" />

Many Malagasy believe they are descended from ancient Israelites and refer to a [[Jews in Madagascar|Malagasy Jewish]] diaspora (Diaspora Jiosy Gasy), with asserted signs such as dietary, menstrual, and life-cycle practices. In 2011, a normative Jewish movement was started and soon recognized by the government.<ref>Devir, Natan. "Origins and Motivations of Madagascar's Normative Jewish Movement." ''Becoming Jewish'' (2016): 49–63.</ref>

Islam is practiced by around 3% of the population, with practitioners largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of [[Mahajanga]] and [[Antsiranana]]. The vast majority of [[Muslim]]s are [[Sunni]] and are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, [[Demographics of India|Indians]], [[Demography of Pakistan|Pakistanis]] and [[Comoros|Comorians]]. More recently, [[Hinduism]] was introduced to Madagascar through [[Gujarati people]] immigrating from the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] region of [[India]] in the late 19th century.<ref name="id">{{cite web | title = Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora | publisher = Ministry of External Affairs, India | year = 2004 | url = http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf | access-date = 22 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030629092115/http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 29 June 2003 }}</ref>

===Perception of time===

The Malagasy people of Madagascar see time in a cyclical manner. They imagine the future as flowing into the back of their heads, or passing them from behind, then becoming the past as it stretches out in front of them. The past is in front of their eyes because it is visible, known and influential. They can look at it, enjoy it, learn from it, even "play" with it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/how-different-cultures-understand-time-2014-5|title = How Different Cultures Understand Time| website=[[Business Insider]] }}</ref>

In his 1915 book ''A naturalist in Madagascar'', naturalist [[James Sibree]] published the following table of Malagasy terms used to refer to times of day and night:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sibree |first=James |title=A naturalist in Madagascar: a record of observation, experiences, and impressions made during a period of over fifty years' intimate association with the natives and study of the animal & vegetable life of the island |publisher=Seeley, Service & Co., Limited |year=1915 |location=London |pages=93–94 |language=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" |+ !Malagasy term !English translation !Time of day (approximate) |- |''Mamaton’ alina'' |Centre of night | rowspan="2" |12:00 AM; midnight |- |''Misasaka alina'' |Halving of night |- |''Maneno sahona'' |Frog croaking |2:00 AM |- |''Maneno akoho'' |Cock-crowing |3:00 AM |- |''Maraina alina koa'' |Morning also night |4:00 AM |- |''Maneno goaika'' |Crow croaking |5:00 AM |- |''Manga vodilanitra'' |Bright horizon | rowspan="3" |5:15 AM |- |''Mangoan’ atsinanana'' |Reddish East |- |''Mangiran-dratsy'' |Glimmer of day |- |''Ahitan-tsoratr’ omby'' |Colors of cattle can be seen | rowspan="4" |5:30 AM |- |''Mazava ratsy'' |Dusk |- |''Mifoha lo-maozoto'' |Diligent people awake |- |''Maraina koa'' |Early morning |- |''Vaky masoandro'' |Sunrise | rowspan="5" |6:00 AM |- |''Vaky andro'' | rowspan="2" |Daybreak |- |''Piakandro'' |- |''Antoandro be nanahary'' | rowspan="2" |Broad daylight |- |''Efa bana ny andro'' |- |''Mihintsana ando'' |Dew-falls | rowspan="2" |6:15 AM |- |''Mivoaka omby'' |Cattle go out (to pasture) |- |''Maim-bohon-dravina'' |Leaves are dry (from dew) |6:30 AM |- |''Afa-dranom-panala''{{Efn|Used only in the winter months}} |Hoar-frost disappears | rowspan="2" |6:45 AM |- |''Manara vava nya ndro{{Efn|Used only in the winter months}}'' |The day chills the mouth |- |''Misandratra andro'' |Advance of the day |8:00 AM |- |''Mitatao haratra'' |Over (at a right angle with) the purlin |9:00 AM |- |''Mitatao vovonana'' |Over the ridge of the roof |12:00 PM; noon |- |''Mandray tokonana ny andro'' |Day taking hold of the threshold |12:30 PM |- |''Mitsidika andro'' |Peeping-in of the day | rowspan="2" |1:00 PM |- |''Latsaka iray dia ny andro'' |Day less one step |- | rowspan="2" |''Solafak’ andro'' | rowspan="2" |Slipping of the day |1:30 PM – 2:00 PM |- | rowspan="5" |2:00 PM |- |''Tafalatsaka ny andro'' | rowspan="2" |Decline of the day |- |''Mihilana ny andro'' |- |''Am-pitotoam-bary'' |At the rice-pounding place |- |''Mby amin’ ny andry ny andro'' |At the house post |- |''Am-pamatoran-janak’ omby'' |At the place of tying the calf |3:00 PM |- |''Mby am-pisoko ny andro'' |At the sheep or poultry pen |4:00 PM |- |''Mody omby tera-bao'' |The cow newly calved comes home |4:30 |- |''Tafapaka ny andro'' |Sun touching (''i.e.'' the eastern wall) |5:00 |- |''Mody omby'' |Cattle come home |5:30 |- |''Mena masoandro'' |Sunset flush |5:45 |- |''Maty masoandro'' |Sunset (''lit.'' "Sun dead") |6:00 |- |''Miditra akoho'' |Fowls come in |6:15 |- |''Somambisamby'' |Dusk; twilight |6:30 |- |''Maizim-bava-vilany'' |Edge of rice-cooking pan obscure |6:45 |- |''Manokom-bary olona'' |People begin to cook rice |7:00 |- |''Homan-bary olona'' |People eat rice |8:00 |- |''Tapi-mihinana'' |Finished eating |8:30 |- |''Mandry olona'' |People go to sleep |9:00 |- |''Tapi-mandry olona'' |Everyone in bed |9:30 |- |''Mipoa-tafondro'' |Gun-fire |10:00 |}

