{{Short description|Theory of knowledge}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} {{Other uses|Constructivism (disambiguation){{!}}Constructivism}} {{multiple issues| {{More citations needed|date=December 2023}} {{AI-generated|date=February 2026|reason=[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_%28philosophy_of_education%29&diff=1224225109&oldid=1222940251 These 2024 rewrites] to much of the article, note [[WP:AISIGNS]] in superficial analyses, vocab distribution typical of 2024 LLMs, etc.}} }}
[[File:Jean Piaget.jpg|thumb|[[Jean Piaget]] constructed the [[theory of cognitive development]], which describes how children represent and reason about the world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Fiona Ann |last2=Hayes |first2=Brett Kenneth |last3=Livesey |first3=David James |date=2016 |title=Developmental Psychology: From Infancy to Adulthood |edition=4th |location=Melbourne, Vic. |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson Australia]] |isbn=9781486018277 |oclc=904034548}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bjorklund|first=David F.|date=1 November 2018|title=A Metatheory for Cognitive Development (or "Piaget is Dead" Revisited)|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/cdev.13019|journal=Child Development|language=en|volume=89|issue=6|pages=2288–2302|doi=10.1111/cdev.13019|pmid=29336015|via=|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082708/https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.13019|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>]]
'''Constructivism''' is a theory that suggests that [[learner]]s do not passively acquire [[knowledge]] through [[direct instruction]]. Instead, they ''construct'' their understanding through experiences and social interaction, integrating new [[information]] with their existing knowledge. This theory originates from [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[developmental psychologist]] [[Jean Piaget]]'s [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development|theory of cognitive development]].
== Background == Constructivism in education is rooted in [[epistemology]], a theory of knowledge concerned with the logical categories of knowledge and its justification.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Steffe|first1=Leslie P.|title=Constructivism in Education|last2=Gale|first2=Jerry|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-47608-2|location=Oxon}}</ref> It acknowledges that learners bring prior knowledge and experiences shaped by their social and cultural environment and that learning is a process of students "constructing" knowledge based on their experiences. While [[Behaviorist theories of learning|behaviorism]] focuses on understanding what students are doing, constructivism emphasizes the importance of understanding what students are thinking and how to enrich their thinking.<ref name="educational psychology">Seifert, Kelvin & Sutton, Rosemary. ''[http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Educational-Psychology.pdf Educational Psychology: Second Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829003228/https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Educational-Psychology.pdf |date=29 August 2017 }}''. Global Text Project, 2009, pp. 33–37.</ref>
Constructivism in [[educational psychology]] can be attributed to the work of [[Jean Piaget]] (1896–1980) and his theory of cognitive development. Piaget's focus was on how humans make meaning by integrating experiences with ideas, emphasizing human development as distinct from external influences<ref>Piaget, J., ''Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge'' (New York: Grossman, 1971).</ref> Another influential figure, [[Lev Vygotsky]] (1896–1934), emphasized the importance of sociocultural learning in his theory of social constructivism, highlighting how interactions with adults, peers, and cognitive tools contribute to the formation of mental constructs. Building upon Vygotsky's work, [[Jerome Bruner]] and other [[educational psychologist]]s introduced the concept of [[instructional scaffolding]], where the learning environment provides support that is gradually removed as learners internalize the knowledge.<ref name="educational psychology"/>
Views more focused on human development within the social sphere include the sociocultural or socio-historical perspective of Lev Vygotsky and the [[situated cognition]] perspectives of [[Mikhail Bakhtin]], [[Jean Lave]], and [[Étienne Wenger|Etienne Wenger]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation|last1=Lave|first1=Jean|last2=Wenger|first2=Etienne|date=27 September 1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42374-8}}{{Page needed|date=January 2018}}</ref> Additionally, the works of Brown, Collins, and Duguid,<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=J.S. |last2=Collins |first2=A. |last3=Duguid |first3=P. |year=1989 |title=Situated cognition and the culture of learning |url=https://api.taylorfrancis.com/content/chapters/oa-edit/download?identifierName=doi&identifierValue=10.4324/9780203990247-34&type=chapterpdf |journal=Educational Researcher |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=32–42 |doi=10.3102/0013189x018001032 |hdl=2142/17979 |s2cid=9824073 |hdl-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> as well as Newman, Griffin, Cole,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive Change in School |last1=Newman |first1=Denis |last2=Griffin |first2=Peg |last3=Cole|first3=Michael|date=28 April 1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-38942-6}}{{Page needed|date=January 2018}}</ref> and [[Barbara Rogoff]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Apprenticeship in thinking: cognitive development in social context|last=Rogoff|first=Barbara|date=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195059735}}{{Page needed|date=January 2018}}</ref>
The [[concept]] of constructivism has impacted a number of disciplines, including [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[education]], and the [[history of science]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title=Fallible or Inerrant? A Belated review of the "Constructivist Bible"|journal=British Journal for the History of Science|date=2004|volume=37|pages=93–8|doi=10.1017/s0007087403005338|s2cid=141028650|url=https://www.academia.edu/3426767|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082647/https://www.academia.edu/3426767|url-status=live}}</ref> In its early stages, constructivism focused on the relationship between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior patterns. Piaget referred to these systems of knowledge as "schemes."
Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has significantly influenced [[learning theory (education)|learning theories]] and [[teaching method]]s in education. It serves as a foundational concept in [[education reform]] movements within cognitive science and neuroscience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carey |first1=Susan |last2=Zaitchik |first2=Deborah |last3=Bascandziev |first3=Igor |date=1 December 2015 |title=Theories of development: In dialog with Jean Piaget |journal=Developmental Review |volume=38 |pages=36–54 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2015.07.003 |issn=0273-2297|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Overview== The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is commonly credited to [[Jean Piaget]]. Piaget described the mechanisms by which [[information]] from the environment and ideas from the individual interact to form internalized structures developed by learners. He identified processes of [[Assimilation and accommodation|''assimilation'' and ''accommodation'']] as crucial in this interaction, as individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals ''assimilate'' new information, they integrate it into their existing framework without altering that framework. This can happen when their experiences align with their internal view of the world, but it can also occur if they fail to update a flawed understanding. ''Accommodation'' is the process of adjusting one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. It can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning.
Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, but a theory explaining how learning occurs, regardless of the learning environment. However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote [[active learning]], or learning by doing. While there is much enthusiasm for constructivism as a [[Strategic design|design strategy]], some experts believe that it is more of a philosophical framework than a theory that can precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies.<ref name="Tobias, S. 2009">{{cite book |last1=Tobias |first1=S. |title=Constructivist instruction: Success or failure? |last2=Duffy |first2=T. M. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |isbn=9780415994231 |location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp|4}}
==Constructivist pedagogy== ===Nature of the learner=== [[Social constructivism]] recognizes and embraces the individuality and complexity of each learner, actively encouraging and rewarding it as a vital component of the learning process.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=Vygotsky and the social formation of mind|last=Wertsch|first=James V.|date=1997|publisher=Harvard Univ. Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=489891986}}</ref>
====Background and culture==== Social constructivism, also known as socioculturalism, emphasizes the role of an individual's background, [[culture]], and [[worldview]] in shaping their understanding of truth. According to this theory, learners inherit historical developments and symbol systems from their culture and continue to learn and develop these throughout their lives. This approach highlights the significance of a learner's [[social interactions]] with knowledgeable members of society. It suggests that without such interactions, it is challenging to grasp the social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to effectively use them. Social constructivism also points out that young children develop their thinking abilities through interactions with peers, adults, and the physical world. Therefore, it is essential to consider the learner's background and culture throughout the learning process, as these factors help shape the knowledge and truth that the learner acquires.<ref name=":0" />
==== Motivation and responsibility for learning ==== Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the student being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Constructivism in Science Education|last=Von Glasersfeld|first=Ernst|date=1998|publisher=Springer, Dordrecht|isbn=978-0-7923-4924-2|pages=11–30|chapter=Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, and Teaching|chapter-url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294754.pdf|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516193107/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294754.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
When considering students' learning, it is essential to take into account their [[motivation]] and confidence. According to Von Glasersfeld, a student's motivation to learn is strongly influenced by their belief in their potential for learning<ref name=":1" /> This belief is shaped by their past experiences of successfully mastering problems, which is more influential than external acknowledgment and motivation'''.'''<ref name="prawat1994">{{cite journal|last1=Prawat|first1=Richard S.|last2=Floden|first2=Robert E.|date=1 January 1994|title=Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of learning|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243777968|journal=Educational Psychologist|volume=29|issue=1|pages=37–48|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep2901_4|issn=0046-1520|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082711/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243777968_Philosophical_perspectives_on_constructivist_views_of_learning|url-status=live}}</ref> This idea aligns with [[Lev Vygotsky|Vygotsky]]'s concept of the "[[zone of proximal development]]," where students are challenged at a level slightly above their current development. By successfully completing challenging tasks, students build confidence and motivation to take on even more complex challenges.<ref name="vygotsky1978">{{cite book|title=Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes|last1=Vygotsky|first1=L. S.|last2=Cole|first2=Michael|date=1978|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-57629-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mindinsocietydev00vygo}}</ref>
According to a study on the impact that [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] had on the learning process in Australian University students, a student's motivation and confidence depends on [[self-determination theory]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Richard M. |last2=Deci |first2=Edward L. |date=2000 |title=Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=68–78 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 |pmid=11392867 |issn=1935-990X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This theory requires support from the educational environment to fulfill three basic needs to achieve growth, including autonomy, relatedness, and competency.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eckley |first1=Darrell |last2=Allen |first2=Andrew |last3=Millear |first3=Prudence |last4=Rune |first4=Karina Tirsvad |date=February 2023 |title=COVID-19's impact on learning processes in Australian university students |journal=Social Psychology of Education |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=161–189 |doi=10.1007/s11218-022-09739-x |issn=1381-2890 |pmc=9668712 |pmid=36415584}}</ref> During the historical event of COVID-19, the basic needs were hindered in some way, along with environments that were meant to foster education and growth, which was hindered through the change from traditional in-person classes to online classes that left students with significantly less opportunities for social interactive and active learning opportunities.
===Role of the instructor=== ==== Instructors as facilitators ==== According to the social constructivist approach, instructors are expected to adapt to the role of [[facilitator]]s rather than traditional [[teacher]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last=Bauersfeld | first=H. | chapter='Language games' in the mathematics classroom: Their function and their effects | editor-last=Cobb | editor-first=Paul | editor-last2=Bauersfeld | editor-first2=H. | title=The emergence of mathematical meaning: interaction in classroom cultures | publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates | publication-place=Hillsdale, N.J. | date=1995 | isbn=0-8058-1728-X | oclc=31436489 | page=}}</ref> While a teacher gives a [[Didacticism|didactic]] lecture that covers the subject matter, a facilitator assists the student in developing their own understanding of the content. This shift in roles places the focus on the student's active involvement in the learning process, as opposed to the instructor and the content itself.<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of the Sociology of Education|last1=Gamoran|first1=Adam|last2=Secada|first2=Walter G.|last3=Marrett|first3=Cora B.|date=2000|publisher=Springer, Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-387-32517-0|editor-last=Hallinan|editor-first=M.T.|series=Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research|pages=37–63|chapter=The Organizational Context of Teaching and Learning|chapter-url=http://content.schweitzer-online.de/static/catalog_manager/live/media_files/representation/zd_std_orig__zd_schw_orig/001/428/476/9780387325170_content_pdf_2.pdf|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=31 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131081103/http://content.schweitzer-online.de/static/catalog_manager/live/media_files/representation/zd_std_orig__zd_schw_orig/001/428/476/9780387325170_content_pdf_2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
As a result, a facilitator requires a different set of [[skill]]s compared to a teacher.<ref name="browstein2001">{{cite journal|last=Brownstein|first=Bonnie|date=22 December 2001|title=Collaboration: the foundation of learning in the future|journal=Education|volume=122|issue=2}}</ref> For instance, a teacher imparts information, whereas a facilitator encourages questions; a teacher leads from the front, while a facilitator provides support from the background; and a teacher delivers answers based on a set [[curriculum]], whereas a facilitator offers guidance and creates an environment for the learner to form their own conclusions. Furthermore, a teacher typically engages in a monologue, whereas a facilitator maintains an ongoing dialogue with the learners.<ref name="rhodes1999">{{cite journal|last1=Rhodes|first1=Lynn K.|last2=Bellamy|first2=G. Thomas|date=1 January 1999|title=Choices and Consequences in the Renewal of Teacher Education|journal=Journal of Teacher Education|volume=50|issue=1|pages=17–26|doi=10.1177/002248719905000103|s2cid=143182193|issn=0022-4871}}</ref>
Additionally, a facilitator should be able to dynamically adapt the learning experience by taking the lead in guiding the experience to align with the learners' interests and needs in order to create value.
