Cristero War

{{short description|1926–1929 Mexican rebellion}} {{Cleanup|reason=Most inline citations lacked of page reference; additionally there are overly detailed inline citations|date=July 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}} {{Infobox military conflict | partof = | conflict = Cristero War | image = Guerra cristera.png | caption = Map of Mexico showing regions in which Cristero outbreaks occurred {{leftlegend|red|Large-scale outbreaks}}{{leftlegend|orange|Moderate outbreaks}}{{leftlegend|gold|Sporadic outbreaks}} | date = 3 August 1926 – 21 June 1929 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=8|day1=3|year1=1926|month2=6|day2=21|year2=1929}}) | place = Mexico | result = Ceasefire * Mexican government and Archbishop Ruiz y Flóres sign U.S.-brokered ''arreglos'' pact; Catholic Church withdraws support for Cristeros * Recognition of certain Cristero demands * Catholic Church reestablished in Mexico | combatant1 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Mexican Government * {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Mexican Army '''Supported by:''' {{flag|United States|1912}} | combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Cristeros

'''Support:''' Knights of Columbus | commander1 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Plutarco Elías Calles {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Emilio Portes Gil {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Joaquín Amaro Domínguez {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Saturnino Cedillo {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Heliodoro Charis {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Marcelino García Barragán {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Jaime Carrillo {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Genovevo Rivas Guillén {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} Álvaro Obregón{{KIA}} | commander2 = {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Enrique Gorostieta Velarde{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} José Reyes Vega{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Alberto B. Gutiérrez {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Aristeo Pedroza {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Andrés Salazar {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Carlos Carranza Bouquet{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Dionisio Eduardo Ochoa{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Barraza Damaso {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Domingo Anaya{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Jesús Degollado Guízar {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Luis Navarro Origel{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Lauro Rocha {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Lucas Cuevas{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Matías Villa Michel {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Miguel Márquez Anguiano {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Manuel Michel {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Victoriano Ramírez{{KIA}} {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} Victorino Bárcenas{{KIA}} | strength1 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} ~100,000 men (1929) | strength2 = {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} ~50,000 men and women (1929) | casualties1 = {{flagicon|Mexico|1916|size=23px}} 56,882 dead | casualties2 = {{flagicon image|Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|size=23px}} 30,000–50,000 dead | casualties3 = Estimated 250,000 dead<ref name="GonzalezM2022p498">{{cite journal |last=González Morfín |first=Juan |title=Insurgencia y contrainsurgencia: la guerra de guerrillas de los cristeros y la estrategia para combatirla usada por el ejército mexicano (1926–1929) |journal=Nuova Antologia Militare |volume=3 |issue=12 |page=498 |date=November 2022 |doi=10.36158/978889295585114 |language=es }}</ref> 250,000 fled to the United States (mostly non-combatants)<ref name="GonzalezM2022p498"/> }} The '''Cristero War''' ({{langx|es|link=no|La guerra cristera}}), also known as the '''Cristero Rebellion''' or '''{{langx|es|La Cristiada|label=none|italics=no}}''' {{IPA|es|la kɾisˈtjaða|}}, was a widespread struggle in central and western Mexico from 3 August 1926 to 21 June 1929 in response to the implementation of secularist and anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution.<ref>{{Citation |last=Young |first=Julia G. |title=Revolution and the Cristeros |date=2 September 2020 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Mexican History |editor-last=Beezley |editor-first=William |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34726/chapter/296493558 |access-date=2024-03-06 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699192.013.29 |isbn=978-0-19-069919-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Fallaw |first=Ben |title=Religion and Revolution, Mexico: 1910–1940 |date=2021-01-13 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Mexican History |editor-last=Beezley |editor-first=William |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34726/chapter/296492817 |access-date=2024-04-16 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699192.013.25 |isbn=978-0-19-069919-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=González |first=Fernando Manuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=miM7TASBzpcC |title=Matar y morir por Cristo Rey: aspectos de la cristiada |date=2001-01-01 |publisher=Plaza y Valdes |isbn=978-968-856-906-1 |pages=21–74 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Piña |first1=Ulices |title=The Different Roads to Rebellion: Socialist Education and the Second Cristero Rebellion in Jalisco, 1934-1939 |journal=Letras Históricas |date=22 February 2017 |volume=16 |pages=165–192 |doi=10.31836/lh.16.6562 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Fallaw |first=Ben |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33BDHiP1SX8C&q=ben+fallaw |title=Religion and State Formation in Postrevolutionary Mexico |date=21 January 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-5337-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Fallaw2013">{{cite journal |last1=Fallaw |first1=Ben |date=2013 |title=The Seduction of Revolution: Anticlerical Campaigns against Confession in Mexico, 1914–1935 |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=91–120 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X12001216 |jstor=23352898}}</ref><ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reich |first=Peter L. |url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/47500 |title=Mexico's hidden revolution: the Catholic Church in law and politics since 1929 |date=1995 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |isbn=978-0-585-31304-7 |location=Notre Dame, Ind |oclc=ocm45730461}}</ref> The rebellion was instigated as a response to an executive decree by Mexican President Plutarco Elías Calles to strictly enforce Article 130 of the Constitution, an implementing act known as the Calles Law.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last1=Buchenau |first1=Jürgen |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-936643-9 |chapter=The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1946 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.21 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=Jean A. |date=1973 |title=La Cristiada: por Jean Meyer ; traducción de Aurelio Garzón del Camino |oclc=2406696 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=De Bonfil |first=Alicia Olivera |title=Aspectos del conflicto religioso de 1926 a 1929 |url=https://mediateca.inah.gob.mx/repositorio/islandora/object/libro%3A487 |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Mediateca – Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia |language=es}}</ref> Calles sought to limit the power of the Catholic Church in Mexico and its affiliated organizations and to suppress popular religiosity.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230608801_8 |chapter=Trouble Afoot? Pilgrimage in Cristero Mexico City |title=Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary Mexico |date=2007 |last1=Butler |first1=Matthew |pages=149–166 |isbn=978-1-349-53926-0 }}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=Kloppe-Santamaría2022>{{cite journal |last1=Kloppe-Santamaría |first1=Gema |title=Martyrs, Fanatics, and Pious Militants: Religious Violence and the Secular State in 1930s Mexico |journal=The Americas |date=April 2022 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=197–227 |doi=10.1017/tam.2021.149 |s2cid=247409376 }}</ref>

The rural uprising in north-central Mexico was tacitly supported by the Church hierarchy and was aided by urban Catholic supporters.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Curley |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GrkQtgEACAAJ |title=Citizens and Believers: Religion and Politics in Revolutionary Jalisco, 1900–1930 |date=2018 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-5537-9 |language=en}}</ref> The Mexican Army received support from the United States. American Ambassador Dwight Morrow brokered negotiations between the Calles government and the Church. The government made some concessions, the Church withdrew its support for the Cristero fighters, and the conflict ended in 1929.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olimón Nolasco |first=Manuel |url=https://bibliotecas.ucc.mx/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=142960 |title=Diplomacia insólita: el conflicto religioso en México y las negociaciones cupulares (1926–1929) |publisher=IMDOSOC |isbn=978-968-6839-99-9 |series=Colección Historia de la iglesia en México; 1 |date=2008 |location=México}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fernández |first1=José Luis Soberanes |last2=Barney |first2=Oscar Cruz |title=Los arreglos del presidente Portes Gil con la jerarquía católica y el fin de la guerra cristera: aspectos jurídicos e históricos |date=2015 |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas |isbn=978-607-02-6651-5 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Valvo |first1=Paolo |title=La libertà religiosa in Messico: dalla rivoluzione alle sfide dell'attualità |date=2020 |publisher=Studium edizioni |isbn=978-88-382-4842-9 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Serafini |first1=Chiara |url=http://ru.juridicas.unam.mx:80/xmlui/handle/123456789/59740 |title=La Cristiada. Fe, guerra y diplomacia en México (1926-1929) |last2=Valvo |first2=Paolo |date=2 February 2023 |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas |isbn=978-607-30-7247-2}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Olimón Nolasco |first=Manuel |url=https://bibliotecas.ucc.mx/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=157723 |title=Confrontación extrema: el quebranto del modus vivendi (1931-1933) |publisher=IMDOSOC |isbn=978-968-9074-28-1 |series=Colección Historia de la iglesia en México; 4 |date=2008 |location=México}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Olimón Nolasco |first=Manuel |url=https://bibliotecas.ucc.mx/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=137264 |title=Paz a medias: el modus vivendi entre la Iglesia y el Estado y su crisis (1929–1931) |publisher=IMDOSOC |isbn=978-968-9074-21-2 |series=Colección Hstoria de la iglesia en México; 3 |date=2008 |location=México}}</ref> The rebellion has been variously interpreted as a major event in the struggle between church and state that dates back to the 19th century with the War of Reform, and as the last major peasant uprising in Mexico after the end of the military phase of the Mexican Revolution in 1920.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=Jean A. |title=La revolución mexicana |last2=Pérez-Rincón |first2=Héctor |date=2004 |publisher=Tusquets Editores |isbn=978-970-699-084-6 |language=es}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230608801_2 |chapter=The Mentality and Modus Operandi of Revolutionary Anticlericalism |title=Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary Mexico |date=2007 |last1=Knight |first1=Alan |pages=21–56 |isbn=978-1-349-53926-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwaller |first=John Frederick |title=The History of the Catholic Church in Latin America: From Conquest to Revolution and Beyond |date=2011 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-8360-3 |pages=189–213 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Osten |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=The Mexican Revolution's Wake: The Making of a Political System, 1920–1929 |date=22 February 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-24680-4 |page=2 |language=en}}</ref>

== Background == === Mexican Revolution === The Mexican Revolution started in 1910 against the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz and for the masses' demand of land for the peasantry.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Joseph |first1=Gilbert M. |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/328/Mexico-s-Once-and-Future-RevolutionSocial-Upheaval |title=Mexico's Once and Future Revolution: Social Upheaval and the Challenge of Rule since the Late Nineteenth Century |last2=Buchenau |first2=Jürgen |date=4 August 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-7738-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLwB1ZSXkM0C |title=The Mexican Revolution: Counter-revolution and reconstruction |date=1990 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-7770-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Knight 1990">{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLwB1ZSXkM0C&pg=PR3 |title=The Mexican Revolution: Counter-revolution and reconstruction |date=1990 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-7770-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PT8CgAAQBAJ |title=The Mexican Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-874563-1 |language=en}}</ref> Francisco I. Madero was the first revolutionary leader.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name="Knight 1990" /> He was elected president in November 1911 but was overthrown and executed in 1913 by conservative General Victoriano Huerta in a series of events now known as the Ten Tragic Days.<ref name="Knight 1990" /><ref name=":21" /> After Huerta seized power, Archbishop Leopoldo Ruiz y Flóres from Morelia published a letter condemning the coup and distancing the Church from Huerta. The newspaper of the National Catholic Party, representing the views of the bishops, severely attacked Huerta and so the new regime jailed the party's president and halted the publication of the newspaper. Nevertheless, some members of the party participated in Huerta's regime, such as Eduardo Tamariz.<ref>{{cite book |author=Michael J. Gonzales |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=se17aQLbKioC&q=eduardo+tamariz+huerta |title=''The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1940'' |publisher=UNM Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8263-2780-2 |page=105}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Roy Palmer Domenico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8ZixRcQfV8C&q=eduardo+tamariz+huerta |title=''Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics'' |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-313-32362-1 |page=400}}</ref> The revolutionary generals Venustiano Carranza, Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who won against Huerta's Federal Army under the Plan of Guadalupe, had friends among Catholics and the local parish priests who aided them<ref name="Zapata1">{{cite book |author=Samuel Brunk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfCegmr-0c4C&q=parish+priests |title=''Emiliano Zapata: Revolution & Betrayal in Mexico'' |publisher=UNM Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8263-1620-2 |page=69}}</ref><ref name="Zapata2">{{cite book |author=Albert P. Rolls |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6jQgcU7RJoC&q=zapata+catholic |title=''Emiliano Zapata: A Biography'' |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-38080-8 |page=145}}</ref> but also blamed high-ranking Catholic clergy for supporting Huerta.<ref name="Huerta1">{{cite book |author=John Lear |url=https://archive.org/details/workersneighbors0000lear |title=Workers, neighbors, and citizens: the revolution in Mexico City |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8032-7997-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/workersneighbors0000lear/page/261 261] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Huerta2">{{cite book |author=Robert P. Millon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4Ns7fLUZ9gC&q=huerta+catholic+clergy+ |title=Zapata: The Ideology of a Peasant Revolutionary |publisher=International Publishers Co |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7178-0710-9 |page=23}}</ref><ref name="Huerta4">{{cite book |author=Peter Gran |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IZpnL4XW3sC&q=clergy+supported+huerta |title=Beyond Eurocentrism: a new view of modern world history |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8156-2692-3 |page=165}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bantjes |first1=Adrian A. |date=2009 |title=Mexican Revolutionary Anticlericalism: Concepts and Typologies |journal=The Americas |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=467–480 |doi=10.1353/tam.0.0105 |jstor=25488178 |s2cid=143988092}}</ref><ref name="Fallaw2013" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinojosa |first=María Martha Pacheco |title=Religión y sociedad en México durante el siglo XX |date=2007 |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciónes de México |isbn=978-970-628-780-9 |language=es}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

=== 1917 Mexican Constitution === {{Main|Constitution of Mexico#Anticlerical articles and the 1934.2C 1946 and 1992 Amendments}}

