Rock dove

{{Short description|Ancestor of domestic pigeon}} {{Redirect|Rock pigeon}} {{EngvarB|date = May 2016}} {{About|the ancestral wild form of domestic pigeons|the variable domestic form, with hundreds of breeds|domestic pigeon|free-living descendants of domesticated birds living around human settlements|feral pigeon}} {{Speciesbox | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn | author = BirdLife International | title = ''Columba livia'' | article-number = e.T22690066A155493121 | year = 2019 | amends = 2016 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22690066A155493121.en | access-date = 19 February 2022 }}</ref> | image = {{Easy CSS image crop|Image=Columba livia (Rock Dove, wild), Duncansby Head, Caithness, Scotland 1.jpg|desired_width=250|crop_left_perc=20}} | image_caption = ''Columba livia livia'', wild, Duncansby Head, Caithness, Scotland | image2 = Columba livia - Rock Dove XC539061.mp3 | image2_caption = Rock dove (feral) calling | genus = Columba | species = livia | authority = Gmelin, JF, 1789<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=January 2023 | title=Pigeons | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/pigeons/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=10 June 2023 }}</ref> | range_map = Columba livia distribution map.png | range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#7E0308|approximate native range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#FD8182|introduced non-native populations|outline=gray}} }}

The '''rock dove''' ('''''Columba livia'''''), also known as the '''common pigeon''' or '''rock pigeon''' (but see also ''Petrophassa''), is a member of the bird family Columbidae (doves and pigeons).<ref name=ioc/><ref name = "Gibbs">{{cite book| last =Gibbs | first =David |author2=Eustace Barnes |author3=John Cox | title =Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World | publisher =Pica Press | location =United Kingdom | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=r__Tx8QKQfMC | isbn =978-1-873403-60-0 | date =2010-06-30 }}</ref>{{rp|624}} In common usage, it is often simply referred to as the "pigeon", although the rock dove is the wild form of the bird; the pigeons familiar to most people are the domesticated forms of the wild rock dove.

Wild rock doves are uniformly pale grey with two black bars on each wing, with few differences being seen between males and females; i.e. they are not strongly sexually dimorphic.<ref name="Svensson"/> The domestic pigeon, often, but invalidly, called "''Columba livia domestica''", which includes about 1,000 different breeds, is descended from this species. Escaped domestic pigeons are the origin of feral pigeons around the world. Both forms can vary widely in the colour and pattern of their plumage unlike their wild ancestor, being red, brown, checkered, uniformly coloured, or pied.<ref name = "Blechman">{{cite book| last =Blechman | first =Andrew | title =Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. | publisher =University of Queensland Press | year =2007 | location =St Lucia, Queensland | url= http://andrewblechman.com/pigeons/learn_more.html |isbn =978-0-7022-3641-9 }}</ref>

Habitats include various open and semi-open environments where they are able to forage on the ground. Cliffs and rock ledges are used for roosting and breeding in the wild. Originating in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, when including their domestic and feral descendants, they are an example of a least-concern species per IUCN among birds, being abundant with an estimated population of 17 to 28 million wild and feral birds in Europe alone and up to 120 million worldwide.<ref name=IUCN/>

== Taxonomy and systematics == thumb|''C. l. neglecta'', Raikot, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan The official standard English name is '''rock dove''', as given by the International Ornithological Congress.<ref>{{Cite report|date=2020|editor-last=Gill|editor-first=F.|title=IOC World Bird List v10.2|url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/ioc-lists/crossref|language=en|publisher=International Ornithological Committee|doi=10.14344/ioc.ml.10.2|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The rock dove was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of ''Systema Naturae'' written by Carl Linnaeus. He placed it with all the other doves and pigeons in the genus ''Columba'' and coined the binomial name ''Columba livia''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Gmelin | first=Johann Friedrich | author-link=Johann Friedrich Gmelin| year=1789 | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=13th | volume=1, Part 2 | language=Latin | location=Lipsiae [Leipzig] | publisher=Georg. Emanuel. Beer | page= | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2656264 }}</ref> The genus name ''Columba'' is the Latin word meaning "pigeon, dove",<ref>James A. Jobling. ''Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names''. Bloomsbury Publishing p. 114 {{ISBN|1408125013}}</ref> whose older etymology comes from the Ancient Greek κόλυμβος (''kólumbos''), "a diver", hence κολυμβάω (''kolumbáō''), "dive, plunge headlong, swim".<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book | author = Liddell, Henry George | author-link = Henry George Liddell | author2 = Robert Scott | author2-link = Robert Scott (philologist) | name-list-style = amp | year = 1980 | title = A Greek-English Lexicon | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = United Kingdom | isbn = 0-19-910207-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd | edition = Abridged }}</ref> Aristophanes (''Birds'' 304) and others use the word κολυμβίς (''kolumbís''), "diver", for the name of the bird, because of its swimming motion in the air.<ref>{{cite book | last = Simpson | first = D. P. | title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd. | year = 1979 | edition = 5th | location = London | page = 883 | isbn = 0-304-52257-0}}</ref> The specific epithet ''livia'' is a Medieval Latin variant of ''livida'', "livid, bluish-grey"; this was Theodorus Gaza's translation of Greek ''péleia'', "dove", itself thought to be derived from ''pellós'', "dark-coloured".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jobling|first=J.|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/988d/fc3214992239564844cc8fa92d4ff5d7ddd6.pdf|title=Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names|publisher=Christopher Helm|year=2010|isbn=978-1-408-12501-4|location=London|access-date=20 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815182030/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/988d/fc3214992239564844cc8fa92d4ff5d7ddd6.pdf|archive-date=15 August 2019|s2cid=82496461}}</ref>{{Rp|228}}