The learning environment should be created in a way that both supports and challenges the student's thinking<ref name="divesta1987">{{cite book|title=Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology|last=Di Vesta|first=Francis J.|date=1987|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4899-3622-6|series=Perspectives on Individual Differences|location=Boston|pages=203–233|chapter=The Cognitive Movement and Education|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-3620-2_11}}</ref> While it is advocated to give the student ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any and all activities or solutions are adequate. The critical goal is to support the student in developing effective thinking skills.
==== Relationship between instructor and students ==== In the social constructivist viewpoint, the role of the facilitator involves both the instructor and the students being actively engaged in learning from each other.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Holt|first1=Dan G.|last2=Willard-Holt|first2=Colleen|date=1 November 2000|title=Let's Get Real™: Students Solving Authentic Corporate Problems|journal=Phi Delta Kappan|volume=82|issue=3|pages=243–246|doi=10.1177/003172170008200315|s2cid=143466659|issn=0031-7217}}</ref> This dynamic interaction requires that the instructor's culture, [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]], and background play a significant part in shaping the learning experience. Students compare their own thoughts with those of the instructor and their peers, leading to the development of a new, socially validated understanding of the subject matter.<ref name=":4" /> The task or problem serves as the interface between the instructor and the student, creating a dynamic interaction. As a result, both students and instructors need to develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and consider their own beliefs, standards, and values, making the learning experience both subjective and objective at the same time.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal|last=Savery|first=Lawson K.|date=1 June 1994|title=The Influence of the Perceived Styles of Leadership on a Group of Workers on their Attitudes to Work|journal=Leadership & Organization Development Journal|volume=15|issue=4|pages=12–18|doi=10.1108/01437739410059863|issn=0143-7739}}</ref>
Several studies highlight the significance of [[Mentorship|mentoring]] in the learning process.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite conference|last1=Archee|first1=Ray|last2=Hill Duin|first2=DA|date=1995|title=The World Wide Web and Distance Education: Congergenece or Cacophony?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZiM77RkNBMC&pg=PA348|conference=AUUG Conference Proceedings|publisher=AUUG, Inc.|pages=348–356|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082711/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZiM77RkNBMC&pg=PA348|url-status=live}}</ref> The social constructivist model underscores the importance of the relationship between the student and the instructor in facilitating learning.
Interactive learning can be facilitated through various approaches such as [[reciprocal teaching]], peer collaboration, [[cognitive apprenticeship]], problem-based instruction, [[Anchored Instruction|anchored instruction]], and other methods that involve collaborative learning.
=== Learning is an active process === Social constructivism, which is strongly influenced by Vygotsky's work, proposes that knowledge is initially built within a [[Social environment|social setting]] and is then taken in by individuals.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cognitive Psychology and Instruction|last1=Bruning|first1=Roger H.|last2=Schraw|first2=Gregory J.|last3=Ronning|first3=Royce R.|date=1999|publisher=Prentice-Hall, Inc|isbn=978-0-13-716606-0|edition=3rd}}</ref> According to social constructivists, the act of sharing individual viewpoints, known as ''collaborative elaboration'', leads to learners jointly constructing understanding that would not be achievable on their own.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meter|first1=Peggy Van|last2=Stevens|first2=Robert J.|date=1 January 2000|title=The Role of Theory in the Study of Peer Collaboration|journal=The Journal of Experimental Education|volume=69|issue=1|pages=113–127|doi=10.1080/00220970009600652|s2cid=143292199|issn=0022-0973}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Greeno|first1=James G|last2=Collins|first2=Allan M|last3=Resnick|first3=Lauren B|date=1996|title=Cognition and learning|journal=Handbook of Educational Psychology|volume=77|pages=15–46}}</ref>
Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process in which students are encouraged to discover [[principle]]s, [[concept]]s, and facts independently. Therefore, it is crucial to promote speculation and [[Intuition|intuitive thinking]] in students.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last=Ackerman|first=Phillip L.|date=1 March 1996|title=A theory of adult intellectual development: Process, personality, interests, and knowledge|journal=Intelligence|volume=22|issue=2|pages=227–257|doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(96)90016-1|issn=0160-2896}}</ref>
According to other constructivist scholars, individuals create meanings through their interactions with each other and the environment they inhabit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hsu|first=Liwei|date=2013|title=English as a foreign language learners' perception of mobile assisted language learning: a cross-national study|journal=Computer Assisted Language Learning|publisher=Taylor & Francis online |volume=26 |issue=3|pages=197–213|doi=10.1080/09588221.2011.649485|s2cid=62711257}}</ref> Knowledge is created by people and is shaped by social and cultural influences.<ref name="prawat1994" /><ref>{{cite book | last=Ernest | first=Paul | title=The philosophy of mathematics education | publisher=Falmer Press | publication-place=London | date=1991 | isbn=0-203-22423-X | oclc=52100009 | page=}}</ref> McMahon (1997) also emphasizes the social nature of learning, stating that it is not solely a mental process or a result of external factors shaping behavior. Instead, meaningful learning occurs when individuals participate in social activities.<ref name=":4">{{cite conference |last=McMahon |first=M. |date= December 1997 |title=Social Constructivism and the World Wide Web – A Paradigm for Learning |conference=Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education 1997 conference |volume=327 |place=Perth}}</ref>
According to Vygotsky (1978), an important aspect of [[Cognitive development|intellectual development]] is the convergence of [[speech]] and practical activity. He emphasized that as children engage in practical activities, they construct meaning on an individual level, and through speech, they connect this meaning to their culture and the interpersonal world they share with others.<ref name="vygotsky1978" />
====Collaboration among learners==== {{main|Learning by teaching}}
Another tenet of social constructivism is that collaboration among individuals with diverse skills and backgrounds is essential for developing a comprehensive understanding of a particular subject or field.<ref name=":7">{{cite book|title=Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation|date=1992|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|isbn=978-0-8058-1272-5|editor-last=Duffy|editor-first=Thomas|location=Hillsdale, New Jersey|editor-last2=Jonassen}}{{Page needed|date=February 2018}}</ref>