The 1917 Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Congress, convened by Venustiano Carranza in September 1916, and it was approved on 5 February 1917.<ref name="Blancarte 1992">{{Cite book |last=Blancarte |first=Roberto |url=http://archive.org/details/historiadelaigle0000blan |title=Historia de la Iglesia Catolica en Mexico |date=1992 |publisher=Mexico : Colegio Mexiquense : Fondo de Cultura Economica |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-968-16-3773-6}}</ref> It was based on the previous 1857 Constitution, which had been instituted by Benito Juárez. Articles 3, 27, and 130 of the 1917 Constitution contained articles that restricted the power and the influence of the Catholic Church.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nesvig |first=Martin Austin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1CXxGl9CNIC |title=Religious Culture in Modern Mexico |date=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-3747-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Blancarte 1992" />

The first two sections of Article 3 stated: "I. According to the religious liberties established under article 24, educational services shall be secular and, therefore, free of any religious orientation. II. The educational services shall be based on scientific progress and shall fight against ignorance, ignorance's effects, servitudes, fanaticism and prejudice."<ref name="constitution">{{cite book |author=Translation made by Carlos Perez Vazquez |url=http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/infjur/leg/constmex/pdf/consting.pdf |title=The Political Constitution of the Mexican United States |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |year=2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218091702/http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/infjur/leg/constmex/pdf/consting.pdf |archive-date=2015-02-18}}</ref> The second section of Article 27 stated: "All religious associations organized according to article 130 and its derived legislation, shall be authorized to acquire, possess or manage only the necessary assets to achieve their objectives."<ref name="constitution" />

The first paragraph of Article 130 stated: "The rules established at this article are guided by the historical principle according to which the State and the churches are separated entities from each other. Churches and religious congregations shall be organized under the law."<ref name=":8" />

The Constitution also provided for mandatory registration of all churches and religious congregations and forbade priests to involve themselves in politics or inherit from anyone other than close relatives.<ref name="constitution" /> It also allowed each state to control the number of priests in its territory (some reduced it to zero), forbade the wearing of religious garb outside of church premises, and excluded offenders from a trial by jury. Carranza declared himself opposed to the final draft of Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, 123 and 130, but the Constitutional Congress contained only 85 conservatives and centrists who were close to Carranza's moderate liberalism. Against them were 132 delegates of a more radical and anticlerical mindset.<ref>{{cite book |author=Enrique Krauze |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMIUcsUVyzsC |title=Mexico: biography of power: a history of modern Mexico, 1810–1996 |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-06-092917-6 |page=387}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=D. L. Riner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HqzAAAAIAAJ&q=%22carranza+opposed%22 |title=Mexico: meeting the challenge |author2=J. V. Sweeney |publisher=Euromoney |year=1991 |isbn=978-1-870031-59-2 |page=64}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=William V. D'Antonio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEZXAAAAMAAJ&q=%22carranza+opposed%22 |title=Religion, revolution, and reform: new forces for change in Latin America |author2=Fredrick B. Pike |publisher=Praeger |year=1964 |page=66}}</ref>

Article 24 stated: "Every man shall be free to choose and profess any religious belief as long as it is lawful and it cannot be punished under criminal law. The Congress shall not be authorized to enact laws either establishing or prohibiting a particular religion. Religious ceremonies of public nature shall be ordinarily performed at the temples. Those performed outdoors shall be regulated under the law."<ref name="constitution" /> thumb|Group of Cristero generals posing in Coalcomán, Michoacán, circa 1927 during the Cristero War.

=== Conflict between church and state === The Mexican Revolution was the costliest conflict in the history of Mexico.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCaa |first=Robert |date=2003 |title=Missing Millions: The Demographic Costs of the Mexican Revolution |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/msem.2003.19.2.367 |journal=Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=367–400 |doi=10.1525/msem.2003.19.2.367 |jstor=10.1525/msem.2003.19.2.367 |issn=0742-9797|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz caused political instability, with many contending factions and regions.<ref name=":21" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Andes |first=Stephen J. C. |title=Catholicism, Revolution, and Counter-Revolution in Twentieth-Century Latin America |date=2020-03-19 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Latin American Christianity |pages=174–193 |editor-last=Orique |editor-first=David Thomas |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34378/chapter/291554897 |access-date=2024-05-05 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199860357.013.8 |isbn=978-0-19-986035-7 |editor2-last=Fitzpatrick-Behrens |editor2-first=Susan |editor3-last=Garrard |editor3-first=Virginia|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Ristow |first=Colby |title=The Mexican Revolution |date=2021-02-10 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Mexican History |editor-last=Beezley |editor-first=William |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34726/chapter/296492543 |access-date=2024-05-05 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699192.013.23 |isbn=978-0-19-069919-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Mexican Catholic Church and the Díaz government had come to an informal ''modus vivendi'' in which the state formally maintained the anticlerical articles of the liberal Constitution of 1857 but failed to enforce them.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="Nesvig">Martin Austin Nesvig, [https://books.google.com/books?id=d1CXxGl9CNIC&pg=PA229 ''Religious Culture in Modern Mexico''], pp. 228–29, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Thomson |first=Guy |title=Benito Juárez and Liberalism |date=28 March 2018 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-461 |access-date=2024-02-04 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.461 |isbn=978-0-19-936643-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hamnett |first=Brian R. |date=1991 |title=Benito Juárez, Early Liberalism, and the Regional Politics of Oaxaca, 1828-1853 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3338561 |journal=Bulletin of Latin American Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.2307/3338561 |jstor=3338561 |issn=0261-3050|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Benjamin |first=Thomas |title=The Life, Myth, and Commemoration of Benito Juárez |date=25 June 2018 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-510 |access-date=2024-02-04 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.510 |isbn=978-0-19-936643-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A change of leadership and a wholesale overturning of the previous order were potential sources of danger to the Church's position. In the democratizing wave of political activity, the National Catholic Party (''Partido Católico Nacional'') was formed.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ferreiro |first1=Emilia |title=El Partido Acción Nacional, la larga marcha, 1939–1994: oposición leal y partido de protesta |last2=Loaeza |first2=Soledad |date=1999 |publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica |isbn=978-968-16-6128-1 |language=es}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=O'Dogherty Madrazo |first1=Laura |date=1999 |title=De urnas y sotanas: el partido catolico nacional en Jalisco |trans-title=Of Ballot Boxes and Cassocks: The National Catholic Party in Jalisco |language=es |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/16c3298f0b430ae2e20f415969a0466e/1 }}{{page needed|date=September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goddard |first=Jorge Adame |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEAtAAAAMAAJ |title=El pensamiento político y social de los católicos mexicanos, 1867–1914 |date=1981 |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas |isbn=978-968-5801-75-1 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramírez |first=Manuel Ceballos |title=El catolicismo social: un tercero en discordia, Rerum Novarum, la "cuestión social" y la movilización de los católicos mexicanos (1891-1911) |date=1991 |publisher=El Colegio de Mexico |isbn=978-968-12-0494-5 |edition=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctvhn09jc |jstor=j.ctvhn09jc }}</ref>

After President Francisco I. Madero was overthrown and assassinated in the February 1913 military coup, which was led by General Victoriano Huerta, supporters of the Porfirian regime were returned to their posts. After the ouster of Huerta in 1914, members of the National Catholic Party and high-ranking Church figures were accused of collaborating with the Huerta regime, and the Catholic Church was subjected to revolutionary hostilities and fierce anticlericalism by many northern revolutionaries. The Constitutionalist faction won the revolution and its leader, Venustiano Carranza, had a new constitution drawn up, the Constitution of 1917. It strengthened the anticlerical provisions of the previous document, but President Carranza and his successor, General Alvaro Obregón, were preoccupied by their struggles against their enemies in Mexico and so they were lenient in their enforcement of the Constitution's anticlerical articles, especially in areas in which the Church was powerful.<ref name="Loaeza">{{Cite book |last=Loaeza |first=Soledad |title=La restauración de la Iglesia católica en la transición mexicana |date=2013 |publisher=El Colegio de Mexico AC |isbn=978-607-462-592-9 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goddard |first=Jorge Adame |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEAtAAAAMAAJ |title=El pensamiento político y social de los católicos mexicanos, 1867-1914 |date=1981 |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas |isbn=978-968-5801-75-1 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramírez |first=Manuel Ceballos |title=El catolicismo social: un tercero en discordia, Rerum Novarum, la "cuestión social" y la movilización de los católicos mexicanos (1891-1911) |date=1991 |publisher=El Colegio de Mexico |isbn=978-968-12-0494-5 |edition=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctvhn09jc |jstor=j.ctvhn09jc }}</ref>

Carranza was the first president under the 1917 Constitution but he was overthrown by his former ally Álvaro Obregón in 1919. Obregón took over the presidency in late 1920 and effectively applied the Constitution's anticlerical laws in areas in which the Church was fragile.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="Buchenau">{{Cite book |last=Buchenau |first=Jürgen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMhK8yVuaDMC |title=The Last Caudillo: Alvaro Obregón and the Mexican Revolution |date=4 February 2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-9718-5 |language=en}}</ref> The uneasy truce with the Church ended with Obregón's 1924 handpicked succession of the atheist Plutarco Elías Calles.<ref>Gonzales, Michael J., [https://books.google.com/books?id=se17aQLbKioC The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1940], p. 268, UNM Press, 2002</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WOBRb0wKpocC&dq=%22anti+catholicism%22+in+the+1917+constitution+of+mexico&pg=PA58 David A. Shirk, ''Mexico's New Politics: The PAN and Democratic Change'' p. 58 (L. Rienner Publishers 2005)]</ref><ref name="Fallaw2013" /> Mexican "Jacobins", supported by Calles's central government, engaged in secularization campaigns to eradicate what they called superstition and fanaticism, which included the desecration of religious objects as well as the persecution and the murder of members of the clergy.<ref name="Nesvig" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name="Fallaw2013" /><ref name=":1" />

When Calles and his Labor Party came to power in 1924, the administration believed that the Church was challenging its revolutionary initiatives and legal basis. The administration thus resolved for strict enforcement of the Constitution's secularist articles. To confront the Church's influence, laws were brought into force to execute on the constitutional provisions, which triggered a ten-year-long religious conflict in which thousands of armed civilians were killed by the Mexican Army. Some have characterized Calles as the leader of an atheist state<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haas |first1=Ernst B. |title=Nationalism, Liberalism, and Progress: The dismal fate of new nations |date=1997 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3109-8 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> and his program as being one to eradicate religion in Mexico,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cronon |first1=E. David |title=American Catholics and Mexican Anticlericalism, 1933-1936 |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |date=1958 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=201–230 |doi=10.2307/1902927 |jstor=1902927 }}</ref><ref name="Loaeza" /> but Calles also supported the creation of the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church in 1925, a national church independent from the Vatican and accepting of the secularist Constitution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rancaño |first=Mario Ramírez |date=6 December 2002 |title=La ruptura con el vaticano. José Joaquín Pérez y la Iglesia Católica Apostólica Mexicana, 1925–1931 |url=https://moderna.historicas.unam.mx/index.php/ehm/article/view/3070 |journal=Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de México |language=es |volume=24 |issue=024 |doi=10.22201/iih.24485004e.2002.024.3070 |issn=2448-5004|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rancaño |first=Mario Ramírez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_O8Uz4DEIUkC |title=El patriarca Pérez: la iglesia católica apostólica mexicana |date=2006 |publisher=UNAM |isbn=978-970-32-3436-3 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Butler |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dOKXEAAAQBAJ&q=Mathew+butler |title=Mexico's Spiritual Reconquest: Indigenous Catholics and Father Pérez's Revolutionary Church |date=15 May 2023 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-4508-0 |language=en}}</ref>

Calles applied the anticlerical laws stringently throughout the country and added his own anticlerical legislation. In June 1926, he signed the "Law for Reforming the Penal Code," which was popularly called the Calles Law.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bailey |first=David C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWip_miO1zoC |title=Viva Cristo Rey!: The Cristero Rebellion and the Church-State Conflict in Mexico |date=10 April 2013 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-75634-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> It provided specific penalties for priests and individuals who violated the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. For instance, wearing clerical garb in public, outside church buildings, earned a fine of 500 pesos (then the equivalent of US$250), and priests who criticized the government could be imprisoned for five years.<ref name=":2" /> Some states enacted their own anticlerical measures. Chihuahua enacted a law permitting only one priest to serve all Catholics in the state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roggero |first=Franco Savarino |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7REHvgEACAAJ |title=El conflicto religioso en Chihuahua, 1918–1937 |date=2017 |publisher=El Colegio de Chihuahua |isbn=978-607-8214-50-1 |language=es}}</ref> To help enforce the law, Calles expropriated church property, expelled all foreign priests and closed monasteries, convents and religious schools.<ref>John W. Warnock,  ''The Other Mexico: The North American Triangle Completed'' p. 27 (1995 Black Rose Books, Ltd); {{ISBN|978-1-55164-028-0}}</ref><ref name=":12" /><ref name="Fallaw2013" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />{{Modern persecutions of the Catholic Church}}

=== Protests and radicalization === In response to the measures, Catholic organizations began to intensify their resistance. The most important Catholic group was the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty, founded in 1924, which was joined by the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth, founded in 1913, and the Popular Union, a Catholic political party founded the previous year.<ref name=":9" />