No original material was designated by Gmelin in his description of the species, and consequently a neotype specimen, from Fair Isle in Scotland, has been designated to define the species and its nominate subspecies ''C. l. livia''.<ref name="Donegan">{{cite journal | last =Donegan | first =Thomas M. |date=2016 | title=The pigeon names ''Columba livia, 'C. domestica' ''and ''C. oenas'' and their type specimens. | journal=Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club |volume=136 |pages=14–27 | url=https://boc-online.org/bulletins/downloads/BBOC1361-Donegan.pdf | access-date=2025-03-22}}</ref>

Its closest relative in the genus ''Columba'' is the hill pigeon, followed by the snow, speckled, and white-collared pigeons.<ref name= Gibbs/> Pigeon chicks are called "squabs".<ref name="Levi" /> Note that members of the pigeon genus ''Petrophassa'' and the speckled pigeon (''Columba guinea''), also have the common name "rock pigeon".

=== Subspecies === Nine subspecies are recognised:<ref name=ioc/> * ''C. l. livia'' Gmelin, JF, 1789 – west, central Europe, north Africa to central Asia * ''C. l. gymnocycla'' Gray, GR, 1856 – Mauritania and Senegal to south Mali and Ghana * ''C. l. targia'' Geyr von Schweppenburg, 1916 – north Mali and south Algeria to central Sudan * ''C. l. schimperi'' Bonaparte, 1854 – east Egypt, south Sudan and Eritrea * ''C. l. dakhlae'' Meinertzhagen, R, 1928 – west Egypt * ''C. l. palaestinae'' Zedlitz, 1912 – Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) to Syria, to west and south Arabian Peninsula * ''C. l. gaddi'' Zarudny & Loudon, 1906 – east Turkey to Uzbekistan, to west and north Afghanistan * ''C. l. neglecta'' Hume, 1873 – west Pakistan and east Afghanistan to the Himalayas * ''C. l. intermedia'' Strickland, 1844 – south India and Sri Lanka

== Description == {{Multiple image | image1 = Rock Doves, Alışıq, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran - panoramio (17), crop.jpg | caption1 = A flock of ''C. l. gaddi'' in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran, showing their petrophillic nature | image2 = Rock pigeon in Chandigarh.jpg | caption2 = The iridescence wraps around the entire neck. | width = 250 | perrow = 1/1 }}

Millennia of domestication have greatly altered the rock dove in many regions. Domestic and Feral pigeons, which arose through selective breeding, not originating naturally, have significant variation in plumage from the natural wild birds.<ref name="Svensson">{{cite book | last1=Svensson | first1=Lars | last2=Mullarney | first2=Killian | last3=Zetterstroem | first3=Dan | title=Collins Bird Guide | publisher=William Collins | date=2023-03-16 | isbn=978-0-00-854746-2 | pages=222–223}}</ref> This wild type is endangered in many areas; the nominate subspecies ''C. l. livia'' persists most notably in the far north and west of Scotland, most strongly so in the Outer Hebrides.<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal | last1=Smith | first1=William J. | last2=Sendell-Price | first2=Ashley T. | last3=Fayet | first3=Annette L. | last4=Schweizer | first4=Teia M. | last5=Jezierski | first5=Michał T. | last6=van de Kerkhof | first6=Charles | last7=Sheldon | first7=Ben C. | last8=Ruegg | first8=Kristen C. | last9=Kelly | first9=Steven | last10=Turnbull | first10=Lindsay A. | last11=Clegg | first11=Sonya M. | title=Limited domestic introgression in a final refuge of the wild pigeon | journal=iScience | volume=25 | issue=7 | date=2022 | pmid=35880028 | pmc=9308148 | doi=10.1016/j.isci.2022.104620 | article-number=104620 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589004222008926 | access-date=2026-01-19}}</ref>