In some social constructivist models, there is an emphasis on the importance of [[collaboration]] among learners, which contrasts with traditional competitive approaches. One concept from Vygotsky that is particularly relevant to peer collaboration is the [[zone of proximal development]]. This is defined as the gap between a learner's actual developmental level, determined by independent problem-solving, and the level of potential development, determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. It differs from Piaget's fixed biological stages of development. Through a process called "[[Instructional scaffolding|scaffolding]]," a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation, allowing the development process to catch up to the learning process.<ref name="vygotsky1978" />
When students present and teach new material to their peers, it fosters a non-linear process of collective knowledge construction.
====Importance of context==== The social constructivist paradigm emphasizes that the environment in which learning takes place plays a crucial role in the learning process.<ref name=":4" />
The concept of the learner as an active processor is based on the idea that there are no universal learning laws that apply to all domains.<ref name="divesta1987" />{{rp|208}} When individuals possess decontextualized knowledge, they may struggle to apply their understanding to real-world tasks. This is due to the lack of engagement with the concept in its complex, real-world environment, as well as the absence of experience with the intricate interrelationships that influence the application of the concept.<ref name=":7" />
One concept within social constructivism is authentic or [[situated learning]], which involves students participating in activities directly related to the practical application of their learning within a culture similar to the real-world setting. [[Cognitive apprenticeship]] is a suggested effective model of constructivist learning that aims to immerse students in authentic practices through activity and social interaction, similar to the successful methods used in craft apprenticeship.<sup>[</sup><ref name=":3" />{{Rp|25}}
Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) highlight the concept of [[dynamic assessment]], which offers a distinct approach to evaluating learners compared to traditional tests. Dynamic assessment extends the interactive nature of learning to the assessment process, emphasizing interaction between the assessor and the learner. It involves a dialogue between the assessor and the learner to understand the current performance level on a task and explore ways to improve future performance. This approach views assessment and learning as interconnected processes, rather than separate entities.<ref name=":5" />
According to this viewpoint, instructors should approach assessment as an ongoing and interactive process that evaluates the learner's achievements, the quality of the learning experience, and course materials. The feedback generated by the assessment process is crucial for driving further development.
===Selection, scope, and sequencing of subject matter=== The organization of knowledge should prioritize integration over division into separate subjects or compartments.<ref name="divesta1987" /><ref name=":4" /> This again emphasizes the significance of presenting learning within a specific context.<ref name=":2" /> The world in which learners operate is not divided into separate subjects but rather comprises a complex array of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions.<ref name=":3" />
==== Engaging and challenging the student ==== Students benefit from being challenged with tasks that require them to apply skills and knowledge slightly beyond their current level of mastery. This approach can help to maintain their motivation and build on past achievements to boost their confidence.<ref name="browstein2001" /> This is in line with Vygotsky's [[zone of proximal development]], which refers to the gap between a person's current level of ability and their potential level of development under the guidance of adults or more capable peers.<ref name="vygotsky1978" />
Vygotsky (1978) argued that effective instruction should be slightly ahead of a learner's current [[Child development|developmental stage]]. By doing so, instruction can stimulate the development of a range of functions that are in the learner's zone of proximal development. This highlights the crucial role of instruction in fostering development.<ref name="vygotsky1978" /> In other words, Vygotsky’s constructivist learning theory highlights the central role of social interaction and guided learning in cognitive development.
According to Vygotsky, meaningful learning occurs within the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the range between what a learner can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with the guidance of a more knowledgeable peer or instructor. This framework emphasizes the significance of learning environments that foster collaboration, dialogue, and the exchange of diverse perspectives. By engaging in socially mediated activities, learners actively construct knowledge and deepen their understanding through shared experiences. In practice, Vygotsky’s constructivism underscores the value of scaffolding, where teachers provide structured support that gradually diminishes as students gain competence, allowing them to reach their full cognitive potential.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Siregar, Luali, Vinalistyosari, Hanaurawan, Anggraini |date=August 2024 |title=IMPLEMENTATION OF VYGOTSKY'S CONSTRUCTIVISM LEARNING THEORY THROUGH PROJECT BASED LEARNING (PJBL) IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE EDUCATION |url=https://scispace.com/pdf/implementation-of-vygotskys-constructivism-learning-theory-4sjck7g64g.pdf |access-date=2025-10-08 |website=scispace.com}}</ref>
In order to effectively engage and challenge students, it is important that the tasks and learning environment mirror the complexity of the real-world environment in which the students are expected to operate upon completing their education. Students should not only take ownership of the learning and problem-solving process but also take ownership of the problems themselves.<ref>{{cite book | last=Derry | first=Sharon J. | chapter=A Fish Called Peer Learning: Searching for Common Themes | editor-last=O'Donnell | editor-first=Angela M. | editor-last2=King | editor-first2=Alison | title=Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning | publisher=Taylor and Francis | publication-place=Hoboken | date=2014 | isbn=978-1-4106-0371-5 | oclc=881162577 | page=}}</ref>
When it comes to organizing subject matter, the constructivist perspective suggests that the fundamental principles of any subject can be taught to anyone at any point, in some capacity.<ref name=":7" /> This approach entails introducing the foundational concepts that makeup topics or subject areas initially and then consistently revisiting and expanding on these ideas.