Later in 1926, Calles intensified tensions against the clergy by ordering all local churches in and around Jalisco to be bolted shut. The places of worship remained shut for two years. On 14 July, Catholic bishops endorsed plans for an economic boycott against the government, which was particularly effective in west-central Mexico (the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hernansáez |first=Luis Rubio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owunDwAAQBAJ |title=Contrarrevoluciones católicas: de los chuanes a los cristeros (1792–1942) |date=28 February 2018 |publisher=Texere |isbn=978-607-8472-68-0 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hernansáez |first=Luis Rubio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gMMPwAACAAJ |title=Zacatecas bronco: introducción al conflicto cristero en Zacatecas y norte de Jalisco, 1926-1942 |date=2008 |publisher=Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Unidad Académica de Ciencia Política |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Butler |first=Matthew |date=1 January 2018 |title="Su hija Inés": católicas laicas, el obispo Luis María Martínez, y el conflicto religioso michoacano, 1927–1929 |url=https://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/3528 |journal=Historia Mexicana |language=es |pages=1249–1294 |doi=10.24201/hm.v67i3.3528 |issn=2448-6531 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rangel |first=Yolanda Padilla |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-bmWYqmJHcC |title=Después de la tempestad: la reorganización católica en Aguascalientes, 1929-1950 |date=2001 |publisher=El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. |isbn=978-970-679-068-2 |language=es}}</ref> Other states that saw minor uprising were Oaxaca, Colima, Sonora, and Nayarit.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Benjamin Thomas |date=2005 |title=Anticlericalism and Resistance: The Diocese of Huajuapam de León, 1930–1940 |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=469–505 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X05009430 |jstor=3875756 |s2cid=145296478}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gavi |first=José Luis Sánchez |date=2009 |title=La fuerza de lo religioso y su expresión violenta. La rebelión cristera en el estado de Puebla, 1926-1940 |journal=Ulúa |language=es |issue=14 |doi=10.25009/urhsc.v0i14.1312 |s2cid=255914884 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meyer |first=Jean A. |date=2005 |title=El conflicto religioso en Oaxaca 1926-1929 |url=http://repositorio-digital.cide.edu//handle/11651/1024 |hdl-access=free |website=Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas |hdl=11651/1024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meyer |first=Jean |date=2 December 1993 |title=Colima en la Cristiada |journal=Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de México |language=es |volume=16 |issue=16 |doi=10.22201/iih.24485004e.1998.016.2986 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Machuca Chávez |first1=Claudia Paulina |date=August 2009 |title=Cristeros en Colima |url=https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1607-050X2009000200012 |journal=Desacatos |language=es |issue=30 |pages=168–171}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=González |first1=Enrique Bautista |title=La guerra olvidada: la cristera en Nayarit, 1.926–1.929 |date=2008 |publisher=Taller editorial La Casa del Mago |language=es |oclc=316805597}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wright-Rios |first=Edward |title=Revolutions in Mexican Catholicism: Reform and Revelation in Oaxaca, 1887–1934 |date=2009 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-9228-6}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Serrano Álvarez, Pablo, Colima en los vaivenes de la posrevolución. Del callismo al cardenismo, 1926-1940 [artículo] |url=https://historicas.unam.mx/moderna/ehmc/ehmc17/223.html#nf2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717051110/https://historicas.unam.mx/moderna/ehmc/ehmc17/223.html#nf2 |archive-date=2023-07-17 |access-date=2023-07-17 |website=historicas.unam.mx}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=Matthew |date=2002 |title=Keeping the Faith in Revolutionary Mexico: Clerical and Lay Resistance to Religious Persecution, East Michoacán, 1926–1929 |journal=The Americas |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=9–32 |doi=10.1353/tam.2002.0067 |jstor=1007528 |s2cid=143984064}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jean |first=Meyer |title=Breve historia de Nayarit |date=1 January 2014 |publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica |isbn=978-968-16-7625-4 |language=Spanish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=3. La Cristiada, 1926-1929 |url=http://bibliotecadigital.ilce.edu.mx/sites/estados/libros/nayarit/html/sec_60.html |access-date=2023-08-04 |website=bibliotecadigital.ilce.edu.mx}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cejudo Ramos |first=Elizabeth |title=El gobierno no puede más que Dios: Género, ciudadanía y conflicto Iglesia-Estado en el Sonora posrevolucionario |date=April 2021 |isbn=978-607-518-413-5 |hdl=20.500.12984/6335 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cejudo Ramos |first1=Elizabeth |date=13 December 2021 |title='Ingratos hijos de Sonora'. Conflicto entre la Iglesia y el Estado en una entidad del noroeste mexicano, 1926-1929 |journal=Región y sociedad |volume=33 |article-number=e1506 |doi=10.22198/rys2021/33/1506 |s2cid=245153662 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Jean |title=Jean Meyer: De una revolución a la otra: México en la historia. Antología de textos |date=2013 |publisher=Colegio de Mexico |isbn=978-607-462-483-0 |pages=1–510 |jstor=j.ctt15vt914}}</ref> Catholics in those areas stopped attending movies and plays and using public transportation, and Catholic teachers stopped teaching in secular schools.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> thumb|''Suspects affiliated with the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty at the police inspection.''

thumb|The photograph titled ''"Manifestaciones católicas''" was taken, during a key period in Mexican history marked by growing tensions between the government of Plutarco Elías Calles and the Catholic Church. The image shows a Catholic demonstration in Mexico City, a significant event due to the restrictions imposed on the Church under the Calles Law , which provoked a strong response from the religious community. The fomenting conflict attracted the attention of Pope Pius XI, who issued a series of papal encyclicals from 1925 to 1937. On 18 November 1926, he issued ''Iniquis afflictisque'' ("On the Persecution of the Church in Mexico") to denounce the violent anticlerical persecution in Mexico.<ref name="The Papacy: An Encyclopedia">{{cite book |author=Philippe Levillain |url=https://archive.org/details/papacy00phil_0 |title=The Papacy: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-92230-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/papacy00phil_0/page/1208 1208] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{cite journal |author1=Massimo De Giuseppe |date=2014 |title=Alla ricerca di un welfare cattolico. La Chiesa latinoamericana tra dottrina sociale e sfide della secolarizzazione |journal=Equilibri |issue=2 |pages=212–225 |doi=10.1406/77703}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{cite journal |last1=Pollard |first1=John |date=October 2012 |title=Pius XI's Promotion of the Italian Model of Catholic Action in the World-Wide Church |journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=758–784 |doi=10.1017/S002204691100251X}}</ref> Despite the government's promises, the persecution of the Church continued. In response, Pius issued ''Acerba animi'' on 29 September 1932.<ref name="The Papacy: An Encyclopedia" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":25" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Iglesia Católica, anticlericalismo y laicidad |date=2014 |publisher=Ediciones Navarra |isbn=978-607-02-6132-9}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Solis |first1=Yves |title=El anticlericalismo en Europa y América Latina: una visión transatlántica |last2=Roggero |first2=Franco Savarino |date=2011 |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia |isbn=978-972-8361-38-9}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The bishops asked to have the offending articles of the Constitution amended. Pope Pius XI explicitly approved the plan. The Calles government considered the bishops' activism to be sedition and had many more churches closed. In September 1926, the episcopate submitted a proposal to amend the Constitution, but the Mexican Congress rejected it on 22 September.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}}[[Image:Mexico Flag Cristeros.svg|right|thumb|A modern reproduction of the flag used by the Cristeros with references to "Viva Cristo rey" and "Nuestra señora de Guadalupe"]] [[File:cristeroscolgados.jpg|thumb|Government forces publicly hanged Cristeros on main thoroughfares throughout Mexico, including in the Pacific states of Colima and Jalisco, where bodies often remained hanging for extended lengths of time.]]

==Rebellion== The government called the rebels ''Cristeros'' since they invoked the name of Jesus Christ under the title of "Cristo Rey" or ''Christ the King'', and the rebels soon took to using the name themselves.<ref name=":31" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kloppe-Santamaría |first1=Gema |last2=Young |first2=Julia |date=April 22, 2025 |title=The Long Shadow of Mexico's War Over Catholicism |url=https://americasquarterly.org/article/the-long-shadow-of-mexicos-war-over-catholicism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250424110353/https://americasquarterly.org/article/the-long-shadow-of-mexicos-war-over-catholicism/ |archive-date=April 24, 2025 |access-date=2025-10-11 |website=Americas Quarterly |language=en-US}}</ref> The rebellion is known for the Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc, a brigade of women that assisted the rebels in smuggling guns and ammunition, and for certain priests, who were tortured and murdered in public and later canonized by Pope John Paul II. The rebellion eventually came to an end following a settlement brokered by the Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow with financial relief and logistical assistance provided by the Knights of Columbus.<ref name="KoC">{{cite journal |author=Julia G. Young |year=2012 |title=Cristero Diaspora: Mexican Immigrants, the U.S. Catholic Church, and Mexico's Cristero War, 1926–29 |journal=The Catholic Historical Review |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=271–300 |doi=10.1353/cat.2012.0149 |jstor=23240138 |s2cid=154431224}}</ref><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=González Morfín |first1=Juan |date=July 2022 |title=Dwight W. Morrow: retrato de un no-político que supo cambiar las reglas políticas |journal=Iztapalapa. Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades |volume=2 |issue=93 |pages=169–195 |doi=10.28928/ri/932022/aot1/gonzalezmorfinj |s2cid=249835870 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Beginning of violence=== thumb|left|150px|Cristero Victoriano Ramírez On 3 August, four days after the Calles Law came into force, in Guadalajara, Jalisco, some 400 armed Catholics shut themselves in the Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe ("Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe"). They exchanged gunfire with federal troops and surrendered when they ran out of ammunition. According to American consular sources, the battle resulted in 18 dead and 40 wounded. The following day, in Sahuayo, Michoacán, 240 government soldiers stormed the parish church. The priest and his vicar were killed in the ensuing violence.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schmal |first=John P. |date=15 December 2019 |title=Mexico: Confrontation Between Church and State |url=https://indigenousmexico.org/jalisco/mexico-confrontation-between-church-and-state/ |access-date=4 November 2022 |website=Indigenous Mexico}}</ref>

thumb|President Calles leaving military headquarters after inspecting troops in preparation of the upcoming revolts On 14 August, government agents staged a purge of the Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, chapter of the Association of Catholic Youth and executed its spiritual adviser, Father Luis Bátiz Sainz. The execution caused a band of ranchers, led by Pedro Quintanar, to seize the local treasury and to declare themselves in rebellion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Navarro |first=Moisés González |jstor=j.ctv3f8qth |title=Cristeros y agraristas en Jalisco: Tomo 1 |date=2000 |publisher=El Colegio de Mexico |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3f8qth |isbn=978-968-12-0974-2 |edition=1}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref name="Purnell 1999">{{Cite book |last=Purnell |first=Jennie |url=http://archive.org/details/popularmovements0000purn |title=Popular movements and state formation in revolutionary Mexico: the agraristas and cristeros of Michoacán |date=1999 |publisher=Durham, NC : Duke University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8223-2314-3}}</ref> At the height of the rebellion, they held a region including the entire northern part of Jalisco. Luis Navarro Origel, mayor of Pénjamo, Guanajuato, led another uprising on 28 September. His men were defeated by federal troops in the open land around the town but retreated into the mountains, where they engaged in guerrilla warfare. In support of the two guerrilla Apache clans, the Chavez and Trujillos helped smuggle arms, munitions, and supplies from the US state of New Mexico.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

That was followed by a 29 September uprising in Durango, led by Trinidad Mora, and an 4 October rebellion in southern Guanajuato, led by former General Rodolfo Gallegos.<ref name="Purnell 1999"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hernández |first=Antonio Avitia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HylttgAACAAJ |title=El caudillo sagrado: historia de las rebeliones cristeras en el estado de Durango |date=1998 |publisher=A. Avitia Hernández |language=es}}</ref> Both rebel leaders adopted guerrilla tactics since their forces were no match for federal troops. Meanwhile, rebels in Jalisco, particularly the region northeast of Guadalajara, quietly began assembling forces. Led by 27-year-old René Capistrán Garza, the leader of the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth, the region would become the main focal point of the rebellion.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Julia Grace Darling |url=http://archive.org/details/mexicanexodusemi0000youn |title=Mexican exodus: emigrants, exiles, and refugees of the Cristero War |date=2015 |publisher=England ; New York : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-020500-3 |page=55}}</ref> thumb|A portrait of Rodolfo Gallegos, a key leader of the Cristero movement during the Mexican Cristero War (1926–1929).

The formal rebellion began on 1 January 1927 with a manifesto sent by Garza, ''A la Nación'' ("To the Nation"). It declared that "the hour of battle has sounded" and that "the hour of victory belongs to God."<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Radical Catholic resistance to the Mexican Revolution: the Cristero Rebellion and the Sinarquista Movement |hdl=1969.1/ETD-TAMU-1664 |hdl-access=free |date=2006 |first=Martin Tomas |last=Velazquez}}{{page needed|date=September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Capistrán Garza |first=René |title=1926 Nov 26 Manifiesto de René Capistrán Garza que convoca al levantamiento cristero. |url=https://www.memoriapoliticademexico.org/Textos/6Revolucion/26111926.html |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=www.memoriapoliticademexico.org}}</ref> With the declaration, the state of Jalisco, which had been seemingly quiet since the Guadalajara church uprising, exploded. Bands of rebels moving in the "Los Altos" region northeast of Guadalajara began seizing villages and were often armed with only ancient muskets and clubs. The rebels had scarce logistical supplies and relied heavily on the Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc and raids on towns, trains, and ranches to supply themselves with money, horses, ammunition, and food.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Sr. Barbara |title=The Role of Women in the Mexican Cristero Rebellion: Las Señoras y Las Religiosas |journal=The Americas |date=1984 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=303–323 |doi=10.2307/981116 |jstor=981116 |s2cid=147564218 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite thesis |title=Mexican Catholic women's activism, 1929-1940 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:34c1a60f-ded1-4cd5-b304-aa4b9a292e9e |publisher=University of Oxford |date=2000 |degree=Text |language=English |first=K. |last=Boylan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Olcott |first=Jocelyn H. |title=Revolutionary Women in Postrevolutionary Mexico |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8735-0 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Mary Kay |title=Sex in Revolution: Gender, Politics, and Power in Modern Mexico |last2=Cano |first2=Gabriela |last3=Olcott |first3=Jocelyn H. |date=2007 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8844-9 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chowning |first1=Margaret |title=The Catholic Church and the Ladies of the Vela Perpetua: Gender and Devotional Change in Nineteenth-Century Mexico |journal=Past & Present |date=2013 |issue=221 |pages=197–237 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtt015 |jstor=24543615 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaca |first=Agustín |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9FVAAAAMAAJ |title=Los silencios de la historia: las cristeras |date=1998 |publisher=Colegio de Jalisco |isbn=978-968-6255-12-6 |pages=1–355 |language=es}}</ref> By contrast, the Calles government was supplied with arms and ammunition by the American government later in the war. In at least one battle, American pilots provided air support for the Federal Army against the Cristero rebels.<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Mark |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/71030/ |title=Insurgency and Counter-insurgency in centre-west Mexico, 1926–29: Fighting Cristeros |date=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-09545-8 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The Calles government failed at first to take the threat seriously. The rebels did well against the ''agraristas'', a rural militia recruited throughout Mexico, and the Social Defense forces, the local militia, but were at first always defeated by regular federal troops, who guarded the main cities. The Federal Army then had 79,759 men. When the Jalisco federal commander, General Jesús Ferreira, moved in on the rebels, he wired to army headquarters that "it will be less a campaign than a hunt."<ref name="books.google.com">Jim Tuck, [https://archive.org/details/holywarinlosalto0000tuck The Holy War in Los Altos: A Regional Analysis of Mexico's Cristero Rebellion], p. 55, University of Arizona Press, 1982</ref> That sentiment was held also by Calles.<ref name="books.google.com"/> thumb|A government soldier uses the pulpit of the Church of San Joaquín to offer a banquet in honor of General Amaro during the ''Cristero War''.