==Language== {{Main|Malagasy language|Languages of Madagascar}} The Malagasy language is of [[Malayo-Polynesian]] origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<ref>Rajaonarimanana (2001), p. 8</ref> can be clustered under one of two sub-groups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo; and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a [[francophone]] country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.<ref name="LOC"/>

==Art== ===Visual arts=== [[File:Malagasy girl in Nosy Be wearing masonjoany 2011.jpg|thumb|Malagasy girl in [[Nosy Be]] wearing [[masonjoany]], an endemic decorative and protective paste made from ground wood]] Traditional arts are based on the creative use of local and natural materials. The tradition of silk weaving and [[Lamba (garment)|lamba]] production exemplifies this form of art. The weaving of [[Raffia palm|raffia]] and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.<ref name=handicrafts>{{cite web|last1=Ashamu |first1=Charlotte |first2=Diego |last2=Gomez-Pickering |first3=Amanda |last3=Luke |last4=Morrison |first4=Paul |first5=Mark |last5=Pedersen |first6=Mara |last6=Symes |first7=Marthe |last7=Weyandt |title=Made in Madagascar: Exporting Handicrafts to the U.S. Market: Final Report |publisher=United Nations Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development |year=2005 |url=http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/academics/concentrations/epd/documents/2004-5/MalagasyHandicrafts_Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320070928/http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/academics/concentrations/epd/documents/2004-5/MalagasyHandicrafts_Report.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 |access-date=10 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, ''aloalo'' funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.<ref name=Terrible>Heale & Abdul Latif (2008), pp. 108–111</ref> The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the [[Zafimaniry]] people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|list of Intangible Cultural Heritage]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|title=Woodcrafting Knowledge of the Zafimaniry |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=24 August 2012 |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00080 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023071416/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00080 |archive-date=23 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Among the [[Antaimoro]] people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.<ref name=Terrible/> [[Embroidery]] and [[drawn thread work]] are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.<ref name=handicrafts/> A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.<ref>{{cite news | title = Des nouveaux talents mis en relief | newspaper = L'Express de Madagascar | publisher = l'expressmada.com | date = 7 August 2009 | url = http://www.lexpressmada.com/4376/hosotra-2009-madagascar/284-des-nouveaux-talents-mis-en-relief.html | access-date = 24 August 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509031614/http://www.lexpressmada.com/4376/hosotra-2009-madagascar/284-des-nouveaux-talents-mis-en-relief.html| archive-date = 9 May 2013 | url-status = dead |language = fr}}</ref>