Instructors should recognize that while they are given a set curriculum to follow, they inevitably personalize it to reflect their own beliefs, thoughts, and emotions about the subject matter and their students. As a result, the learning experience becomes a collaborative effort, influenced by the emotions and life experiences of all involved. It's important to consider the student's motivation as central to the learning process.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
==== Structuredness of the learning process ==== Incorporating an appropriate balance between structure and flexibility into the learning process is essential. According to Savery (1994), a highly structured learning environment may pose challenges for learners in constructing meaning based on their existing conceptual understandings. A facilitator should strive to provide adequate structure to offer clear guidance and parameters for achieving learning objectives, while also allowing for an open and flexible learning experience that enables learners to discover, interact, and arrive at their own understanding of truth.<ref name=":6" />
=== Teaching techniques === {{Main article|Constructivist teaching methods}}
A few strategies for cooperative learning include: * Reciprocal questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions *[[Jigsaw (teaching technique)|Jigsaw]]: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and teach it to the others in their group * Structured controversies: Students work together to research a particular controversy<ref>{{cite book | last=Woolfolk | first=Anita | title=Educational psychology | edition=11th | publication-place=Upper Saddle River, N.J. | publisher=Merrill | date=2010 | isbn=978-0-13-714454-9 | oclc=268547518 | page=}}</ref> The "Harkness" discussion method is named after Edward Harkness, who funded its development at Phillips Exeter Academy in the 1930s. This method involves students sitting in a circle, guiding their own discussion. The teacher's role is minimized, with the students initiating, directing, and focusing the discussion. They work together as a team, sharing responsibility and goals. The ultimate aim is to illuminate the subject, interpret different viewpoints, and piece together a comprehensive understanding. Discussion skills are crucial, and every participant is expected to contribute to keeping the discussion engaging and productive.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023|reason=I will delete this section unless someone can provide a source. If a source is provided I will move it to the [[Constructivist teaching methods]] article}}
== Criticism == Many [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologists]] and educators{{Who|date=October 2024}} have raised concerns about the core principles of constructivism, arguing that these theories may be misleading or inconsistent with well-established findings.{{Clarify|date=October 2024}}<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Kirschner |first1=P. A. |last2=Sweller |first2=J. |last3=Clark |first3=R. E. |year=2006 |title=Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching |url=https://research.ou.nl/en/publications/f52dc05c-2fdf-4ec6-888a-1ffa9af85100 |url-status=live |journal=[[Educational Psychologist (academic journal)|Educational Psychologist]] |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=75–86 |doi=10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 |s2cid=17067829 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082733/https://research.ou.nl/en/publications/why-minimal-guidance-during-instruction-does-not-work-an-analysis |archive-date=14 August 2021 |access-date=14 August 2021 |hdl=1820/8951|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Anderson | first1=John R. | last2=Reder | first2=Lynne M. | last3=Simon | first3=Herbert A. | title=Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology in mathematics education | date=1998 | url=http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/misapplied.html | access-date=4 February 2007 | archive-date=8 September 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908220818/http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/misapplied.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://wwwcsi.unian.it/educa/inglese/matthews.html Constructivism in Science and Mathematics Education] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091118172926/http://wwwcsi.unian.it/educa/inglese/matthews.html |date=18 November 2009 }}, Michael R. Matthews</ref><ref>[http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/el199911_holloway.html Research Link / Caution: Constructivism Ahead] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427051821/http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/el199911_holloway.html |date=27 April 2006 }} Holloway, ''Educational Leadership, 57'' (3). November 1999.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Liu | first1=Charlotte Hua | last2=Matthews | first2=Robert | title=Vygotsky's Philosophy: Constructivism and Its Criticisms Examined | journal=International Education Journal | volume=6 | issue=3 | date=9 July 2005 | issn=1443-1475 | pages=386–99 | url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf |id={{ERIC|EJ854992}} | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809085130/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf | archive-date=9 August 2021 | url-status=live }}</ref>
In [[neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]], it is proposed that learning is influenced by the processing and representational resources available at a particular age. This implies that if the demands of a concept to be learned exceed the available processing efficiency and [[working memory]] resources, then the concept is considered unlearnable. This approach to learning can impact the understanding of essential theoretical concepts and reasoning. Therefore, for effective learning to occur, a child must operate in an environment that aligns with their developmental and individual learning constraints, taking into account any deviations from the norm for their age. If this condition is not met, the learning process may not progress as intended.<ref>Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), ''Life-span developmental psychology'' (pp. 179–269). London: Wiley.</ref><ref>Demetriou, A., Shayer, M., & Efklides, A. (1992). ''Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development'': ''Implications and applications to education''. London: Routledge</ref>
Many educators have raised concerns about the effectiveness of this approach to [[instructional design]], particularly when it comes to creating instruction for beginners. While some proponents of constructivism claim that "learning by doing" improves learning, critics argue that there is insufficient empirical evidence to support this assertion, especially for novice learners.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /><ref name="Mayer">{{cite journal |last=Mayer |year=2004 |title=Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning? |url=http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/vtt/MayerThreeStrikesAP04.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=American Psychologist |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=14–19 |citeseerx=10.1.1.372.2476 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.14 |pmid=14736316 |s2cid=1129364 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215142158/http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/vtt/MayerThreeStrikesAP04.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=29 December 2007}}</ref> Sweller and his colleagues argue that novices do not possess the underlying mental models, or "schemas" necessary for "learning by doing".<ref name=":8">{{cite journal|last=Sweller|first=J|date=June 1988|title=Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning|journal=Cognitive Science|volume=12|issue=2|pages=257–285|doi=10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7|issn=0364-0213|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, Mayer (2004) conducted a review of the literature and concluded that fifty years of empirical data do not support the use of pure discovery as a constructivist teaching technique. In situations requiring discovery, he recommends the use of guided discovery instead.<ref name="Mayer" />
Some researchers, such as Kirschner ''et al.'' (2006),<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /> have characterized the [[constructivist teaching methods]] as "unguided methods of instruction" and have suggested more structured learning activities for learners with little to no prior knowledge. Slezak has expressed skepticism about constructivism, describing it as "fashionable but thoroughly problematic doctrines that can have little benefit for practical pedagogy or teacher education."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Slezak|first=Peter|date=2010|title=Radical Constructivism: Epistemology, Education and Dynamite.|journal=Constructivist Foundations|volume=6|issue=1|issn=1782-348X}}</ref> Similar views have been stated by Meyer,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meyer |first=D. L. |year=2009 |title=The Poverty of Constructivism |journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=332–341 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-5812.2008.00457.x |s2cid=144604333 }}</ref> Boden, Quale and others.