The adult of the nominate subspecies of the rock dove is {{convert|30|to|35|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with a {{convert|62|to|68|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan.<ref name="Svensson"/> Weight for wild or feral rock doves ranges from {{Convert|238|-|380|g|abbr = on}}, though overfed domestic and semi-domestic individuals can exceed normal weights.<ref name="Gibbs" /><ref name="Cornell">{{cite web |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Rock_Pigeon/lifehistory |title=Rock Dove Life History |publisher=All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=2019-12-24 |language=en}}</ref> For standard measurements, the wing chord is typically around {{convert|22.3|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the tail is {{convert|9.5|to|11|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the bill is around {{convert|1.8|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and the tarsus is {{convert|2.6|to|3.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Gibbs" />

This species has dark bluish-grey head, neck, and chest feathers with glossy greenish to reddish-purple iridescence along its neck feathers. The white lower back of the pure rock dove is its best identification characteristic; the two black bars on its pale grey wings are also distinctive. The tail has a black band on the end, and the outer web of the tail feathers are margined with white.<ref name="Svensson"/> The iris is red-brown. The eyelids are grey with a very narrow bluish-grey to grey-white eye ring (wider in domesticated and feral birds). The bill is grey-black with a small off-white cere (with domesticated and feral birds having a much larger cere).<ref name="Smith"/> The feet are red to pink.<ref name="Svensson"/>

The adult female is almost identical in outward appearance to the male, but the iridescence on her neck is less intense and more restricted to the rear and sides, whereas that on the breast is often very obscure.<ref name = Gibbs/> Young females show little lustre and are duller.

When circling overhead, the white underwing of the bird becomes conspicuous. In its flight, behaviour, and voice, which is more of a dovecot ''coo'' than the phrase of the wood pigeon, it is a typical ''Columba'' pigeon. Although it is a strong flier, it also glides frequently, holding its wings in a very pronounced V shape as it does.<ref name="Svensson"/>

The various subspecies are similar to the nominate, but can be differentiated:<ref name="Gibbs"/>{{rp|176–179}} * ''C. l. livia'', the nominate subspecies, has mid-grey mantle plumage, and a relatively short tail. * ''C. l. gymnocycla'' is smaller and very much darker than the nominate. It is almost blackish on the head, rump and underparts with a white back and the iridescence of the nape extending onto the head. * ''C. l. targia'' is slightly smaller than the nominate, with similar plumage, but the back is concolorous with the mantle instead of white. * ''C. l. schimperi'' closely resembles ''C. l. targia'', but has a distinctly paler mantle. * ''C. l. dakhlae'' is smaller and much paler than the nominate. * ''C. l. palaestinae'' is slightly larger than ''C. l. schimperi'' and has darker plumage. * ''C. l. gaddi'' is larger and paler than ''C. l. palaestinae,'' with which it intergrades in the west. * ''C. l. neglecta'' it is similar to the nominate in size but darker, with a stronger and more extensive iridescent sheen on the neck. It intergrades with ''C. l. gaddi'' in the south. * ''C. l. intermedia'' is similar to ''C. l. neglecta'' but darker, with a less contrasting back.

[[File:Columba livia 90.jpg|thumb|by Adolf Bernhard Meyer, from ''Abbildungen von Vogel-Skeletten'' (1879)]] There have been numerous skeletal descriptions of the rock dove and the associated muscles including those of the eye, jaw, neck, and throat.<ref name="Jonesetal2019">{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/s40851-019-0129-z|last2=Button|first2=David J.|last3=Barrett, P.M.|first3=Paul M|first4=Laura|last4=Porro B.|title=Digital dissection of the head of the rock dove (''Columba livia'') using contrast-enhanced computed tomography|journal=Zoological Letters|volume=5|pages=1–31|year=2019|last1=Jones|first1=Marc. E. H.|article-number=17 |pmid=31205748 |pmc=6558907 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The skull is dominated by the rostrum, eye socket, and braincase.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/> The quadrate bone is relatively small and mobile and connects the rest of the cranium to the lower jaw.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/> The latter has an angled shape in lateral view because the long-axis of the front half of the lower jaw is at a 30° angle to the back half. Beneath the skull, the hyoid skeleton involves three mid-line structures and a pair of elongate structures that stem from between the junction of the back two structures. The anterior structure (the paraglossum or entoglossum) is unpaired and shaped like an arrowhead.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/>