===Performing arts=== [[File:RAMILISON BESIGARA.jpg|thumb|Ramilison Besigara, leader of the Malagasy hiragasy troupe Tarika Ramilison Fenoarivo]] Theater and dance are strong traditions on the island. A traditional form of theater emerged in the form of the ''[[hiragasy]]'', a day-long spectacle of music, song, dance and oration performed by a troupe (typically related by blood or marriage and of rural origin) or as a competition between two troupes. The tradition in its contemporary form began in the late 18th century when Merina prince [[Andrianampoinimerina]] first used musicians to draw a crowd for his political speeches. These troupes became independent and began to incorporate political commentary and critique in their performances. The audience plays an active role at hiragasy events, expressing their satisfaction with the talent of the troupe members and the message they proclaim either through applause, cheers or sounds of disapproval.<ref name="Mauro">Mauro (2001), p.</ref> The troupe Tarika Ramilison Fenoarivo led by [[Ramilison Besigara]] is considered the most popular and influential hiragasy troupe of the last four decades.<ref name="cross">{{cite news | title = Madagascar: Ramilison Besigara – Une vie pour le Hira Gasy | newspaper = L'Express de Madagascar | url = http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200711060390.html | date = 6 November 2007 | access-date = 18 July 2013 |language = fr }}</ref> Western theater was introduced with [[French Madagascar|French colonization]] in 1896, producing a new form of Malagasy theater that incorporated a series of short musical and dance performances set to songs accompanied by piano or guitar played in the style of traditional valiha culture songs. The compositions of this period by pianist theatrical composers like [[Andrianary Ratianarivo]] (1895–1949) and [[Naka Rabemananatsoa]] (1892–1952) form part of the canon of classical Malagasy music and feature in the repertoire of Malagasy students of piano.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Rubin | first = Don | title = The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theater: Africa | publisher = Taylor and Francis | year = 1997 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TIgS_Eij8SEC&q=Encyclopedia+of+Contemporary+Theater+africa+madagascar |isbn =978-0-415-05931-2 |access-date = November 16, 2010}}</ref>

The dances accompanying theatrical performances represent only a fraction of the myriad diverse dance styles found across the island. Dance remains a living art and new styles are continually emerging. Many have lent their name to the style of music to which they are danced. In the 19th century royal court, the [[quadrille]] was danced to Malagasy-influenced piano tunes; the last of these Malagasy quadrilles, called the ''{{Proper name|Afindrafindrao}}'', was composed shortly before colonization and accompanies a specific partner dance. The tune and the dance were revived upon national independence as a distinctly Malagasy tradition now commonly performed to commence festivities such as weddings and concerts.

A wide range of performance traditions have developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its [[hainteny|oratory]], as expressed in the forms of ''hainteny'' (poetry), ''kabary'' (public discourse) and ''ohabolana'' (proverbs).<ref>Fox (1990), p. 39</ref><ref name="Madatana">{{cite web|last=Ravalitera |first=P |title=Origine Confuse des Vazimba du Betsiriry |work=Journal Express |publisher=Madatana.com |url=http://www.madatana.com/article-origine-confuse-des-vazimba-du-betsiriry.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013534/http://www.madatana.com/article-origine-confuse-des-vazimba-du-betsiriry.php |access-date=11 November 2010 |archive-date=14 July 2011 |language=fr |url-status=dead }}</ref> An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the ''[[Ibonia]]'', has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ibonia: the text in 17 sections |last=Unknown |publisher=University of Virginia |access-date=15 November 2010 |url=http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Public/Ibonia/text.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605051817/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Public/Ibonia/text.html |archive-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Elements of oral history and traditional oratory were documented by British and French visitors to the island. The first Malagasy historian was Raombana (1809–1855), one of the first pupils of the [[London Missionary Society]] school at the [[Rova of Antananarivo]], who documented early 19th century Merina history in English and Malagasy. The ''[[Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara]]'', a compilation of the oral history of the Merina sovereigns, forms another major source of knowledge about traditional highland society and was collected and published in the late 19th century by a Catholic priest residing in the highlands. Western literary arts developed in the early 20th century under French colonization.