Kirschner et al. grouped several learning theories together, including [[Discovery learning|discovery]], [[Problem-based learning|problem-based]], [[Experiential learning|experiential]], and [[inquiry-based learning]], and suggested that highly scaffolded constructivist methods such as problem-based learning and inquiry learning may be ineffective.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /> They described several [[Observational study|research studies]] that were favorable to problem-based learning given learners were provided some level of guidance and support.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" />
===Confusion with maturationism=== Many people confuse constructivism with [[maturationism]]. The constructivist (or cognitive-developmental) stream "is based on the idea that the [[dialectic]] or [[interactionist]] process of development and learning through the student's active construction should be facilitated and promoted by adults".<ref name=":12">{{cite book|title=Developing constructivist early childhood curriculum: practical principles and activities|date=2002|publisher=Teachers College Press|isbn=978-0-8077-4121-4|editor-last=DeVries|editor-first=Rheta|series=Early childhood education series|location=New York}}</ref> The romantic maturationist stream emphasizes the natural development of students without adult interventions in a permissive environment.<ref name=":12" /> In contrast, constructivism involves adults actively guiding learning while allowing children to take charge of their own learning process.
==Subtypes== === Contextual constructivism ===
According to William Cobern (1991) Contextual constructivism is "about understanding the fundamental, culturally based beliefs that both students and teachers bring to class, and how these beliefs are supported by culture. Contextual constructivists not only raise new research questions, they also call for a new research paradigm. The focus on contextualization means that qualitative, especially ethnographic, techniques are to be preferred" (p. 3).<ref name="Cobern1991">{{cite journal|last=Cobern|first=William|date=April 1991|title=Contextual Constructivism: The Impact of Culture on the Learning and Teaching of Science|journal=Theoretical Bases for Science Education Research|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED338488}}</ref>
=== Radical constructivism === {{Main|Radical constructivism}}
[[Ernst von Glasersfeld]] developed [[radical constructivism]] by coupling Piaget's theory of learning and philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge with [[Kantian ethics|Kant's]] rejection of an objective reality independent of human perception or [[reason]]. Radical constructivism does not view knowledge as an attempt to generate ideas that match an independent, objective reality.<ref>{{cite book | last=von Glasersfeld | first=Ernst | title=Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning |series=Studies in Mathematics Education Series, no. 6 | id={{ERIC|ED381352}} | year=1995 | isbn=0-7507-0387-3 | oclc=52130078 | publisher=Falmer Press | place=London}}</ref> Instead, theories and knowledge about the world, as generated by our [[sense]]s and reason, either fit within the constraints of whatever reality may exist and, thus, are viable or do not and are not viable.<ref>{{cite journal | last=von Glasersfeld | first=Ernst | title=Chapter 2: An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like It Radical | journal=Journal for Research in Mathematics Education: Monograph | publisher=National Council of Teachers of Mathematics | volume=4 | year=1990 | issn=0883-9530 | doi=10.2307/749910 | pages=19–29, 195–210 | jstor=749910 }}</ref> As a theory of education, radical constructivism emphasizes the experiences of the learner, differences between learners and the importance of [[uncertainty]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Gash | first=H. | title=Constructing Constructivism | journal=Constructivist Foundations | volume=9 | issue=3 | date=15 July 2014 | url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GASCC | pages=302–310}}</ref>
=== Relational constructivism === [[Björn Kraus]]' [[relational constructivism]] can be perceived as a relational consequence of radical constructivism. In contrast to social constructivism, it picks up the epistemological threads and maintains the radical constructivist idea that humans cannot overcome their limited conditions of reception. Despite the subjectivity of human constructions of reality, relational constructivism focuses on the relational conditions that apply to human [[Perceptual learning|perceptional]] processes.<ref>See Björn Kraus: ''The Life We Live and the Life We Experience: Introducing the Epistemological Difference between "Lifeworld" (Lebenswelt) and "Life Conditions" (Lebenslage)'' Social Work and Society. International Online Journal. Vol. 13, No. 2 2015, http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/438 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413211413/http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/438 |date=13 April 2019 }}; Björn Kraus: Plädoyer für den Relationalen Konstruktivismus und eine Relationale Soziale Arbeit. in Forum Sozial (2017) 1 pp. 29–35, http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51948 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801010411/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51948 |date=1 August 2020 }}</ref>
=== Social constructivism === In recent decades, constructivist theorists have extended the traditional focus on individual learning to address collaborative and social dimensions of learning. It is possible to see [[social constructivism]] as a bringing together of aspects of the work of Piaget with that of Bruner and Vygotsky.<ref>{{cite book|title=How Children Think and Learn|last=Wood|first=David|date=1998|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-20007-9|edition=2nd|series=Understanding children's worlds|location=Oxford, UK|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howchildrenthink0000wood/page/39 39]|url=https://archive.org/details/howchildrenthink0000wood/page/39}}</ref> For example, Bruner identified three key principles of constructivism theory that include (1) Instruction must address the experiences and contexts that make the learner willing and capable of learning (learner readiness);(2), Instruction must be structured for easy comprehension by the student (structured teaching), and (3) Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps beyond the information provided.<sup>[1]</sup> Here, Bruner built the bridge between Piaget's theory, that focuses on the early intellectual development of children that results from their engagement with the environment, and with Vygotsyk's theory on sociocultural learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chand |first=Satish |date=2022 |title=Constructivism in Education: Exploring the Contributions of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/120008265/sr23630021800.pdf |journal=International Journal of Science and Research |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=4}}</ref> Together Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky implement social constructivism theories.