thumb|A photo of officers and family members from the Cristeros Castañón fighting regiment. However, the rebels planned their battles fairly well, especially when it is considered that most of them had little to no previous military experience. The most successful rebel leaders were Jesús Degollado, a pharmacist; Victoriano Ramírez, a ranch hand; and two priests, Aristeo Pedroza and José Reyes Vega.<ref>"The Anti-clerical Who Led a Catholic Rebellion", ''Latin American Studies''</ref> Reyes Vega was renowned, and Cardinal Davila deemed him a "black-hearted assassin".<ref name="latinamericanstudies.org">Jim Tuck, [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/mexico/gorostieta.htm The Anti-clerical Who Led a Catholic Rebellion], Latin American Studies</ref> At least five priests took up arms, and many others supported them in various ways.

Many of the rebel peasants who took up arms in the fight had different motivations from the Catholic Church. Many were still fighting for agrarian land reform, which had been years earlier the focal point of the Mexican Revolution. The peasantry was still upset of the usurpation of its rightful title to the land.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |id={{Gale|A219589471}} |last1=Mendoza |first1=Reynaldo Rojo |title=The Church-State conflict in Mexico from the Mexican revolution to the Cristero Rebellion |journal=Proceedings of the Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies |date=1 January 2006 |volume=23 |pages=76–97 }}</ref>

The Mexican episcopate never officially supported the rebellion,<ref>Roy P. Domenico, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8ZixRcQfV8C ''Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics''], p. 151, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006</ref> but the rebels had some indications that their cause was legitimate.<ref name=":6" /> Bishop José Francisco Orozco of Guadalajara remained with the rebels. Although he formally rejected armed rebellion, he was unwilling to leave his flock.

[[File:Enrique_Gorostieta.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Cristero General Enrique Gorostieta.]] On 23 February 1927, the Cristeros defeated federal troops for the first time at San Francisco del Rincón, Guanajuato, followed by another victory at San Julián, Jalisco. However, they quickly began to lose in the face of superior federal forces, retreated into remote areas, and constantly fled federal soldiers. Most of the leadership of the revolt in the state of Jalisco was forced to flee to the U.S. although Ramírez and Vega remained.

In April 1927, the leader of the civilian wing of the Cristiada, Anacleto González Flores, was captured, tortured, and killed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=González Flores, Anacleto |url=http://enciclopedia.udg.mx/articulos/gonzalez-flores-anacleto |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=enciclopedia.udg.mx}}</ref><ref name=":9" /> The media and the government declared victory, and plans were made for a re-education campaign in the areas that had rebelled. As if to prove that the rebellion was not extinguished and to avenge his death, Vega led a raid against a train carrying a shipment of money for the Bank of Mexico on 19 April 1927. The raid was a success, but Vega's brother was killed in the fighting.<ref name="latinamericanstudies.org"/>

The "Reconcentración" policy, was a policy of forced resettlement by the government during the cristero period of villages destroyed during the numerous battles .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stauffer |first=Brian A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NuK5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Victory on Earth or in Heaven: Mexico's Religionero Rebellion |date=1 December 2019 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-6128-8 |pages=276–278 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":20" /> rather than suppressing the revolt, gave it new life, as thousands of men began to aid and join the rebels in resentment for their treatment by the government. When rains came, the peasants were allowed to return to the harvest, and there was now more support than ever for the Cristeros. By August 1927, they had consolidated their movement and had begun constant attacks on federal troops garrisoned in their towns. They would soon be joined by Enrique Gorostieta, a retired general hired by the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty.<ref name="latinamericanstudies.org"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Negrete |first=Marta Elena |title=Enrique Gorostieta: cristero agnóstico |date=1981 |publisher=Ediciones El Caballito |isbn=978-968-6011-16-6 |language=es}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 1993 |title=núm. 13 – Estudios Jaliscienses |url=https://www.estudiosjaliscienses.com/1993/08/02/num-13/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |language=es}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Memoria Política de México |url=https://www.memoriapoliticademexico.org/Textos/6Revolucion/1918-LDLR-EG.html |access-date=2023-09-01 |website=www.memoriapoliticademexico.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gorostieta |first1=Luz María Pérez |url=https://libros.uanl.mx/index.php/u/catalog/book/51 |title=Cartas del General Enrique Gorostieta a Gertrudis Lasaga |last2=Gómez |first2=Juan Rodolfo Sánchez |date=1 June 2013 |publisher=Libros UANL |isbn=978-607-27-0092-5 |language=es}}</ref>

On 21 June 1927, the first Women's Brigade was formed in Zapopan. It began with 16 women and one man, but after a few days, it grew to 135 members and soon came to number 17,000. Its mission was to obtain money, weapons, provisions, and information for the combatant men and to care for the wounded. By March 1928, some 10,000 women were involved in the struggle, with many smuggling weapons into combat zones by carrying them in carts filled with grain or cement. By the end of the war, it numbered some 25,000.<ref name=":15">{{cite book|last1=Meyer|first1=Jean A.|title=The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State, 1926–1929|date=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-21031-7|pages=132, 133, 136}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Dogherty |first1=Laura |title=Restaurarlo todo en Cristo: Unión de Damas Católicas Mejicanas, 1920-1926 |journal=Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de México |date=14 March 2019 |volume=14 |issue=014 |doi=10.22201/iih.24485004e.1991.014.68852 |s2cid=190165968 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":26">{{cite journal |last1=Crespo Reyes |first1=Sofía |title=Entre la vida parroquial y la militancia política: el espacio urbano para la Unión de Damas Católicas, 1912-1930 |journal=Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de México |date=8 June 2020 |issue=58 |page=195 |doi=10.22201/iih.24485004e.2019.58.70958 |s2cid=243073362 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":27">{{cite journal |last1=Reyes |first1=Sofía Crespo |title=La Unión de Damas Católicas Mexicanas: Una organización de derecha en la Ciudad de México (1912-1930) |journal=Con-temporánea |date=30 June 2018 |issue=9 |url=https://revistas.inah.gob.mx/index.php/contemporanea/article/view/13217 |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crespo Reyes |first1=Sofía |title=El activismo católico femenino en México durante la Guerra Cristera. La experiencia de la Unión de Damas Católicas Mexicanas (1926–1929) |journal=Historia Caribe |date=July 2023 |volume=18 |issue=43 |pages=67–97 |doi=10.15648/hc.43.2023.3719 |s2cid=260052093 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reyes |first=Sofía Crespo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rzhsEAAAQBAJ |title=Entre la filantropía y la práctica política: la Unión de Damas Católicas Mexicanas en la Ciudad de México 1860–1932 |date=20 April 2022 |publisher=UNAM, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Acatlán |isbn=978-607-30-5686-1 |language=es}}</ref> Several female Catholic activists groups formed during this time, and women were instrumental in the formation of activist groups to promote a movement in response to the anticlerical campaigns of the period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alvarez-Pimentel |first=Ricardo |date=1 April 2022 |title=From Secret War to Cold War: Race, Catholicism, and the Un-Making of Counterrevolutionary Mexico, 1917–1946 |url=https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/gsas_dissertations/696 |journal=Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations}}</ref><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":27" /><ref name=":26" />

With close ties to the Church and the clergy, the De La Torre family was instrumental in bringing the Cristero Movement to northern Mexico. The family, originally from Zacatecas and Guanajuato, moved to Aguascalientes and then, in 1922, to San Luis Potosí. It moved again to Tampico for economic reasons and finally to Nogales (both the Mexican city and its similarly named sister city across the border in Arizona) to escape persecution from authorities because of its involvement in the Church and the rebels.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.azarchivesonline.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/uoa/UAMS420.xml&doc.view=content&brand=default&anchor.id=0 | title=De la Torre family papers, 1874–2003 (Bulk 1910–1946) }}</ref><ref name=":14" /> The Cristeros maintained the upper hand throughout 1928, and in 1929, the government faced a new crisis: a revolt within army ranks that was led by Arnulfo R. Gómez in Veracruz. The Cristeros tried to take advantage by a failed attack on Guadalajara in late March 1929. The rebels managed to take Tepatitlán on 19 April, but Vega was killed. The rebellion was met with equal force, and the Cristeros were soon facing divisions within their own ranks.<ref>On 2 June, Gorostieta was killed in an ambush by a federal patrol. However, the rebels now had some 50,000 men under arms and seemed poised to draw out the rebellion for a long time.</ref> Another difficulty facing the Cristeros and especially the Catholic Church was the extended period without a place of worship. The clergy faced the fear of driving away the faithful masses by engaging in war for so long. They also lacked the overwhelming sympathy or support from many aspects of Mexican society, even among many Catholics.<ref name=":0" />

===Diplomacy=== thumb|right|Armed Cristeros congregating in the streets of Mexico. In October 1927, the American ambassador, Dwight Morrow, initiated a series of breakfast meetings with Calles at which they would discuss a range of issues from the religious uprising to oil and irrigation. That earned him the nickname "the ham and eggs diplomat" in U.S. papers. Morrow wanted the conflict to end for regional security and to help find a solution to the oil problem in the U.S. He was aided in his efforts by Father John J. Burke<ref>{{cite book | last = Slawson | first = Douglas J. | title = The World and Work of Father John J. Burke: A Mystic in Action | location = South Bend, Indiana | publisher = St. Augustine's Press | date = 2025 | pages = 600 | isbn = 978-1-58731-914-3 }}</ref> of the National Catholic Welfare Conference.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Sheerin |first=John B. |url=http://archive.org/details/neverlookbackcar00shee |title=Never look back: the career and concerns of John J. Burke |date=1975 |publisher=New York : Paulist Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8091-0200-6}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Andes |first=Stephen J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thDNAgAAQBAJ&q=stephen+andes&pg=PP1 |title=The Vatican and Catholic Activism in Mexico and Chile: The Politics of Transnational Catholicism, 1920–1940 |date=20 February 2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-100216-8 |language=en}}</ref> Calles's term as president was coming to an end, and ex-President Álvaro Obregón had been elected president and was scheduled to take office on 1 December 1928. Obregón had been more lenient to Catholics during his time in office than Calles, but it was also generally accepted among Mexicans, including the Cristeros, that Calles was his puppet leader.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mexico: Biography of Power: A History of Modern Mexico, 1810–1996|author=Enrique Krauze|location=New York|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1997|isbn=978-0-06-016325-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/mexico00enri/page/399 399]|url=https://archive.org/details/mexico00enri/page/399}}</ref> Two weeks after his election, Obregón was assassinated by a Catholic radical, José de León Toral,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weis |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ToDwwEACAAJ |title=For Christ and Country: Militant Catholic Youth in Post-Revolutionary Mexico |date=11 March 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-73035-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Andes |first=Stephen Joseph Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S0C3DwAAQBAJ&q=stephen+andes |title=The Mysterious Sofía: One Woman's Mission to Save Catholicism in Twentieth-Century Mexico |date=December 2019 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-1-4962-1818-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ramírez Rancaño 2014">{{Cite book |last=Ramírez Rancaño |first=Mario |url=https://ru.iis.sociales.unam.mx/handle/IIS/5539 |title=El asesinato de Alvaro Obregón: la conspiración y la madre Conchita |date=2014 |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales; Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México |isbn=978-607-02-5394-2 |language=es}}{{page needed|date=September 2023}}</ref> which gravely damaged the peace process<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7" /> but was seen as a political victory by the Cristeros.<ref>With the National Synarchist Union in CDMX | https://tikhanovlibrary.com/with-the-uns-in-cdmx/</ref>

thumb|left|250px|Cristeros of San Jose de Garcia, Michoacán in the center with the sword is colonel Anatolio Partida to his left is Honorato Gonzalez In September 1928, Congress named Emilio Portes Gil as interim president with a special election to be held in November 1929. Portes was more open to the Church than Calles had been and allowed Morrow and Burke to restart the peace initiative. Portes told a foreign correspondent on 1 May 1929, that "the Catholic clergy, when they wish, may renew the exercise of their rites with only one obligation, that they respect the laws of the land." The next day, the exiled Archbishop Leopoldo Ruíz y Flores issued a statement that the bishops would not demand the repeal of the laws but only their more lenient enforcement. thumb|The photograph Tropas federales salen a combatir a los cristeros, taken by Agustín Casasola in 1927, depicts federal troops preparing to engage in battle against the Cristeros during the Cristero War in Mexico. This powerful image captures a significant moment of military mobilization amidst the religious conflict that defined much of the era. thumb|Federal troops inspect their weapons during the Cristero War in Mexico City, thumb|right|250px|Mexican Army General Heliodoro Charis. thumb|Archbishop Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, Bishop (later Archbishop) Pascual Díaz y Barreto, U.S. Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow, Chilean diplomat Miguel Cruchaga, and Mexican Ambassador Manuel C. Téllez gathered in Washington, D.C., during negotiations to resolve the religious conflict in Mexico, 1929. Morrow managed to bring the parties to agreement on 21 June 1929. His office drafted a pact called the ''arreglos'' ("agreement"), which allowed worship to resume in Mexico and granted three concessions to the Catholics.<ref name="Navarro 2003 Los Controvertidos Arreglos (I)">{{cite book |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3dnrnq.4 |jstor=j.ctv3dnrnq.4 |id={{Project MUSE|2584628|type=chapter}} |chapter=Los Controvertidos Arreglos (I) |last1=Navarro |first1=Moisés González |title=Cristeros y agraristas en Jalisco |date=2003 |pages=13–34 |publisher=El Colegio de Mexico |isbn=978-607-628-687-6 }}</ref> Only priests who were named by hierarchical superiors would be required to register; religious instruction in churches but not in schools would be permitted; and all citizens, including the clergy, would be allowed to make petitions to reform the laws.<ref name="Navarro 2003 Los Controvertidos Arreglos (I)"/> However, the most important parts of the agreement were that the Church would recover the right to use its properties, and priests would recover their rights to live on the properties. Legally speaking, the Church was not allowed to own real estate, and its former facilities remained federal property.<ref name="Navarro 2003 Los Controvertidos Arreglos (I)"/> However, the Church effectively took control over the properties. In the convenient arrangement for both parties, the Church ostensibly ended its support for the rebels.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Andes |first1=Stephen J. C. |title=Local Church, Global Church |date=2016 |publisher=CUA Press |isbn=978-0-8132-2791-7 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

thumb|left|250px|Cristeros bosses interview and the head of Military Operations of the State of Colima on 21 June 1929.