===Literary arts=== [[File:Antandroy traditional dancing.jpg|thumb|[[Antandroy]] dancers]] {{Main|Literature of Madagascar}}

The first African modern poet, a Merina named [[Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo]] (1901 or 1903–1937), gained celebrity for blending surrealist, romantic and modernist poetic forms with elements of traditional Malagasy oratory, as well as for his suicide by cyanide in 1937. Rabearivelo was also among the first in Madagascar to publish historical novels and wrote Madagascar's only Western-style opera.<ref>Rabearivelo (2007), p. x</ref> This blending of Western and traditional influence in the literary arts was carried on by such artists as [[Elie Rajaonarison]], an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.<ref>Auzias & Labourdette (2007), p. 142</ref> Other notable poets include [[Jacques Rabemananjara]], Pierre Randrianarisoa, Georges Andriamanantena (Rado), [[Dox (poet)|Jean Verdi Salomon Razakandraina (Dox)]] and others. Leading authors include [[Jean-Luc Raharimanana]], [[Michèle Rakotoson]], [[Clarisse Ratsifandrihamanana]], David Jaomanoro, Solofo Randrianja, Emilson Daniel Andriamalala and Celestin Andriamanantena. A number of comic books have also been created by Malagasy authors such as Anselme Razafindrainibe (1956–2011).

==Music== {{Main|Music of Madagascar}}

[[File:Orchestre Hova1.jpg|thumb|right|Valiha orchestra at the [[Paris Colonial Exposition|Paris World Exposition]] of 1931]] Madagascar has also developed a rich [[Music of Madagascar|musical heritage]], embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal ''[[salegy]]'' or highland ''[[hiragasy]]'' that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.<ref name="Randrianary">Randrianary (2001), pp. 109–137</ref> Malagasy music has been shaped by the musical traditions of [[Southeast Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Oceania]], [[Arabia]], England, France and the United States as successive waves of settlers have made the island their home.<ref name="Nidel, R. 2005">Nidel (2005), p.</ref> Traditional instruments reflect these widespread origins: the ''mandoliny'' and ''kabosy'' owe their existence to the introduction of the [[acoustic guitar|guitar]] by early [[Arab]] or [[Europe]]an seafarers, the ubiquitous ''[[djembe]]'' originated in mainland [[Africa]] and the ''[[valiha]]''—the [[bamboo]] [[tube zither]] considered the national instrument of [[Madagascar]]—directly evolved from an earlier form of zither carried with the first [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] settlers on their [[outrigger canoe]]s.<ref name="Blench, R. 1982 pp. 81-93"/>

Malagasy music can be roughly divided into three categories: traditional, contemporary and popular music. Traditional musical styles vary by region and reflect local ethnographic history. For instance, in the [[Imerina|Highlands]], the valiha and more subdued vocal styles are emblematic of the [[Merina]], the predominantly Austronesian ethnic group that has inhabited the area since at least the 15th century, whereas among the southern [[Bara people]], who trace their ancestry back to the African mainland, their ''[[a cappella]]'' vocal traditions bear close resemblance to the [[polyharmony|polyharmonic]] singing style common to [[South Africa]].<ref name="Anderson, I. 2000 pp. 523">Anderson (2000), pp. 523–532</ref> Foreign instruments such as the [[acoustic guitar]] and [[piano]] have been adapted locally to create uniquely Malagasy forms of music. Contemporary Malagasy musical styles such as the ''salegy'' or ''tsapika'' have evolved from traditional styles modernized by the incorporation of [[electric guitar]], [[Bass (guitar)|bass]], [[drum kit|drums]] and [[synthesizer]]. Many Western styles of popular music, including [[rock music|rock]], [[gospel music|gospel]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[hip-hop]] and [[folk rock]], have also gained in popularity in Madagascar over the later half of the 20th century.