Pigeons feathers have two types of melanin (pigment), eumelanin and pheomelanin. A study of melanin in the feathers of both wild rock and domestic pigeons, of different colour types and known genetic background, measured the concentration, distribution and proportions of eumelanin and pheomelanin and found that gene mutations affecting the distribution, amounts and proportions of pigments accounted for the greater variation of colour in domesticated birds than in their wild relations. Eumelanin generally causes grey or black colours, while pheomelanin results in a reddish-brown colour. Other shades of brown may be produced through different combinations and concentrations of the two colours.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haase|first1=E|last2=Ito|first2=S|last3=Sell|first3=A|last4=Wakamatsu|first4=K|date=1992|title=Melanin Concentrations in Feathers from Wild and Domestic Pigeons|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279259559|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=83|pages=64–67|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111160}}</ref> Darker birds may be better able to store trace metals in their feathers due to their higher concentrations of melanin, which may help mitigate the negative effects of the metals, the concentrations of which are typically higher in urban areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chatelain|first1=Marion|last2=Gasparini|first2=Julien|last3=Frantz|first3=A|date=2015|title=Do trace metals select for darker birds in urban areas? An experimental exposure to lead and zinc.|url=https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-01311602/document|journal=Global Change Biology |volume=22|issue=7|pages=2380–91|doi=10.1111/gcb.13170|pmid=27282322|s2cid=27962528 }}</ref>

=== Vocalisations === The call is a soft, slightly wavering, coo "crru'''oo'''-u", similar to feral pigeons.<ref name="Svensson"/> Variations include an alarm call, a nest call, and noises made by juveniles.<ref name="Lowther-2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Lowther|first1=Peter E.|last2=Johnston|first2=Richard F.|editor1-first=Shawn M|editor1-last=Billerman|date=March 2020|title=Rock Dove (''Columba livia'')|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/rocpig/cur/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|language=en|publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology|doi=10.2173/bow.rocpig.01|s2cid=216428981|url-access=subscription}}</ref> When displaying, songs are partly sexual, partly threatening. They are accompanied by an inflated throat, tail fanning, strutting, and bowing. The alarm call, given at sight of predators, is a grunt-like ''oorhh''.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

=== Osmoregulation === {{main article|Osmoregulation in rock doves}}

Osmoregulation in rock doves is complicated by the formation of amine groups, as proteins are broken down for energy.<ref name="ritchisong">{{cite web|last=Ritchison|first=Gary|url=http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/bird_excretion.htm|title=Ornithology (Bio 554/754):Urinary System, Salt Glands, and Osmoregulation|accessdate=2013-11-10|location=Eastern Kentucky University|archive-date=2018-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913150428/http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/bird_excretion.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> They secrete these amine groups in uric acid, which has the advantage of releasing nitrogen while using only moderate amounts of water, but also has the disadvantage of using much energy, due to uric acid's complex chemical composition.

All Columbids, which includes rock doves, can lower their water intake when food is scarce, and vice versa, as water is needed to excrete toxins, yet maintaining bodily water balance is vital for survival. Although rock doves inhabit arid environments, research{{specify|date=May 2026}} shows that their large flight range allows them to reach distant water sources, making bodily water conservation less critical for them.

Unlike other birds, rock doves use their kidneys to maintain homeostatic balance, instead of their salt gland,<ref>{{cite journal|last=SCHMIDT-NIELSEN|first=KNUT|title=The Salt-Secreting Gland of Marine Birds|journal=Circulation|year=1960|volume=21|issue=5|pages=955–67|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/21/5/955.full.pdf|publisher=American Heart Association|doi=10.1161/01.cir.21.5.955|pmid=14443123|s2cid=2757501|accessdate=Nov 8, 2013|doi-access=free}}</ref> as kidneys can filter out blood, reabsorb ions and water, and secrete Uric acid. Additionally, the kidneys of birds contain a medullary region, and a cortical region, similar to mammalian kidneys. However, the nephrons of birds cannot directly produce urine that is hyperosmotic to the blood, unlike mammals. Despite this, nephrons with the loop of Henle use a countercurrent mechanism, which allows blood to become hyperosmotic in the collecting duct.