Over the previous two years, anticlerical officers, who were hostile to the federal government for reasons other than its position on religion, had joined the rebels. When the agreement between the government and the Church was made known, only a minority of the rebels went home, mainly those who felt their battle had been won. On the other hand, since the rebels themselves had not been consulted in the talks, many felt betrayed, and some continued to fight. The Church threatened those rebels with excommunication and the rebellion gradually died out. The officers, fearing that they would be tried as traitors, tried to keep the rebellion alive. Their attempt failed, and many were captured and shot, and others escaped to San Luis Potosí, where General Saturnino Cedillo gave them refuge.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

The war had claimed the lives of some 90,000 people: 56,882 federals, 30,000 Cristeros, and numerous civilians and Cristeros who were killed in anticlerical raids after the war had ended.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":2" /> As promised by Portes Gil, the Calles Law remained on the books, but there were no organized federal attempts to enforce it. Nonetheless, in several localities, officials continued persecution of Catholic priests, based on their interpretation of the law.

In 1992, the Mexican government amended the constitution by granting all religious groups legal status, conceding them property rights, and lifting restrictions on the number of priests in the country.<ref name="Roberto Blancarte 1993">Roberto Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico: An Historical Approach." ''Journal of Church & State'', Autumn 1993, vol. 35. No. 4.</ref>

===American involvement===

====Mexican-American resistance==== While the war was raging on in Mexico, Cristero exiles and other Mexican immigrants and refugees would attend sermons by banished Cristero priests denouncing President Plutarco Elías Calles' regime and the Cristero War.<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal |last=Alonso |first=Alexandra Délano |date=1 August 2017 |title=Review: Mexican Exodus: Emigrants, Exiles, and Refugees of the Cristero War by Julia G. Young |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/phr/article/86/3/549/94695/Review-Mexican-Exodus-Emigrants-Exiles-and |journal=Pacific Historical Review |language=en |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=549–550 |doi=10.1525/phr.2017.86.3.549 |issn=0030-8684|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The attendees would also help generate sympathy in the United States for the Cristero War by printing newspaper articles about the war and would create religious nationalistic organizations such as ''Unión Nacionalista Mexicana'' (Nationalist Mexican's Union) to gather funds for the war effort. There were some within these groups that would contribute more military aid to the Cristeros, with actions including smuggling arms across the Mexican-American border, providing espionage against the Mexican government, recruiting new troops to aid the Cristeros, and inciting armed revolts within Mexico.<ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodson |first=Julian F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ax-PDwAAQBAJ |title=Fanáticos, Exiles, and Spies: Revolutionary Failures on the US-Mexico Border, 1923–1930 |date=2 April 2019 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-62349-753-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":30">{{Cite journal |last=Piña |first=Ulices |date=21 September 2021 |title=Rebellion at the Fringe: Conspiracy, Surveillance, and State-Making in 1920s Mexico |journal=Journal of Social History |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=973–1000 |doi=10.1093/jsh/shab054 |issn=1527-1897}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stout |first=Joseph Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ReUQYAAACAAJ |title=Spies, Politics, and Power: El Departamento Confidencial en México, 1922-1946 |date=2012 |publisher=TCU Press |isbn=978-0-87565-438-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":36" /> Despite all of these efforts, their contribution to the war was largely limited because of distrust from the US government, which considered that an armed Catholic movement was dangerous; would send more troops to the border; and would then cause more persecution and discrimination to Mexican Catholics, Cristero exiles, and refugees.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite thesis |title=Claiming the Cross: How Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Catholic Church Worked to Create a More Inclusive National State, 1923–1986 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1z96x52z |publisher=UC Berkeley |date=2017 |language=en |first=Maggie |last=Elmore}}</ref><ref name=":30" /><ref name=":36">{{Cite book |last=Chávez |first=César Enrique Valdez |url=https://archive.org/details/valdez-c.-enemigos-fueron-todos.-vigilancia-y-persecucion-politica-en-el-mexico-/page/25/mode/2up |title=Enemigos fueron todos: vigilancia y persecución política en el México posrevolucionario (1924–1946) |date=2021 |publisher=Bonilla Artigas Editores |isbn=978-607-8636-91-4 |pages=133–189 |language=es}}</ref>

====Knights of Columbus==== Created in New Haven, Connecticut in 1882, the Knights of Columbus would establish its first chapter in Mexico called ''Caballeros de Colón'' (Knights of Columbus in Spanish) in Mexico City in 1905.<ref name=":29">{{Citation |last=Young |first=Julia G. |title=Bishops, Knights, Border Guards, and Spies |date=3 August 2015 |work=Mexican Exodus |pages=101–124 |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190205003.003.0005 |isbn=978-0-19-020500-3 }}</ref> Established by California railroad mogul and Knight John B. Frisbie, a resident of Mexico City, the first chapter would be made up of mostly Irish and Irish-Mexicans before more Mexicans would join the organization. The Knights of Columbus would eventually become one of Mexico's biggest and most monumental Catholic organizations, with a total of 5,102 members across 45 councils nationwide.<ref name=":29" /> The Knights of Columbus would start out in western states, an area where the Catholic Church was widespread, such as Puebla, Hidalgo, Michoacán, Guanajuato, and Jalisco, before spreading to Nayarit, Veracruz, Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua. Mexican members of the Knights of Columbus would also be involved with other Catholic organizations such as the Young Men's Catholic Association and ''La'' ''Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa'' (National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty in English).<ref name=":29" /> The Knights of Columbus would create religious schools throughout Mexico in 1923 as a way to create a "National Crusade in Defense of Catholicism".<ref name=":29" /> Furthermore, ''La Liga'' would create a popular, nationwide boycott in 1925 to protest the government's treatment of Catholics and the ongoing anti-religious sentiment present throughout the government. The Knights of Columbus also helped to generate propaganda and support for the Cristero War, framing the war as a story of martyrs and heroes, standing up for their religion in the face of an oppressive government.<ref name=":29" />

thumb|President Coolidge with the Knights of Columbus delegates who called upon him to seek government aid for the program for relief of the Catholics in Mexico. Left to right in the group are Luke E. Hart; Martin H. Carmody; Supreme Knight James A. Flaherty; President Coolidge; William J. McGinley; W.C. Prout; and John S. Conway American and Mexican councils, most of which were newly formed, of the Knights of Columbus opposed the persecution by the Mexican government. So far, nine of those who were beatified or canonized were Knights. The American Knights collected more than $1 million to assist exiles from Mexico, fund the continuation of the education of expelled seminarians, and inform U.S. citizens about the oppression.<ref name=":7">M. Elizabeth Ann Rice, ''The diplomatic relations between the United States and Mexico, as affected by the struggle for religious liberty in Mexico, 1925–1929'' (Catholic University of America Press, 1959), pp 78. 97–101, 193.</ref><ref name="Catholic World Report">[http://www.catholicworldreport.com/Item/1396/the_story_martyrs_and_lessons_of_the_cristero_war.aspx The Story, Martyrs, and Lessons of the Cristero War: An interview with Ruben Quezada about the Cristiada and the bloody Cristero War (1926–1929)], Catholic World Report, 1 June 2012</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=González |first=Sergio M. |date=2016 |title=Interethnic Catholicism and Transnational Religious Connections: Milwaukee's Mexican Mission Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe, 1924–1929 |jstor=10.5406/jamerethnhist.36.1.0005 |journal=Journal of American Ethnic History |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.5406/jamerethnhist.36.1.0005 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Lady of Guadalupe |url=https://emke.uwm.edu/entry/our-lady-of-guadalupe/ |access-date=2023-07-22 |website=Encyclopedia of Milwaukee |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":24" /> They circulated five million leaflets about the war in the United States, held hundreds of lectures, spread the news via radio,<ref name="Catholic World Report" /> and paid to "smuggle" a friendly journalist, Francis McCullagh, into Mexico so he could cover the war for an American audience.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parsons |first1=Rev. Fr. Wilfrid |title=Mexican Martyrdom |date=1936 |page=70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Cruce de fronteras: la influencia de los Estados Unidos y América Latina en los proyectos de nación católicos en México, siglo XX |oclc=1310753314 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

In addition to lobbying the American public, the Knights met United States President Calvin Coolidge and pressed him for US intervention on behalf of the rebels.<ref>Don M. Coerver, [https://archive.today/20130131135510/http://www.politicalreviewnet.com/polrev/reviews/DIPH/R_0145_2096_315_1007444.asp Book Review: Church, State, and Civil War in Revolutionary Mexico], Volume 31, Issue 03, pp. 575–578, 2007</ref><ref name="Meyer 2008">{{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Jean A. |url=http://archive.org/details/lacruzadapormexi0000meye |title=La cruzada por México: los católicos de Estados Unidos y la cuestión religiosa en México |date=2008 |publisher=México, D.F. : Tusquets |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-970-699-189-8}}</ref> According to former Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus, Carl A. Anderson, two thirds of Mexican Catholic councils were shut down by the Mexican government. In response, the Knights of Columbus published posters and magazines which presented Cristero soldiers in a positive light.<ref name=":7" /> In the mid-1920s, the anti-Catholic Ku Klux Klan denounced the Knights of Columbus's Mexican Fund.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Jean A |title=La Cristiada: the Mexican people's war for religious liberty |date=2013 |publisher=Square One Publishers |isbn=978-0-7570-0315-8 |location=Garden City Park, NY |page=153 |language=English |oclc=298184204}}</ref><ref name="Meyer 2008" /><ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last=Redinger |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTR2AAAAMAAJ |title=American Catholics and the Mexican Revolution, 1924–1936 |date=2005 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |isbn=978-0-268-04022-2 |pages=116–144 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dormady |first1=Jason |title=Dear Mr. Calles: U.S. Protestant Interpretations of the Cristero War and the Moral Art of History |journal=Fides et Historia |date=2020 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |id={{Gale|A632138633}} {{ProQuest|2545665649}} |url=https://digitalcommons.cwu.edu/cahfac_history/31/ }}</ref>

==Aftermath== thumb|right|250px|Amnesty with the Federal Army in San Gabriel, Jalisco, under Manuel Michel. The government often did not abide by the terms of the truce. For example, it executed some 500 Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros.<ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars">Van Hove, Brian [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT Blood-Drenched Altars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109012114/http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT |date=9 November 2017 }} Faith & Reason 1994</ref> Catholics continued to oppose Calles's insistence on a state monopoly on education, which suppressed Catholic education and introduced secular education in its place: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth."<ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars"/> Calles's military persecution of Cristeros after the truce would be officially condemned by Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas and the Mexican Congress in 1935.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788523-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107131812/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788523-1,00.html|archive-date=7 November 2012|title=MEXICO: Ossy, Ossy, Boneheads|date=4 February 1935|access-date=9 September 2017|via=www.time.com}}</ref> Between 1935 and 1936, Cárdenas had Calles and many of his close associates arrested and forced them into exile soon afterwards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755388,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222080120/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755388,00.html|archive-date=22 December 2011|title=MEXICO: Cardenas v. Malta Fever|date=25 November 1935|access-date=9 September 2017|via=www.time.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,848503,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215073838/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,848503,00.html|archive-date=15 December 2008|title=MEXICO: Solution Without Blood|date=20 April 1936|access-date=9 September 2017|via=www.time.com}}</ref> Freedom of worship was no longer suppressed, but some states refused to repeal Calles's policy.<ref name=hjoqac /> Relations with the Church improved under President Cárdenas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/mexico/34.htm|title=Mexico – Cardenismo and the Revolution Rekindled|website=countrystudies.us|access-date=9 September 2017}}</ref>

The government's disregard for the Church, however, did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho, a practicing Catholic, took office.<ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars"/> During Cárdenas presidency, Church buildings in the country continued in the hands of the Mexican government,<ref name=hjoqac /> and the nation's policies regarding the Church still fell into federal jurisdiction. Under Camacho, bans against Church anticlerical laws were no longer enforced anywhere in Mexico.<ref name=carepeal>''Sarasota Herald-Tribune'', "Mexico Fails To Act on Church Law", 19 February 1951</ref>

