{{Short description|Approach to sustainable forest management}} [[File:Continuous Cover Forestry in the Lake District, Cumbria, England.jpeg|alt=CCF, continuous cover forestry, silviculture, Douglas fir, sustainable forest management, forest ecology, Cumbria, Lake District, England|thumb|85-year-old stand of [[Douglas fir]] in the process of transformation to a continuous cover forest]] '''Continuous cover forestry''' (commonly referred to as "CCF") is an approach to the [[Sustainable forest management|sustainable management]] of [[forest]]s whereby forest stands are maintained in a permanently irregular structure, which is created and sustained through the selection and [[logging|harvesting]] of individual trees.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260031518|title = Continuous cover forestry in Britain: challenges and opportunities|date = 2012|accessdate = 24 October 2015|website = |publisher = Quarterly Journal of Forestry 106(3): 214-224|author1=Helliwell, R. |author2=E. R. Wilson.}}</ref> The term "continuous cover forestry" does not equate exactly to any one particular [[Silviculture|silvicultural system]], but is typified by [[Selection cutting|selection systems]]. For example, [[coppice|coppice with standards]] and [[Silviculture#Silvicultural systems|Reiniger's target diameter harvesting]] are also continuous cover forestry. Different existing forest stands may require different silvicultural interventions to achieve a continuously productive irregular structure. Crucially, [[clear-felling|clearcutting]] and other rotational forest management systems are avoided.

== Overview == The term continuous cover forestry has been widely adopted in [[Forestry in the United Kingdom|British forestry]] practice following the creation of the Continuous Cover Forestry Group in 1991. It is also a widely used term in Ireland where continuous cover forestry is actively supported by a dedicated woodland improvement programme administered by the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM).<ref>{{Cite web|title = Woodland Improvement Scheme including Continuous Forestry Cover, DAFM|url = https://www.gov.ie/en/service/d54212-woodland-improvement-scheme|website = www.gov.ie/en|accessdate = 2023-07-21}}</ref> Currently the UK Forestry Standard<ref>{{Cite book|title = The UK Forestry Standard|publisher = Forestry Commission|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-85538-830-0|location = Edinburgh|pages = 105}}</ref> and the guidelines of the silvicultural-systems UK Woodland Assurance Standard<ref>{{Cite web|title = Silvicultural systems {{!}} Woodland design {{!}} The Standard {{!}} UKWAS|url = http://ukwas.org.uk/the-standard/certification-standard/woodland-design/silvicultural-systems|website = ukwas.org.uk|accessdate = 2015-10-24}}</ref> call for wider use and application of CCF in British forestry, as there is evidence that continuously productive irregular structured [[woodland]]s are more robust and [[resilience (ecology)|resilient]] in response to [[climate change]],<ref>{{Cite web|title = Forestry Commission - climate change - Combating climate change - Read Report|url = http://www.forestry.gov.uk/readreport|website = www.forestry.gov.uk|accessdate = 2015-10-24|first = Forestry Commission|last = GB}}</ref> and forest health threats<ref name=":0" /> in addition to a wide range of other social and environmental benefits.<ref>CCFG (2014) Continuous Cover Forestry: Delivering sustainable and resilient woodlands in Britain. Conference Report. Continuous Cover Forestry Group, National Conference, Braithwaite Institute, Cumbria. 3–4 June 2014. 21 pp. [http://www.ccfg.org.uk/conferences/conference2014/resources/downloads/Report_on_ccfg_conf_2014.pdf]</ref> However, there remains some lack of understanding of the definition and practice of CCF among forestry professionals in Britain, and Ireland.<ref>Vítková, L., Á. Ní Dhubháin and V. Upton. (2014). Forestry professionals’ attitudes and beliefs in relation to, and understanding of continuous cover forestry. Scottish Forestry 68(3): 17-25. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lucie_Vitkova/publication/276272728_Forestry_professionals%27_attitudes_and_beliefs_in_relation_to_and_understanding_of_continuous_cover_forestry/links/55546b5108ae980ca6087d23.pdf]</ref>