==Cuisine and food== {{Main|Malagasy cuisine}}

[[File:Kakapizon and chips food vendor in Antananarivo Madagascar.jpg|thumb|alt=Woman selling chips and fried snacks in baskets on street curb|A street vendor selling fresh potato chips and traditional ''kaka pizon'' snacks]] Rice (''vary'') is the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet and is typically consumed at every meal. The accompaniment served with rice is called ''laoka'' in the highlands dialect,<ref name="Sibree1915">Sibree (1915), p. 106</ref> the official version of the [[Malagasy language]]. ''Laoka'' are most often served in some kind of sauce: in the highlands, this sauce is generally tomato-based, while in coastal areas coconut milk is often added during cooking.<ref name=Antal>Bradt (2011), p. 312</ref> In the arid southern and western interior where herding zebu is traditional, fresh or curdled zebu milk is often incorporated into vegetable dishes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Faublée |first=Jacques |title=L'alimentation des Bara (Sud de Madagascar) |journal=Journal de la Société des Africanistes |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=157–202 |year=1942 |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jafr_0037-9166_1942_num_12_1_2534 |access-date=January 7, 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240525074803/https://www.webcitation.org/5yDebJAig?url=http://legacy.persee.fr/showPage.do%3Furn=jafr_0037-9166_1942_num_12_1_2534 |archive-date=May 25, 2024 |doi=10.3406/jafr.1942.2534 |language=fr |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Laoka'' are diverse and may include such ingredients as Bambara groundnuts with pork, beef or fish; ''trondro gasy'' (freshwater fish); [[ravitoto]] (shredded cassava leaves) with peanuts, beef or pork; ''henan'omby'' (beef) or ''akoho'' (chicken) sauteed with ginger and garlic or simmered in its own juices (a preparation called ''ritra''); various types of seafood, which are more readily available along the coasts or in large urban centers.<ref name=autogenerated5>Espagne-Ravo (1997)</ref><ref>''Savoir Cuisiner'' (2004)</ref> A variety of local greens such as ''anamamy'' (Morelle greens), ''anamafaitra'' (Martin greens) and particularly ''anamalao'' ([[Acmella oleracea|paracress]])—distinguished by the mildly analgesic effect the boiled leaves and flowers produce—are commonly sold alongside ''anandrano'' ([[watercress]]) and ''anatsonga'' ([[Chinese cabbage|bok choy]]).<ref>''Savoir Cuisiner'' (2004), p. 7</ref> In the arid south and west, such as among the [[Bara people|Bara]] or [[Antandroy|Tandroy]] peoples, staples include sweet potato, yams, taro root and especially cassava, [[millet]] and maize, generally boiled in water and occasionally served in whole milk or flavored with crushed peanuts.<ref>Faublée (1942), pp. 192, 194–196</ref> ''Ro'' (broth) may be served as the main ''laoka'' or in addition to it to flavor and moisten the rice.<ref>Boissard (1997), p. 32</ref>

Garlic, onions, ginger, tomatoes, mild curry, and salt are the most common ingredients used to flavor dishes, and in coastal areas other ingredients such as coconut milk, vanilla, cloves or [[turmeric]] may also be used.<ref name="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi & Michael (2006), pp. 128–133</ref> A variety of condiments are served on the side and mixed into the rice or ''laoka'' according to each individual's taste rather than mixing them in as the food is being cooked.<ref>Chan Tat Chuen (2010), pp. 37–38</ref> The most common and basic condiment, ''sakay'', is a spicy condiment made from red or green chili pepper.<ref>Chan Tat Chuen (2010), p. 42</ref> Indian-style condiments made of pickled mango, lemon, and other fruits (known as ''[[Indian pickle|achards]]'' or ''[[lasary]]''), are a coastal specialty;<ref name=achards>Espagne-Ravo (1997), pp. 79–83</ref> in the highlands, lasary often refers to a salad of green beans, cabbage, carrots and onion in a [[vinaigrette]] sauce, popular as a side dish or as the filling of a baguette sandwich.<ref>Chan Tat Chuen (2010), p. 39</ref>