The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934, at least 40 priests were killed.<ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars"/> There were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, but by 1934, there were only 334 licensed by the government to serve 15 million Catholics.<ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars"/><ref>Hodges, Donald Clark, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7prW3gXbFRgC Mexico, the end of the revolution], p. 50, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002</ref> The rest had been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, assassination, or not obtaining licenses.<ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars"/><ref>Scheina, Robert L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8aWQ_7oKJfkC&dq=cristero+war+priests+killed&pg=PA33 ''Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899''] p. 33 (2003); {{ISBN|978-1-57488-452-4}}</ref> In 1935, 17 states had no registered priests.<ref>Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo [https://archive.org/details/triumphstragedyh00ruiz/page/392  ''Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People''] p. 393, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993); {{ISBN|978-0-393-31066-5}}</ref>

The end of the Cristero War affected emigration to the United States. "In the aftermath of their defeat, many of the Cristeros – by some estimates as much as 5 percent of Mexico's population – fled to the United States. Many of them made their way to Los Angeles, where they were received by John Joseph Cantwell, bishop of what was then the Los Angeles-San Diego diocese."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rieff |first1=David |title=Nuevo Catholics |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/24/magazine/24catholics.t.html |work=The New York Times |date=24 December 2006 }}</ref> Under Archbishop Cantwell's sponsorship, the Cristero refugees became a substantial community in Los Angeles, California, in 1934 staging a parade some 40,000-strong throughout the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rieff |first=David |title=Los Angeles: capital of the Third World |date=1991 |publisher=J. Cape |isbn=0-224-03304-2 |location=London |page=164 |oclc=25614287}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Balderrama |first=Francisco E. |title=Church-State Conflict in Southern California |date=1982 |jstor=j.ctvss3xnd.8 |work=In Defense of La Raza |pages=73–90 |series=The Los Angeles Mexican Consulate and the Mexican Community, 1929 to 1936 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-0774-0}}</ref><ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Mexican Americans and the Catholic Church, 1900-1965 |oclc=40721640 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> Additionally, several other cities received the immigrants, such as Chicago, Illinois, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and San Antonio, Texas. Many cities saw an increase in Mexican Catholics fleeing because of the war.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kanter |first=Deborah |date=2013 |title=Faith and Family for Early Mexican Immigrants to Chicago: The Diary of Elidia Barroso |url=https://via.library.depaul.edu/dialogo/vol16/iss1/4 |journal=Diálogo |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=21–34 |doi=10.1353/dlg.2013.0030 |issn=2471-1039 |s2cid=147851273 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last1=Young |first1=Julia G. |title=Mexican Exodus: Emigrants, Exiles, and Refugees of the Cristero War |last2=Young |first2=Julia Grace Darling |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-020500-3 |page=51 }}</ref><ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kanter |first=Deborah E. |url=https://academic.oup.com/illinois-scholarship-online/book/31610 |title=Chicago Católico: Making Catholic Parishes Mexican |date=2020-01-15 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-04297-3 |edition=1 |pages=9–30 |language=en |chapter=Paths to Chicago: Early Mexican Immigration and Catholicism, 1920–1939 |doi=10.5622/illinois/9780252042973.001.0001}}</ref> Immigration to other countries such as Canada, Italy, and Cuba occurred as well.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Demers |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=opPdAwAAQBAJ&dq=Connected+Struggles+Catholics%2C+Nationalists%2C+and+Transnational+Relations+between+Mexico+and+Quebec%2C+1917-1945+By+Maurice+Demers+History&pg=PT2 |title=Connected Struggles: Catholics, Nationalists, and Transnational Relations between Mexico and Quebec, 1917–1945 |date=1 July 2014 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-9199-8 |pages=58–78 |language=en}}</ref>

===Cárdenas era=== The Calles Law was repealed after Cárdenas became president in 1934.<ref name="hjoqac">{{cite magazine | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772205-4,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021210844/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772205-4,00.html | archive-date=21 October 2012 | magazine=Time | title=Religion: Where Is He? |date=26 December 1938}}</ref> Cárdenas earned respect from Pope Pius XI and befriended Mexican Archbishop Luis María Martínez,<ref name=hjoqac /> a major figure in Mexico's Catholic Church who successfully persuaded Mexicans to obey the government's laws peacefully. The Church refused to back the Mexican insurgent Saturnino Cedillo, who attempted a revolt against Cárdenas<ref name="hjoqac" /> although Cedillo endorsed more power for the Church.<ref name="hjoqac" />

Cárdenas's government continued to suppress religion in the field of education during his administration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Piña |first1=Ulices |title=The Different Roads to Rebellion: Socialist Education and the Second Cristero Rebellion in Jalisco, 1934–1939 |journal=Letras Históricas |date=22 February 2017 |volume=16 |pages=165–192 |doi=10.31836/lh.16.6562 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Blood-Drenched Altars" /><ref name="revolution">{{cite book |title=Mexico, the end of the revolution|author1=Donald Clark Hodges |author2=Daniel Ross Gandy |author3=Ross Gandy |publisher=Praeger|year=2002|isbn=978-0-275-97333-9 |page=50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7prW3gXbFRgC&q=persecution+cristeros+teachers}}</ref> The Mexican Congress amended Article 3 of the Constitution in October 1934 to include the following introductory text: "The education imparted by the State shall be a socialist one and, in addition to excluding all religious doctrine, shall combat fanaticism and prejudices by organizing its instruction and activities in a way that shall permit the creation in youth of an exact and rational concept of the Universe and of social life."<ref>{{cite book |title=Mexico's school-made society|author=George C. Booth|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1941|isbn=978-0-8047-0352-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mexicosschoolmad00boot/page/2 2]|url=https://archive.org/details/mexicosschoolmad00boot|url-access=registration}}</ref>

The implementation of socialist education met with strong opposition in some parts of academia<ref>{{cite book |title=Managing Mexico: Economists from Nationalism to Neoliberalism|author=Sarah L. Babb|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-691-11793-5 |page=55|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dkoVCvyqoo0C&q=marxism+unam+strike}}</ref> and in areas that had been controlled by the Cristeros. Pope Pius XI also published the encyclical ''Firmissimam constantiam'' on 28 March 1937, expressing his opposition to the "impious and corruptive school" (paragraph 22) and his support for Catholic Action in Mexico. That was the third and last encyclical published by Pius XI that referred to the religious situation in Mexico.<ref name="FC">{{cite book |author=Pope Pius XI |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_28031937_nos-es-muy-conocida_en.html |title=Firmissimam Constantiam |publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana |year=1937}}</ref> The amendment was ignored by President Manuel Ávila Camacho and was officially repealed from the Constitution in 1946.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berd |first=Malcolm D. |title=The origins, implementation, and the demise of socialist education in Mexico, 1932–1946 |date=1983 |ol=3264896M}}</ref> Constitutional bans against the Church would not be enforced anywhere in Mexico during Camacho's presidency.<ref name="carepeal" />

====Cristeros' targeted violence against government forces and public school teachers==== Many former Cristeros took up arms again and fought as independent rebels, and some Catholics joined them. They targeted unarmed public school teachers, who implemented secular education, and committed atrocities against them.<ref name="right">{{cite book |title=The Mexican right: the end of revolutionary reform, 1929–1940|author=John W. Sherman|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1997|isbn=978-0-275-95736-0 |pages=43–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h29VKMtmzzcC&q=%22alleged%20cristeros%22+teachers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mexican postcards|author1=Carlos Monsiváis |author2=John Kraniauskas |publisher=Verso|year=1997|isbn=978-0-86091-604-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mexicanpostcards0000mons/page/132 132]|url=https://archive.org/details/mexicanpostcards0000mons|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="ibero1">{{cite book |title=Religión, política y sociedad: el sinarquismo y la iglesia en México; Nueve Ensayos|author=Guillermo Zermeño P.|publisher=Universidad Iberoamericana|year=1992|isbn=978-968-859-091-1 |page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8E_bBnLjKZkC&q=quemados+desorejados}}</ref><ref name="ibero2">{{cite book |title=El oficio de una vida: Raymond Buve, un historiador mexicanista|author1=Ponce Alcocer |author2=Ma. Eugenia |publisher=Universidad Iberoamericana|year=2009|isbn=978-607-417-009-2 |page=210|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkYxtIFH47sC&q=desorejados|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Government supporters blamed the atrocities on the Cristeros in general.<ref>{{cite book |title=Becoming campesinos: politics, identity, and agrarian struggle in postrevolutionary Michoacán, 1920–1935|author=Christopher Robert Boyer|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8047-4356-3 |pages=179–81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wij7fa771i0C&q=cristeros+teachers}}</ref><ref name="fire">{{cite book |title=Setting the Virgin on fire: Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán peasants, and the redemption of the Mexican Revolution|author=Marjorie Becker|publisher=University of California Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-520-08419-3 |pages=124–126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=poCw5DcQF5cC&q=cristeros+teachers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Performing the community: representation, ritual and reciprocity in the Totonac Highlands of Mexico|author=Cora Govers|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|year=2006|isbn=978-3-8258-9751-2 |page=132|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4y4KnORm320C&q=cristeros+teachers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.859 |chapter=Violence in Postrevolutionary Mexico |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |date=2021 |last1=Kloppe-Santamaría |first1=Gema |isbn=978-0-19-936643-9 }}</ref><ref name=Kloppe-Santamaría2022/><ref name=":10">{{cite journal |last1=Kloppe-Santamaría |first1=Gema |title=The Lynching of the Impious: Violence, Politics, and Religion in Postrevolutionary Mexico (1930s–1950s) |journal=The Americas |date=January 2020 |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=101–128 |doi=10.1017/tam.2019.73 |s2cid=214113748 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kloppe-Santamaría |first1=Gema |title=Lynching and the Politics of State Formation in Post-Revolutionary Puebla (1930s–50s) |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies |date=August 2019 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=499–521 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X18001104 |s2cid=150091870 }}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Kloppe-Santamaría |first=Gema |title=In the Vortex of Violence: Lynching, Extralegal Justice, and the State in Post-Revolutionary Mexico |date=2020 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-34403-7}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> Some of the teachers who were paid by the government refused to leave their schools and communities and so sustained mutilations when Cristeros cut their ears off.<ref name="revolution" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Mexico – A Revolution by Education|author=George I. Sanchez|publisher=Read Books|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4437-2587-3 |page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mniza5YPT8wC&q=cristeros+teachers+ears}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Los códigos ocultos del cardenismo: un estudio de la violencia política, el cambio social y la continuidad institucional|author=Raquel Sosa Elízaga|publisher=Plaza y Valdes|year=1996|isbn=978-968-856-465-3 |page=333|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnHvmRfNwOsC&q=maestros+desorejados}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Historia de la cuestión agraria mexicana, Volumen 5|author=Everardo Escárcega López|publisher=Siglo XXI|year=1990|isbn=978-968-23-1492-6 |page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RIr9q05GvzQC&q=desorejados+cristeros}}</ref> Thus, the teachers who were murdered during the conflict are frequently referred to as ''maestros desorejados'' ("teachers without ears").<ref name=":4">{{cite book |title=Faith and impiety in revolutionary Mexico|author1=Matthew Butler |author2=Matthew John Blakemore Butler |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4039-8381-7 |page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PtCtFTtvoV0C}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Societies of fear: the legacy of civil war, violence and terror in Latin America|author1=Kees Koonings |author2=Dirk Kruijt |publisher=Zed Books|year=1999|isbn=978-1-85649-767-1 |page=112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCdsSrteGGoC&q=teachers+killed+raped+desorejados}}</ref><ref name=":11" />

In some cases, teachers were tortured and killed by former Cristero rebels.<ref name="right"/><ref name="fire"/> It is calculated that approximately 300 rural teachers were killed between 1935 and 1939,<ref>{{cite book |title=The reconquest of Mexico: the years of Lázaro Cárdenas|author1=Nathaniel Weyl |author2=Mrs. Sylvia Castleton Weyl |publisher=Oxford university press|year=1939|page=322|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UkVAAAAYAAJ&q=almost+300+rural+teachers}}</ref> and other authors calculate that at least 223 teachers were victims of the violence which occurred between 1931 and 1940,<ref name="right"/> the acts of violence which occurred during this period included the assassinations of Carlos Sayago, Carlos Pastraña, and Librado Labastida in Teziutlán, Puebla, the hometown of President Manuel Ávila Camacho;<ref>{{cite book |title=La ciudad y el campo en la historia de México: memoria de la VII Reunión de Historiadores Mexicanos y Norteamericanos (in English)|author1=Eric Van Young |author2=Gisela von Wobeser |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|year=1992|isbn=978-968-36-1865-8 |page=896|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-C7AAAAIAAJ&q=cristeros+teachers}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=School & Society |title=Special Correspondence |editor1=James McKeen Cattell |editor2=Will Carson Ryan |editor3=Raymond Walters |publisher=Society for the Advancement of Education |year=1936 |volume=44 |pages=739–41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzM5AAAAMAAJ&q=teachers+cristeros+}}</ref> the execution of a teacher, Carlos Toledano, who was burned alive in Tlapacoyan, Veracruz;<ref>{{cite book |title=A gritos y sombrerazos: historia de los debates sobre educación sexual en México, 1906–1946 (in Spanish)|author=Belinda Arteaga|publisher=Miguel Angel Porrua|year=2002|isbn=978-970-701-217-2 |page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Af6FAAAAIAAJ&q=vivo+carlos+toledano+}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=El balance del cardenismo|author=Eduardo J. Correa|publisher=Talleres linotipográficos "Acción"|year=1941|page=317|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iaT-nugaHSIC&q=quemado+maestro+rural+toledano+}}</ref> and the lynching of at least 42 teachers in the state of Michoacán.<ref name="fire"/>

====Cristeros, priests and Catholic civilian victims of government violence==== {{Main|Saints of the Cristero War}}

[[File:Miguel_Pro's_execution_(1927).jpg|thumb|right|250px| On 23 November 1927, Miguel Agustín Pro, a Mexican Jesuit, was executed by a firing squad in Mexico City.]] The Catholic Church has recognized several of those who were killed in the Cristero War as martyrs. Among them are Miguel Pro, a Jesuit who was shot dead without trial by a firing squad on 23 November 1927 for his alleged involvement in an assassination attempt against former President Álvaro Obregón. His supporters maintained that he was executed for carrying out his priestly duties in defiance of the government.<ref name="Buchenau"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=Graham |title=The Lawless Roads |date=1982 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-018580-5 |page=20 }}</ref> His beatification occurred in 1988.