=== Communal constructivism === The concept ''communal constructivism'' was developed by Leask and Younie,<ref name="Leask and Younie">Leask, M., and Younie, S. (2001a) 'Communal Constructivist Theory: pedagogy of information and communications technology & internationalisation of the curriculum', Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, Vol. 10, Nos 1 & 2, pp117 –134</ref> in 1995, through their research on the European [[Global SchoolNet|SchoolNet]],<ref name="Younie and Leask">{{cite journal | last1 = Younie | first1 = S. | last2 = Leask | first2 = M. | year = 2001b | title = The European SchoolNet: An online community for European teachers? A valuable professional resource? | url = http://www.editlib.org/p/94352/ | journal = Teacher Development | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–172 | doi = 10.1080/13664530100200140 | s2cid = 145109452 | access-date = 14 August 2021 | archive-date = 15 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160815122924/http://www.editlib.org/p/94352/ | url-status = live | doi-access = free }}</ref> which demonstrated the value of experts collaborating to push the boundaries of knowledge, including communal construction of new knowledge between experts, rather than the social construction of knowledge, as described by Vygotsky, where there is a learner to teacher scaffolding relationship. "Communal constructivism,” as a concept, applies to those situations in which there is currently no expert knowledge or research to underpin knowledge in an area. "Communal constructivism" refers, specifically, to the process of experts working together to create, record, and publish new knowledge in emerging areas. In the seminal European SchoolNet research where, for the first time, academics were testing out how the internet could support classroom practice and pedagogy, experts from a number of countries set up test situations to generate and understand new possibilities for educational practice.
Bryan Holmes, in 2001, applied this to student learning, as described in an early paper, "in this [[model (abstract)|model]], students will not simply pass through a course like [[water]] through a [[sieve]] but instead leave their own imprint in the learning process."<ref name="Holmes">{{cite web|last1=Holmes|first1=Bryan|last2=Tangney|first2=Brendan|last3=FitzGibbon|first3=Ann|last4=Savage|first4=Tim|last5=Mehan|first5=Siobhan|title=Communal Constructivism: Students constructing learning for as well as with others|url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/publications/tech-reports/reports.01/TCD-CS-2001-04.pdf|publisher=Trinity College|journal=|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227232934/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/publications/tech-reports/reports.01/TCD-CS-2001-04.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Influence on computer science and robotics ==
Constructivism has influenced the course of programming and [[computer science]]. Some famous [[programming language]]s have been created, either wholly or in part, for [[education]]al use, to support the constructionist theory of Seymour Papert. These languages have been [[dynamic typing|dynamically typed]] and [[reflection (computer science)|reflective]]. [[Logo programming language|Logo]] and its successor, [[Scratch programming language|Scratch]], are the best known of them. Constructivism has also informed the design of interactive [[machine learning]] systems,<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Sarkar |first=Advait |date=1 January 2016 |title=Constructivist Design for Interactive Machine Learning |conference=Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems |location=New York |publisher=ACM |pages=1467–1475 |doi=10.1145/2851581.2892547 |isbn=9781450340823 |s2cid=1949678}}</ref> whereas [[constructivist epistemology|radical constructivism]] has been explored as a paradigm to design experiments in [[rehabilitation robotics]] and more precisely in [[prosthetics]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Markus |last2=Castellini |first2=Claudio |last3=Massironi |first3=Carlo |title=Applying Radical Constructivism to machine learning: a pilot study in assistive robotics |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=2018 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=250–262 |url=http://constructivist.info/13/2/250.nowak |access-date=20 February 2019 |archive-date=21 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221000106/https://constructivist.info/13/2/250.nowak |url-status=live }}</ref>
==List of notable constructivists== Writers who influenced constructivism include: *[[Jerome Bruner]] (1915–2016) *[[John Dewey]] (1859–1952) *[[Heinz von Foerster]] (1911–2002) *[[Paulo Freire]] (1921–1997) *[[Ernst von Glasersfeld]] (1917–2010) *[[George Kelly (psychologist)|George Kelly]] (1905–1967) *[[Maria Montessori]] (1870–1952) *[[Jean Piaget]] (1896–1980) *[[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] (1916–2001) *[[Władysław Strzemiński]] (1893–1952) *[[Edgar Morin]] (born 1921) *[[Humberto Maturana]] (1928–2021) *[[Lev Vygotsky]] (1896–1934) *[[Paul Watzlawick]] (1921–2007)
==See also== {{Portal|Education|Philosophy}} * [[APOS Theory]] (Actions, Processes, Objects, Schemas) * [[Autodidactism]] * [[Connectivism]] * [[Constructivist epistemology]] * [[Constructivist teaching methods]] * [[Critical pedagogy]] * [[Cultural-historical activity theory]] (CHAT) * [[Educational psychology]] * [[Learning styles]] * [[Philosophy of education]] * [[Reform mathematics]] * [[Situated cognition]] * [[Socratic method]] * [[Teaching for social justice]] * [[Vocational education]]