==Architecture== {{Main|Architecture of Madagascar}}

The architecture of Madagascar is unique in Africa, bearing strong resemblance to the [[Bubungan Tinggi|architecture of southern Borneo]] from which the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar are believed to have emigrated.<ref name="Wake, C. Staniland.">{{cite journal |last = Wake |first = C. Staniland | title = Notes on the origins of the Malagasy |journal = The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine |volume = 6 |year = 1882|pages = 21–33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qKIEAAAAQAAJ |access-date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref> Traditional construction in this part of [[Borneo]], also known as South [[Kalimantan]], is distinguished by rectangular houses raised on [[Deep foundation|piles]]. The roof, which is supported by a central pillar, is steeply sloped; the gable beams cross to form roof horns that may be decoratively carved.<ref name="Borneo">Winzeler (2004), p.</ref> The central Highlands of Madagascar are populated by the Merina, peoples who bear strong physiological and cultural resemblance to their Kalimantan ancestors; here, the traditional wooden houses of the aristocracy feature a central pillar (''andry'') supporting a steeply sloped roof decorated with roof horns (''tandro-trano'').<ref name="Victor" /> In the southeast of Madagascar, actual zebu horns were traditionally affixed to the gable peak.<ref name="modern" /> Throughout Madagascar, houses are rectangular with a gabled roof as in Kalimantan, central pillars are widespread, and in all but a handful of regions, traditional homes are built on piles in a manner handed down from generation to generation, regardless of whether the feature is suited to local conditions.<ref name="Acquier, Jean-Louis" >Acquier (1997), p.</ref>

Certain cosmological and symbolic elements are common across Indonesian and Malagasy architecture as well.<ref name="Victor">{{cite journal |last1 = Kus |first1 = Susan |last2 = Raharijaona |first2 = Victor | title = House to Palace, Village to State: Scaling up Architecture and Ideology |journal = American Anthropologist |series=New Series |issue = 102 |volume = 1 |pages = 98–113 |year = 2000 |doi=10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.98}}</ref><ref name="Symbolism">Kent (1993), p. 198</ref> The central house pillar is sacred in Kalimantan and Madagascar alike, and in both places, upon constructing a new house this pillar was often traditionally anointed with blood.<ref name="Borneo" /><ref name="Victor" /> The features of the building or its dimensions (length, size, and particularly the height) are often symbolically indicative of the status of its occupants or the importance of its purpose on both islands.<ref name="Victor" /><ref name="modern">{{cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Philip | title = Conspicuous Construction: Houses, Consumption and 'Relocalization' in Manambondro, Southeast Madagascar | journal = The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 425–446 | date = September 1998 | doi = 10.2307/3034155 | jstor = 3034155 }}</ref> Likewise, both Madagascar and Borneo have a tradition of partially above-ground tomb construction<ref name="Victor" /> and the inhabitants of both islands practice the carving of decorative wooden funerary posts, called ''aloalo'' in western Madagascar and ''klirieng'' in the Kajang dialect of Borneo.<ref name="Borneo" />

==Recreation and sports== [[File:Moraingy fighting Madagascar sport.jpg|thumb|Moraingy is a traditional martial art of Madagascar.]] A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. ''[[Moraingy]]'', a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.<ref>Ratsimbazafy (2010), pp. 14–18</ref> The wrestling of zebu cattle (''[[tolon'omby]]'') is also practiced in many regions.<ref name=lambatradition>Kusimba, Odland & Bronson (2004), p. 87</ref> In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is ''[[fanorona]]'', a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King [[Andrianjaka]] after his father [[Ralambo]] was partially due to the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing ''fanorona'' to the detriment of his other responsibilities.<ref name="iarivo">{{cite web|last=City of Antananarivo |title=Antananarivo: Histoire de la commune |url=http://www.iarivo-town.mg/histoire.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223014034/http://www.iarivo-town.mg/histoire.php |access-date=2 August 2010 |archive-date=23 February 2010 |language=fr |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. [[Rugby union in Madagascar|Rugby]] is considered the national sport of Madagascar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=53025.html |access-date=24 July 2012 |title=Madagascar take Sevens honours |date=23 August 2007 |publisher=International Rugby Board |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024222252/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=53025.html |archive-date=24 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Football in Madagascar|Football (soccer)]] is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in [[pétanque]], a French game similar to [[lawn bowling]], which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vegar |first=Ness |title=Madagascar won the World Championship |publisher=petanque.org |date=4 October 1999 |url=http://www.petanque.org/news/admin/61.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317032530/http://www.petanque.org/news/admin/61.shtml |archive-date=17 March 2011 |access-date=14 January 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the [[1964 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games in 1964]] and has also competed in the [[African Games]].<ref name=EBLand>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Madagascar |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Eb.com |year=2011 |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123045904/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar |archive-date=23 January 2012 |access-date=25 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Scouting]] is represented in Madagascar by its [[Firaisan'ny Skotisma eto Madagasikara|own local federation]] of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.<ref name="Census_2010">{{cite web|title=Triennal review: Census as at 1 December 2010 |url=http://scout.org/en/content/download/22261/199900/file/Census.pdf |publisher=World Organization of the Scout Movement |access-date=13 January 2011 |date=1 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508035838/http://www.scout.org/en/content/download/22261/199900/file/Census.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Popular media== ===Cinema=== {{Main|Cinema of Madagascar}}