On 21 May 2000, Pope John Paul II canonized a group of 25 martyrs who were killed during the Cristero War.<ref name="homily-JPII">{{cite web |title="Homily of Pope John Paul II: Canonization of 27 New Saints". May 21, 2000 |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_20000521_canonizations_en.html |url-status=dead |website=The Holy See}}</ref><ref name="gerzon">Gerzon-Kessler, Ari, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110711132946/http://guadalajarareporter.com/news-mainmenu-82/national-mainmenu-86/2521-cristero-martyrs-jalisco-nun-to-attain-sainthood.html "Cristero Martyrs, Jalisco Nun To Attain Sainthood"]}}. ''Guadalajara Reporter''. 12 May 2000</ref> They had been beatified on 22 November 1992. Of this group, 22 were secular clergy, and three were laymen.<ref name="homily-JPII"/> They did not take up arms themselves<ref name="gerzon"/> but refused to leave their flocks and ministries and were shot or hanged by government forces for offering the sacraments.<ref name="gerzon"/> Most were executed by federal forces. Although Pedro de Jesús Maldonado was killed in 1937, after the war had ended, he is considered a member of the Cristeros.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/cult-martyrum/martiri/013.html |title = Martiri Messicani}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.vatican.va/news_services/liturgy/saints/ns_lit_doc_20000521_maldonado-lucero_sp.html |title=Pedro de Jesús Maldonado Lucero}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_20000521_canonizations_en.html |title=Mexican Saints |access-date=2020-03-15 |archive-date=2013-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104040012/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_20000521_canonizations_en.html }}</ref>

The Catholic Church recognized 13 additional victims of the war as martyrs on 20 November 2005, which paved the way for their beatifications.<ref name="Catholic News Agency">[https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/5327/14-year-old-mexican-martyr-to-be-beatified-sunday "14-year-old Mexican martyr to be beatified Sunday"] ; ''Catholic News Agency''; 5 November 2005</ref> This group was mostly lay people, including Luis Magaña Servín and 14-year-old José Sánchez del Río. On 20 November 2005, at Jalisco Stadium in Guadalajara, José Saraiva Cardinal Martins celebrated the beatifications.<ref name="Catholic News Agency"/>{{Better source needed|date=November 2022}} Furthermore, some religious relics have been brought to the United States from Jalisco and are currently located at Our Lady of the Mount Church in Cicero, Illinois.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duriga |first=Joyce |title=Relics of Mexican martyrs find permanent home in Cicero |url=https://www.chicagocatholic.com/chicagoland/-/article/2022/01/19/relics-of-mexican-martyrs-find-permanent-home-in-cice-1 |access-date=2022-11-23 |website=Chicago Catholic |language=en-US}}</ref>

The war led refugees and exiles to flee to the United States, mostly from the central-Pacific region, as state-enforced violence towards Catholics led religious Mexicans from states such as Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Guanajuato also to leave for the United States.<ref name=":28" /> Within these new arrivals, there were 2,500 exiles with positions within the Catholic Church in Mexico, which created a Cristero Diaspora alongside other refugees, immigrants, and non-clergy exiles.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":32" /> Most of these refugees were also farmers, ranchers, and laborers, and the increased transportation services between the United States and Mexico made immigration easier than ever before.<ref name=":29" /> These immigrants would take industrial and labor-intensive jobs within the United States, particularly in California, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico.<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":32" /><ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Martínez |first=Anne M. |date=2002 |title="From the Halls of Montezuma": Seminary in Exile or Pan-American Project? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25154829 |journal=U.S. Catholic Historian |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=35–51 |jstor=25154829 |issn=0735-8318}}</ref> This led to the creation of many churches and religious institutions in many states with Cristo Rey and Our Lady of Guadalupe as names,<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Martinez |first=Anne M. |title=Catholic Borderlands: Mapping Catholicism Onto American Empire, 1905-1935 |date=2014 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-4877-9}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> as well as to the building of seminaries to house displaced clergy members and several convents housing nuns .<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":32" /><ref name=":33" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rangel |first=Yolanda Padilla |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apqanQAACAAJ |title=Los desterrados: exiliados católicos de la revolución mexicana en Texas, 1914–1919 |date=2000 |publisher=Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes |isbn=978-607-8227-69-3 |language=es}}</ref> [[File:FlagCristeroCenter.jpg|thumb|A banner from a group of Cristero supporters at the Centro de Estudios Cristeros in Encarnación de Díaz, Jalisco.]]

==In popular culture== The novel ''José Trigo'' by Fernando del Paso partly centers on the Cristero War. Graham Greene's 1940 novel ''The Power and the Glory'' deals with the Mexican government's attempt to suppress the Catholic Church during the war.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greene|first1=Graham|title=The Power and the Glory|date=1940|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|isbn=978-0-14-018499-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/powerglory00grah/page/22 22]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/powerglory00grah/page/22}}</ref>

Many films, shorts, and documentaries about the war have been produced since 1929<ref>Jean Meyer, Ulises Íñiguez Mendoza (2007). [http://www.publicaciones.cucsh.udg.mx/kiosko/2007/2007_2.htm La Cristiada en imágenes: del cine mudo al video]. Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=García Muñoz |first=Gerardo |date=2010 |title=La guerra cristera en la cinematografia mexicana: Entre el melodrama y el anticlericalismo |journal=Colorado Review of Hispanic Studies |volume=8 |pages=183–200}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pensado |first=Jaime M. |url= |title=Love and Despair: How Catholic Activism Shaped Politics and the Counterculture in Modern Mexico |date=6 June 2023 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-39297-7 |pages=239–242 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite journal |last=Chávez |first=Daniel |date=1 April 2012 |title=From Miss Cristera to the Desert Within: Towards a contemporary war of images in Mexico |url=https://intellectdiscover.com/content/journals/10.1386/shci.9.1.63_1 |journal=Studies in Hispanic Cinemas |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1386/shci.9.1.63_1|url-access=subscription }}</ref> such as ''Cristiada'' (aka ''For Greater Glory'') from 2012.<ref>[https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/21087/eduardo-verastegui-to-play-mexican-martyr-in-cristiada "Eduardo Verastegui to play Mexican martyr in 'Cristiada'"]. 7 October 2010. ''Catholic News Agency''</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite book |last=Dormady |first=Jason H. |title=Primitive Revolution: Restorationist Religion and the Idea of the Mexican Revolution, 1940–1968 |date=16 May 2011 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-4951-4 |edition=Illustrated |location=Albuquerque |pages=103–140 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":35" /><ref name=":14" />

Several ballads, or ''corridos'', were composed in the period of the war by federal troops and Cristeros.<ref name=":31">{{Cite book |last=Andes |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDYnBgAAQBAJ |title=Mexico in Verse: A History of Music, Rhyme, and Power |publisher=University of Arizona Press |year=2015 |editor-last=Neufeld |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last2=Mathews |editor-first2=Michael |location=Arizona |pages=181–218 |language=English |chapter=Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety and Dissent in Mexico's Cristero Rebellion|isbn=978-0-8165-0173-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hernández |first=Antonio Avitia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J44mAQAAIAAJ |title=Corrido histórico mexicano: 1810-1910 |date=1997 |publisher=Editorial Porrúa |isbn=978-970-07-0926-0 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Olivera de Bonfil |first=Alicia |title=La literatura cristera |url=https://mediateca.inah.gob.mx/repositorio/islandora/object/libro%3A501 |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=Mediateca - Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction to Corridos of the Cristiada |url=https://www.laits.utexas.edu/jaime/cwp5/crg/english/intro/index.html |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=www.laits.utexas.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Herrera-Sobek |first=María |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-8JGOdbCD4C |title=The Mexican Corrido: A Feminist Analysis |date=1990 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20795-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last1=Avitia Hernández |first1=Antonio |title=La narrativa de las Cristiadas: novela, cuento, teatro, cine y corrido de las Rebeliones Cristeras |publisher=Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana |date=2006 |doi=10.24275/uami.v118rd79k |s2cid=253172423 |doi-access=free |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lozano |first1=Teresita D. |title=Corridos for the Holy Coyote: Ghost Smuggling Ballads and the Undocumented Migrant Journey |journal=Americas: A Hemispheric Music Journal |date=2020 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=24–51 |id={{Project MUSE|797373}} {{ProQuest|2544919282}} |doi=10.1353/ame.2020.0000 |s2cid=242901636 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lozano |first=Teresita D. |year=2020 |title=Songs For The Holy Coyote: Cristero Corridos and Immigration Politics On The U.S.-Mexico Borderlands |url=https://scholar.colorado.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/x059c850f |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=scholar.colorado.edu |type=PhD thesis |publication-place=University of Colorado, Boulder}}</ref>

The Cristero War is also mentioned in the 1955 Juan Rulfo novel ''Pedro Páramo''.

==See also== {{Portal|Mexico|Christianity}} * Catholic Church in Latin America * National Synarchist Union * Kulturkampf * List of wars involving Mexico * ''Bajío'' (the main region of the rebellion) * Reform War

==References== {{Reflist}}

== Primary sources == Note: Many of the primary sources listed below were produced by individuals or institutions sympathetic to the Cristero cause. According to historian Julia Young, many Cristero era memoirs and accounts emphasize martyrdom and religious themes, reflecting devotional or ideological perspectives rather than detached historical analysis.<ref>{{Citation |last=Young |first=Julia G. |title=Revolution and the Cristeros |date=2020-09-02 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Mexican History |editor-last=Beezley |editor-first=William |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34726/chapter/296493558 |access-date=2025-10-11 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699192.013.29 |isbn=978-0-19-069919-2}}</ref>

'''Textual sources'''

''Aurelio Acevedo, ed. David: revista mensual ilustrada, historia cristera, información y civismo. 7 vols. Mexico, D.F.: Legión de Cristo Rey y Santa María de Guadalupe—veteranos de la Guardia Nacional Cristeros, 1952.''

''Bessières, Albert. [https://www.biblisem.net/etudes/bessmexi.htm Le Mexique Martyr.] Paris: Maison de la bonne presse, 1928.''

Chowell Martín. Luis Navarro Origel El Primer Cristero. Jus 1959.

Cardoso, Joaquín. ''Los mártires mexicanos: el martirologio católico de nuestros días''. México: Buena Prensa, 1953. Internet Archive.

Dragon Antonio and Lawrence Drummond. 1930. Miguel Augustin Pro of the Society of Jesus : Martyr of Christ the King Executed in Mexico 23 November 1927. Montreal: Messenger Press. Internet Archive.

Mendoza Barragán Ezequiel. ''Testimonio Cristero : Memorias Del Autor.'' 1. ed. Editorial Jus 1990.

''Degollado Guízar, Jesús. Memorias de Jesús Degollado Guízar, último general en jefe del ejército cristero. [1. ed.]. Colección de memorias, ser. A. México: Editorial Jús, 1957.''

''Galeria De Martires Mexicanos : Narraciones Veridicas''. 1927. San Antonio Tex: Imprenta Universal.

''Gorostieta, Luz María Pérez, and Juan Rodolfo Sánchez Gómez, eds. Cartas del General Enrique Gorostieta a Gertrudis Lasaga. Libros UANL. Libros UANL, 2013. [https://libros.uanl.mx/index.php/u/catalog/book/51. <nowiki>https://libros.uanl.mx/index.php/u/catalog/book/51</nowiki>.]''

Navarrete Heriberto. ''Por Dios Y Por La Patria : Memorias De Mi Participación En La Defensa De La Libertad De Conciencia Y Culto Durante La Persecución Religiosa En México De 1926 a 1929''. 1a. ed. Jus 1961.

''Reguer, Consuelo. Dios y mi derecho: Año de 1932-Año de 1933-Situación de la Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Segundo Levantamiento-Año de 1934 Año de 1935-Año de 1936-Ultimos años. 1. ed. Vol. 4. 4 vols. México: Editorial Jus, 1997.''

''Dios y mi derecho: Antecedentes-Epopeya Cristera-Clímax de la Epopeya Cristera Obispos-Boletines y Documentos. 1. ed. Vol. 1. 4 vols. México: Editorial Jus, 1997.'' ''Dios y mi derecho: Los Arreglos. (Primera parte)-Los Arreglos. (Segunda parte) Fin del año 1930-Año 1931-Educación. 1. ed. Vol. 3. 4 vols. México: Editorial Jus, 1997.'' ''Dios y mi derecho: Luis Segura Vilchis-Fusilamientos-Año 1927-Año 1928 Asesinato de Obregón-Año 1928 (Continuación)-Año 1929. 1. ed. Vol. 2. 4 vols. México: Editorial Jus, 1997.''

''Rius Facius, Antonio. Méjico Cristero: Historia de la ACJM 1925 a 1931. México, D.F.: Editorial Patria, 1960.''

'''Visual / Audio recordings'''

Ramos, Manuel. ''México y su gente, 1926–1928''. Filmed and edited 1926–1928. Restored version curated by Alfonso Morales Carrillo, music selection from traditional Mexican public domain music, Museo de la Ciudad de México, Oct. 2012–Nov. 2013. Dirección General de Rescate, Difusión y Producción del Acervo, Elia del Carmen Ramírez Bocardo. Research by Mari Carmen Tostado Gutiérrez, Carmen Nava Nava, María Isabel Fernández, and Luis Lupone. Silent film, 60 min, 9.5 mm.