== Background == CCF is an approach to [[forest management]] which respects the characteristics and processes inherent to the site, and will normally involve a mixture of tree species and ages. In French, it is referred to as {{Lang|fr|sylviculture irrégulière, continue et proche de la nature}} (SICPN) (i.e., continuous, irregular and [[Close to nature forestry|close to nature]] silviculture),<ref name=":1">Turckheim, Brice de, M. Bruchiamacchie. (2005) ''La futaie irrégulière: Théorie et pratique de la sylviculture irrégulière, continue et proche de la nature.'' Avignon: Edisud. 282 p.</ref> and in German as {{Lang|de|Dauerwald}},<ref name=":2">Pommerening, A., and S.T. Murphy. (2004). A review of the history, definitions and methods of continuous cover forestry with special attention to afforestation and restocking.Forestry 77(1): 37-44 [http://forestry.oxfordjournals.org/content/77/1/27.full.pdf]</ref> or ''{{Lang|de|naturgemässe Waldwirtschaft}}'' ([[close to nature forestry]]).<ref name=":2" /> Management is based on the selection and promotion of individual trees, of all sizes, rather than the creation of areas with trees of uniform size.<ref name=":0" /> Any monitoring of the development of irregular stand structures will be achieved through periodic re-measurement of stem diameters in sample plots or across whole stands.<ref>Poore, A. (2007). CCF at Stourhead - Final Report. Continuous Cover Silviculture & Mensuration in Mixed Conifers at the Stourhead (Western) Estate, Wiltshire, UK. Technical Report. SelectFor. 39 p. [http://www.selectfor.com/resources/articles/Article_CCFStourheadReport.pdf]</ref><ref>Deffee, R. (2014). Continual Inventory for Irregular Forest Stands; Cranborne Woodlands. Technical Report. SelectFor. 46 p. [http://www.selectfor.com/resources/articles/Article_ContinualInventoryIrregularStands.pdf] </ref> Repeated interventions, typically at intervals of between 3 and 7 years, focus on the removal of trees which are interfering with the growth of trees with greater potential, the harvesting of crop trees at their optimum size, and the promotion of regeneration and small trees, such that an irregular stand structure is maintained in perpetuity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Regeneration will normally be by the growth of naturally-regenerated seedlings rather than by planting.<ref name=":2" /> [[Tree planting|Artificial regeneration]] (especially [[enrichment planting]]) may be needed to diversify the genetic and [[species richness|species composition]], and to increase [[ecological resilience]] to threats from climate change, pests, or disease.<ref name=":2" />

== Principles == The general approach to CCF can be outlined in terms of the following underlying principles, as defined by the Continuous Cover Forestry Group (CCFG):<ref>{{Cite web|title = Continuous Cover Forestry Group - CCFG Principles|url = http://www.ccfg.org.uk/about/principles.html|website = www.ccfg.org.uk|accessdate = 2015-10-25}}</ref> # '''Adapt the forest to the site''' - The forest manager works with the site and respects inherent variation, rather than imposing artificial uniformity. # '''Adopt a holistic approach''' - The whole [[Forest ecology|ecosystem]] is regarded as the production capital of the forest, including soil, carbon, water, [[fungi]], [[flora]], [[fauna]], as well as the trees themselves. # '''Maintain forest habitats''' - Maintenance of the [[forest habitat]] is essential (which requires that [[clear-felling]] is avoided). # '''Develop the forest structure''' - Stand improvement is concentrated upon the development of preferred individual trees rather than the creation of a uniform block of stems. A characteristic of permanently irregular stands is that yield control is based upon measurement of stem diameter and increment rather than age and area. These principles link to a rapidly developing evidence-base, from the UK,<ref>Wilson, S. McG. (2013). Progress of adoption of alternative silvicultural systems in Britain: an independent review. Technical Report. Supported by the Forestry Commission and Scottish Forestry Trust. 49 p. [http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/SMcGW_Progress-of-adoption-of-alternative-silviculture-systems-in-Britain_Main-technical-report.pdf/$FILE/SMcGW_Progress-of-adoption-of-alternative-silviculture-systems-in-Britain_Main-technical-report.pdf]</ref> Ireland,<ref>Ní Dhubháin, Á. 2010. An evaluation of continuous cover forestry in Ireland. COFORD, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Dublin.36 p. [http://www.coford.ie/media/coford/content/publications/projectreports/CCF.pdf]</ref> continental Europe and elsewhere,<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Silvicultural alternatives to conventional even-aged forest management - what limits global adoption? - Springer|journal = Forest Ecosystems|volume = 2|doi = 10.1186/s40663-015-0031-x|year = 2015|last1 = Puettmann|first1 = Klaus J.|last2 = Wilson|first2 = Scott McG|last3 = Baker|first3 = Susan C.|last4 = Donoso|first4 = Pablo J.|last5 = Drössler|first5 = Lars|last6 = Amente|first6 = Girma|last7 = Harvey|first7 = Brian D.|last8 = Knoke|first8 = Thomas|last9 = Lu|first9 = Yuanchang|last10 = Nocentini|first10 = Susanna|last11 = Putz|first11 = Francis E.|last12 = Yoshida|first12 = Toshiya|last13 = Bauhus|first13 = Jürgen|url = https://flore.unifi.it/bitstream/2158/1003228/1/Puettmann%20et%20al%202015%20Sivlicultural%20alternatives.pdf|doi-access = free}}</ref> in relation to managing irregularly structured woodlands and forests.

== See also == * [[Close to nature forestry]]

== References == {{reflist|30em}}

== External links == * [https://www.ccfg.org.uk/ Continuous Cover Forestry Group] * [https://prosilvaireland.com/ Pro Silva Ireland] * [https://www.prosilva.org/ Pro Silva]

[[Category:Forest management]] [[Category:Forestry in the United Kingdom]]