[[File:Cinemas in Antananarivo Madagascar.JPG|thumb|Rex and Riz cinemas in Antananarivo, Madagascar.]] In 1975, the Malagasy government nationalized the movie theatres and established the Office du Cinema Malgache.<ref name="Martin1995">{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Michael T.|title=Cinemas of the Black Diaspora: Diversity, Dependence, and Oppositionality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4jkR-Ga4G4C&pg=PA101|year=1995|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=978-0-8143-2588-9|page=101}}</ref> The national film industry, although very much in its infancy, is influenced by [[Nollywood]] ([[cinema of Nigeria|Nigerian cinema]]) and [[cinema of France|French cinema]].<ref name="DelantyGiorgi2011">{{cite book|last1=Delanty|first1=Professor Gerard|last2=Giorgi|first2=Liana|last3=Sassatelli|first3=Monica|title=Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZEcj-6drUAC&pg=PA72|date=27 April 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-73858-6|page=72}}</ref><ref name="HealeLatif2008"/> The most notable director is [[Raymond Rajaonarivelo]], director of movies such as ''Quand Les Etoiles Rencontrent La Mer'' (''When the Stars Meet the Sea'') and ''Tabataba'' (''The Spreading of Rumors'').<ref name="HealeLatif2008">{{cite book|last1=Heale|first1=Jay|last2=Latif|first2=Zawiah Abdul|title=Madagascar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJWLCYGo2RgC&pg=PA111|year=2008|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-3036-0|page=111}}</ref> The ''Zebu d'or'' (Golden Zebu) of the annual film festival [[Rencontres du Film Court Madagascar]] is an award given to honor the best films and artists in the industry.

There are two cinemas in [[Antananarivo]] and one in [[Mahajanga]], all dating from the colonial era, but none show standard international releases or operate on a regular schedule. These venues instead occasionally screen Malagasy films or are used for private events and religious services. Hollywood blockbuster films and some international films, particularly including martial arts, horror and action releases, are typically broadcast on television and purchased as bootleg DVDs or digital media files in major urban areas. [[Bruce Lee]] has historically been very popular in Madagascar.<ref name="Bradt2011"/> In smaller towns, films are often shown at improvised movie houses typically consisting of benches in a room fitted with a television and video player.<ref>{{cite book|title=1000 Ultimate Experiences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZBcCIixzIIC&pg=PA33|year=2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74179-945-3|page=33}}</ref> Most films are dubbed into French.<ref name="Bradt2011">{{cite book|last=Bradt|first=Hilary|title=Madagascar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC&pg=PA103|year=2011|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-341-2|page=103}}</ref>

==Notes== {{reflist|2}}{{Notelist}}

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Lippincott Company |year=1915 |location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zkuAAAAYAAJ}} * {{cite book | last = Winzeler | first = Robert L. | title = The architecture of life and death in Borneo | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | location = Honolulu, HI | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8248-2632-1}} * {{cite book |last = Dewar |first = Robert E. |title = The Culture History Of Madagascar | publisher=Plenum Publishing Corporation |year=1993 |location=East Africa|url=https://documentsn.com/document/291cf_the-culture-history-of-madagascar-deep-blue.html}}

[[Category:Culture of Madagascar| ]] [[Category:Austronesian culture]]