== References == {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== {{Refbegin|}} *{{cite journal | last1=Anderson | first1=John R. | last2=Reder | first2=Lynne M. | last3=Simon | first3=Herbert A. | last4=Ericsson | first4=K. Anders | last5=Glaser | first5=Robert | title=Radical Constructivism and Cognitive Psychology | journal=Brookings Papers on Education Policy | date=1998 | url=http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/archive/fulltexts/4127.html | issn=1096-2719 | issue=1 | pages=227–278 | jstor=20067198 | access-date=13 February 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130035/http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/archive/fulltexts/4127.html | archive-date=5 February 2018 | url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal|author=Bruner, J. S.|year=1961|title=The act of discovery|journal=Harvard Educational Review|volume=31|issue=1|pages=21–32}} *{{cite book | author=Bransford, J. |author2= Brown, A. L.|author3= Cocking, R. R. |title=How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School | location=Washington, DC | date=2000 | publisher=The National Academies Press | doi=10.17226/6160|isbn= 978-0-309-06557-3|s2cid= 235510978}} * {{cite book|author1=Clark, R. C.|author2=Zuckerman, P.|year=1999|chapter=Multimedia Learning Systems: Design Principles | editor=Stolovitch, H. D.| editor2= Keeps, E. J. | title=Handbook of Human Performance Technology | edition=2nd | pages=564–588|location=San Francisco|publisher=Pfeiffer|isbn=978-0787911089}} * {{cite book|author1=Clark, R.C.|author2=Nguyen, F.|author3=Sweller, J.|name-list-style=amp|year=2006|title=Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load|location=San Francisco|publisher=Pfeiffer|isbn=978-0-7879-7728-3}} * {{cite book|author=de Jong, T.|year=2005|title=The guided discovery principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 215-229).|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521547512|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521547512}} * {{cite journal|author1=de Jong, T.|author2=van Joolingen, W. R.|year=1998|title=Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual Domains|url=https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00190680/file/deJong-Ton-1998b.pdf|journal=Review of Educational Research|volume=68|issue=2|pages=179–201|doi=10.3102/00346543068002179|s2cid=220488826 |access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227232933/https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00190680/file/deJong-Ton-1998b.pdf|url-status=live}} *Dalgarno, B. (1996) Constructivist computer assisted learning: theory and technique, ''ASCILITE Conference'', 2–4 December 1996, retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20140902003411/http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/adelaide96/papers/21.html *Hilbert, T. S., & Renkl, A. (2007). Learning how to Learn by Concept Mapping: A Worked-Example Effect. ''Oral presentation at the 12th Biennial Conference EARLI 2007'' in Budapest, Hungary *Jeffery, G. (ed) (2005) ''The creative college: building a successful learning culture in the arts'', Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. *Jonassen, D., Mayes, T., & McAleese, R. (1993). A manifesto for a constructivist approach to uses of technology in higher education. In T.M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D.H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning (pp. 231–247). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. * {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0959-4752(93)90011-N|author=Leutner, D.|year=1993|title=Guided discovery learning with computer-based simulation games: effects of adaptive and non-adaptive instructional support|journal=Learning and Instruction|volume=3|issue=2|pages=113–132}} *Piaget, Jean. (1950). ''The Psychology of Intelligence''. New York: Routledge. * [[Jean Piaget]] (1967). ''Logique et Connaissance scientifique'', Encyclopédie de la Pléiade. * {{cite journal|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.334|author1=Tuovinen, J. E.|author2=Sweller, J.|s2cid=54592195|name-list-style=amp|year=1999|title=A comparison of cognitive load associated with discovery learning and worked examples|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=91|issue=2|pages=334–341}} * {{cite journal|author1=Rivers, R. H.|author2=Vockell, E.|year=1987|title=Computer simulations to Simulate scientific problems solving|journal=Journal of Research in Science Teaching|volume=24|issue=5|pages=403–416|doi=10.1002/tea.3660240504|bibcode=1987JRScT..24..403R}} {{Refend}}
==External links== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=constructivism}} * [http://dougiamas.com/writing/constructivism.html A journey into Constructivism] by Martin Dougiamas, 1998–11. * [http://www.promisingpractices.net/program.asp?programid=114 Cognitively Guided Instruction reviewed on the Promising Practices Network] * [http://www.adaptivecurriculum.com Sample Online Activity Objects Designed with Constructivist Approach] (2007) * [http://www.liberalexchange.org Liberal Exchange learning resources offering a constructivist approach to learning English as a second/foreign language] (2009) * Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2018). [http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/2018-03-lutz-huitt-brilliant-star-cognitive-development.pdf "Connecting cognitive development and constructivism."] In W. Huitt (Ed.), ''Becoming a Brilliant Star: Twelve core ideas supporting holistic education'' (pp. 45–63). IngramSpark. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140527064759/http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/savage.html#def_constructivism Definition of Constructivism by Martin Ryder] (a footnote to the book chapter [https://web.archive.org/web/20140527064759/http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/savage.html The Cyborg and the Noble Savage] where Ryder discusses [[Olpc|One Laptop Per Child's]] XO laptop from a constructivist educator's point of view)
{{Philosophy of education}} {{Standards-based Education Reform}} {{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Constructivism}} [[Category:Constructivism]] [[Category:Education reform]] [[Category:Alternative education]] [[Category:Educational psychology]] [[Category:Constructivism (psychological school)]]