=== Oral histories === * Jean Meyer Cristero Rebellion Oral History Collection is a significant archival resource housed at the University of Notre Dame's Hesburgh Libraries. This collection comprises a series of interviews conducted by Jean Meyer and others between 1960 and 2015, capturing firsthand accounts of individuals who experienced the Cristero War (1926–1929) in Mexico. Available at: https://archivesspace.library.nd.edu/repositories/3/resources/1549

==Secondary sources== {{Div col}} * Bailey, David C. ''Viva Cristo Rey! The Cristero Rebellion and the Church-State Conflict in Mexico'' (1974); 376pp; a standard scholarly history * Butler, Matthew. ''Popular Piety and political identity in Mexico's Cristero Rebellion: Michoacán, 1927–29''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. * {{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=L. Ethan |title=Dwight Morrow and the Church-State Controversy in Mexico |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |date=1958 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=482–505 |doi=10.2307/2510111 |jstor=2510111}} * {{cite journal |last1=Espinosa |first1=David |title="Restoring Christian Social Order": The Mexican Catholic Youth Association (1913-1932) |journal=The Americas |date=2003 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=451–474 |doi=10.1353/tam.2003.0037 |jstor=1008566 |s2cid=143528516}} * {{cite journal |last1=Horn |first1=James J. |title=Did the United States Plan an Invasion of Mexico in 1927? |journal=Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs |date=1973 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=454–471 |doi=10.2307/175010 |jstor=175010}} * {{cite journal |last1=Jrade |first1=Ramon |title=Inquiries into the Cristero Insurrection against the Mexican Revolution |journal=Latin American Research Review |date=1985 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=53–69 |doi=10.1017/S0023879100034488 |jstor=2503520 |s2cid=133451500 |doi-access=free}} * Lawrence, Mark. ''Insurgency, Counter-insurgency and Policing in Centre-West Mexico, 1926–1929'' (Bloomsbury. 2020). * Meade, Teresa A. ''History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2016). * Meyer, Jean. ''The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State, 1926–1929''. Cambridge, 1976. * {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Sr. Barbara |title=The Role of Women in the Mexican Cristero Rebellion: Las Señoras y Las Religiosas |journal=The Americas |date=1984 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=303–323 |doi=10.2307/981116 |jstor=981116 |s2cid=147564218 |doi-access=free}} * Purnell, Jenny. ''Popular Movements and State Formation in Revolutionary Mexico: The Agraristas and Cristeros of Michoacán''. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. * Quirk, Robert E. ''The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1910–1929'', Greenwood Press, 1986. * Rice, M. Elizabeth Ann. ''The diplomatic relations between the United States and Mexico, as affected by the struggle for religious liberty in Mexico, 1925–1929'' (1959) [https://archive.org/details/diplomaticrelati0000unse online] * Tuck, Jim. ''The Holy War in Los Altos: A Regional Analysis of Mexico's Cristero Rebellion''. University of Arizona Press, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0-8165-0779-5|}} * Young, Julia. ''Mexican Exodus: Emigrants, Exiles, and Refugees of the Cristero War''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. * Kloppe-Santamaría, Gema. In the Vortex of Violence : Lynching, Extralegal Justice, and the State in Post-Revolutionary Mexico. University of California Press, 2020. *Andes, Stephen J. C. The Mysterious Sofía: One Woman's Mission to Save Catholicism in Twentieth-Century Mexico. UNP - Nebraska, 2019. *Andes, Stephen J. C. The Vatican and Catholic Activism in Mexico and Chile: The Politics of Transnational Catholicism, 1920–1940. First Edition., University Press, 2014. * Cejudo Ramos, Elizabeth. El gobierno no puede más que Dios: Género, ciudadanía y conflicto Iglesia-Estado en el Sonora posrevolucionario. Universidad de Sonora, 2021. * Chowning, Margaret. Catholic Women and Mexican Politics, 1750–1940. University Press, 2023. *Demers, Maurice. Connected Struggles: Catholics, Nationalists, and Transnational Relations between Mexico and Quebec, 1917–1945. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2014. {{Div col end}}

==Further reading== * Aguirre Cristiani, María Gabriela. ''La Política Social de La Iglesia Católica En México 1920–1924''. 2002.[https://ru.atheneadigital.filos.unam.mx/jspui/handle/FFYL_UNAM/5022_TD221 (Thesis)] * Buchenau, Jürgen, and David S. Dalton, editors. ''Anti-Catholicism in the Mexican Revolution, 1913-1940''. University of New Mexico Press, 2024. * Ellstrand, Nathan, ''Reclaiming the Patria: Sinarquismo in the United States, 1936–1966''(2022).[https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/3921 (Thesis)] * {{cite thesis |last1=Gallardo |first1=Janette |title=The Cristero Rebellion 1926–1929: Mexican Women, Mothers, and Marianismo |hdl=10211.3/192458 }} * {{cite thesis |last1=Grippo |first1=Daniel D |title=Betraying the faith: The 1929 Church -State Arreglos that ended Mexico's Cristero Revolt |oclc=301710606 }} * {{cite thesis |last1=Kelly |first1=Brian John |title=The Cristero Rebellion, 1926–1929: its diplomacy and solution |oclc=2551970 }} * Macfarland, Charles S. '' Chaos in Mexico. The Conflict of Church and State'' (Harper, 1935) [https://archive.org/details/chaosinmexicocon0000char/page/n5/mode/2up online copy of book] see also review: {{cite journal |last1=Knopp |first1=John M. |title=Chaos in Mexico: The Conflict of Church and State |journal=Thought |date=1937 |volume=12 |issue=4 |page=693 |doi=10.5840/thought193712416 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Martínez |first1=Anne M. |title=Catholic Monroeism: U.S. Support for the Catholic Church During the Mexican Revolution, 1914–1929 |journal=U.S. Catholic Historian |date=2021 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=49–69 |id={{Project MUSE|780898}} |doi=10.1353/cht.2021.0002 |s2cid=229447055 |url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/b5e26d60-0a65-49ea-bf4f-ebe9e1436bcf }} * Murphy, James T. ''Saints and Sinners in the Cristero War: Stories of Martyrdom from Mexico'' (Ignatius Press, 2019), Catholic view * {{cite thesis |last1=Ortoll |first1=Servando |title=Catholic organizations in Mexico's national politics and international diplomacy (1926–1942) (sinarquismo, Cristero rebellion) |oclc=20461941 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/d3d57cf546aea2d6f8c42524511ed83a/1 }} * Romo Mellid, Marisol. "Violencia y cruce de propagandas: ''[https://ojs.ehu.eus/index.php/Zer/article/view/21003 La metáfora de la víctima Las fotografías de la Rebelión Cristera.]''" ''ZER: Revista de Estudios de Comunicación = Komunikazio Ikasketen Aldizkaria'' 24, no. 47 (October 30, 2019). doi: 10.1387/zer.21003. * O'Dogherty Madrazo, Laura. ''De Urnas Y Sotanas: El Partido Católico Nacional En Jalisco.'' , 1999. [https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/theses/s7526c62c?locale=es (Thesis)] * O'Sullivan, Lucy. "''Photographic Postcard Commemorating Antonio Verástegui,''" Object Narrative. ''MAVCOR Journal'' 5, no. 1 (2021), 10.22332/mav.obj.2021.7. * O'Sullivan, Lucy. "Martyrdom in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: The Photograph as Testimony and Trace in Mexico's Cristero War (1926–29)." ''Latin American and Latinx Visual Culture'' 6, no. 1 (January 1, 2024): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1525/lavc.2024.6.1.1. * Reich, Peter Lester. [https://www.proquest.com/docview/303944107 "Mexico's Hidden Revolution: The Catholic Church in Politics since 1929."] ''University of California, Los Angeles'', 1991, pp. 1–295. (Thesis) * {{cite journal |last1=Slawson |first1=Douglas J. |title=The National Catholic Welfare Conference and the Church-State Conflict in Mexico, 1925–1929 |journal=The Americas |date=1990 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=55–93 |doi=10.2307/1006724 |jstor=1006724 |s2cid=147700313 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Benjamin |title=Anticlericalism, Politics, and Freemasonary in Mexico, 1920-1940 |journal=The Americas |date=2009 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=559–588 |doi=10.1353/tam.0.0109 |jstor=25488182 |s2cid=144533825 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Wilkie |first1=James W. |title=The Meaning of the Cristero Religious War Against the Mexican Revolution |journal=Journal of Church and State |date=1966 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=214–233 |doi=10.1093/jcs/8.2.214 |jstor=23913317 }} * {{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|305049789}} |last1=Young |first1=Julia Grace Darling |date=2009 |title=Mexican emigration during the Cristero War, 1926–1929 }} * Van Oosterhout, Keith Aaron. "Popular Conservatism in Mexico: Religion, Land, and Popular Politics in Nayarit and Queretaro, 1750–1873." PhD diss., Michigan State University, 2014. * {{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|924485046}} |last1=Lopez-Menendez |first1=Marisol |date=2011 |title=The Holy Jester: Martyrdom, Social Cohesion and Meaning in Mexico The story of Miguel Agustin Pro SJ, 1927–1988 }} * Pina, Ulices. ''Rebellious Citizens: National Reforms and the Practice of Local Governance in Jalisco, Mexico, 1914–1940. (2017), [https://escholarship.org/uc/item/69b2t2sg ( Thesis)]'' * Dodson, Julian. "Fanaticos, Exiles and the Mexico-U.S. Border: Episodes of Mexican State Reconstruction, 1923–1929." (2015) [https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/hist_etds/23/ Thesis .] * Sánchez-Walker, Marjorie. "[https://www.proquest.com/docview/304539428/abstract/C089389F54874F8CPQ/4?sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Migration Quicksand: Immigration Law and Immigration Advocates at the El Paso-Ciudad Juárez Border Crossing, 1933–1941."] 1999 (Thesis) * Delgado Solórzano, Edma Ixchel. [https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/25628 "Crusaders, Maytrs, and Saints: Representations of Christian Militancy In Mexico], 1850–2013." PhD diss., University of Kansas, 2015. * Silva, Caio Pedrosa da. "Mártires de Cristo Rey : revolução e religião no México (1927–1960)." PhD diss., Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas, 2015.

===Historiography=== * {{cite journal |last1=Mabry |first1=D. J. |title=Mexican Anticlerics, Bishops, Cristeros, and the Devout during the 1920s: A Scholarly Debate |journal=Journal of Church and State |date=1 January 1978 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1093/jcs/20.1.81 }} * {{cite journal |last1=López |first1=Damián |title=La guerra cristera (México, 1926-1929). Una aproximación historiográfica / The Cristero War (Mexico, 1926-1929). A Historiographic Survey |journal=Historiografías |date=8 January 2018 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.26754/ojs_historiografias/hrht.201112523 |s2cid=187566026 |doi-access=free }} * Butler, Mathew. «Cristeros Y Agraristas En Jalisco: Una Nueva aportación a La historiografía Cristera». ''Historia Mexicana'', vol. 52, n.º 2, octubre de 2002, pp. 493–30, [https://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/1378 https://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/1378.]

===In fiction=== * Greene, Graham. ''The Power and the Glory'' (novel). New York: Viking Press, 1940 (as ''The Labyrinthine Ways''). * Rulfo, Juan ''El Llano en llamas'' translated into English as ''The Burning Plain (novel).'' Fondo de Cultura Económica'',''1953

===In Spanish=== * De La Torre, José Luis. De Sonora al Cielo: Biografía del Excelentísimo Sr. Vicario General de la Arquidiócesis de Hermosillo, Sonora Pbro. Don Ignacio De La Torre Uribarren (Spanish Edition)[https://www.amazon.com/Sonora-Cielo-Excelent%C3%ADsimo-Arquidi%C3%B3cesis-Hermosillo/dp/0971877513/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1338325258&sr=8-1]

==External links== {{commons category|Cristero War}} * [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9099981933085312554&q=cristeros Cristeros (Soldiers of Christ) – Documentary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324053028/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9099981933085312554&q=cristeros |date=24 March 2012 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041026103923/http://www.cegs.itesm.mx/hdem/reconstruccion/g_cristera.htm Spanish article on the war] * [http://www.aciprensa.com/testigosdefe/cristera.htm Spanish biographies of the saints canonized in 2000] * Ferreira, Cornelia R. [http://www.canisiusbooks.com/jose.htm ''Blessed José Luis Sánchez del Rio: Cristero Boy Martyr''], biography (2006 Canisius Books). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091108133917/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_18111926_iniquis-afflictisque_en.html ''Iniquis Afflictisque''] – encyclical of Pope Pius XI on the persecution of the Church in Mexico (18 November 1926) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsqbcHNHoj4 La Cristiada – A Civil War] mini Documentary on the War produced by the University of Kent on YouTube * Online Discussion [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPCqYr0416M "Conflictos Durante el Gobierno de Plutarco Elías Calles]" | Dr. Yves Solís Nicot of the Cristero War of Universidad Iberoamericana

Category:Cristero War Category:1920s in Mexico Category:1920s conflicts Category:Anti-clericalism in Mexico Category:Rebellions in Mexico Category:Religion-based civil wars Category:Religiously motivated violence in Mexico Category:Religious persecution Category:Civil wars in Mexico Category:Civil wars of the 20th century Category:Persecution of Catholics Category:History of Aguascalientes Category:History of Guanajuato Category:20th century in Jalisco Category:History of Michoacán Category:History of Zacatecas Category:20th-century Catholicism Category:Wars involving Mexico Category:Catholic rebellions Category:Persecution of Christians Category:20th-century massacres of Christians Category:Political and cultural purges Category:Massacres in 1926