==== Eggshell gas exchange and water loss ==== Birds' eggs are very susceptible to variations in temperature and humidity,<ref name="Stein">{{cite news | last =Stein | first =Laura | title =Evolution of Eggshell Architecture Accompanying Rapid Range Expansion in a Passerine Bird | date =May 2009}}</ref>{{rp|2}} as the gas exchange that occurs while an embryo is growing leads to water loss, which in turn can kill the embryo via desiccation. To regulate this, the parents regularly incubate their eggs when the environment changes rapidly,{{explain|date=May 2026|reason=I don't see how incubation counters the problems with temperature and humidity variation}} or the environment is very dry, although very humid environments can inhibit respiration. Their eggshells contain pore-like areas, which allow water to diffuse in and out, preventing desiccation of the embryo due via a high rate of water retention. However, thinner eggshells can cause decreases in pore length, increases in conductance and pore area, and decreases in mechanical restriction of the embryo.<ref name="Stein"/>{{rp|9}}

== Distribution and habitat == The natural distribution of the rock dove is restricted to a resident range in western and southern Europe, North Africa, and extending into South Asia. They were introduced into most of the rest of the world aboard European ships from 1603 onwards.<ref name="Lowther-2020" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schorger|first=A. W.|date=October 1952|title=Introduction of the Domestic Pigeon|journal=The Auk|volume=69|issue=4|pages=462–463|doi=10.2307/4081033|jstor=4081033|issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free}}</ref> When including feral birds, the species has a very large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of {{Convert|10000000|km2|abbr= on}}. It has a large global population, including an estimated 17 to 28 million individuals in Europe.<ref name=IUCN/> Fossil evidence suggests the rock dove originated in southern Asia, and skeletal remains, unearthed in Israel, confirm its existence there for at least 300,000 years.<ref name="Blechman"/> However, this species has such a long history with humans that it is impossible to identify its original range exactly.<ref name="Cornell"/>

Wild rock doves reside in rock formations and cliff faces, settling in crevices to nest. Wild nesting sites include caves, canyons, and sea cliffs.<ref name="Svensson"/><ref name="Smith"/> They will even live in the Sahara so long as an area has rocks, water, and some plant matter. They prefer to avoid dense vegetation.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

== Behaviour and ecology == [[File:Columba livia - Rock doves, Malatya 2018-09-29 03.jpg|thumb|A flock of rock doves flying, Turgut Özal Nature Park, Malatya]] Pigeons are often found in pairs in the breeding season, but are often gregarious, living in flocks of 50 to 500 birds (dependent on the food supply).<ref name="Gibbs" /> As prey birds, they must keep their vigilance, and when disturbed a pigeon within a flock will take off with a noisy clapping sound that cues for other pigeons to take to flight. The noise of the take-off increases the faster a pigeon beats its wings, thus advertising the magnitude of a perceived threat to its flockmates.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0003-3472(75)90136-0|title=Socially induced flight reactions in pigeons|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=23|pages=597–601|year=1975|last1=Davis|first1=J.Michael|bibcode=1975AnBeh..23N7599D |s2cid=53171567}}</ref>{{Clarify|reason=Mention the mechanism behind this distinctive sound, such as feather anatomy and flight stroke|date=February 2025}}

Non-vocal sounds include a loud flapping noise at take-off, feet stamping, hisses, and beak snapping. Wings may also be clapped during flights, usually during display fights or after copulation. Juveniles particularly snap their bills, usually to respond to nest invasion. The foot stomping appears deliberate, though for what purpose is unclear. Foot stamping is done with a certain foot first, showing that rock doves have "footedness", similar to human handedness.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

=== Life cycle === [[File:Columba livia Baltasound Shetland 1.jpg|thumb|Group of wild birds in Shetland, Scotland, with common starlings. The focal individual is performing a courtship display]]

The species can breed at any time of the year due to their ability to produce crop milk, but peak times are spring and summer, when the food supply is abundant enough to support embryonic egg development. Laying of eggs can take place up to six times per year.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} Nesting sites are along coastal and mountain cliff faces and caves.<ref name="Svensson"/>

Courtship rituals of ferals are often observed in urban parks at any time of the year, and it is presumed that the wild populations have similar displays. Alighted males inflate their crops, puffing up the feathers on his neck to appear larger and thereby impress or attract attention (as seen in the header image). He approaches the female at a rapid walking pace while emitting repetitive quiet notes, often bowing and turning as he comes closer.<ref name="Riddle-1971">{{Cite journal|last=Riddle|first=Gordon|date=Summer 1971|title=The breeding season in a rural colony of Feral Pigeons|url=https://www.the-soc.org.uk/files/docs/about-us/publications/scottish-birds/sb-vol06-no06.pdf#page=37|journal=The Journal of the Scottish Ornithologist's Club|volume=6|page=323|archive-date=2021-08-31|access-date=2021-08-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831181824/https://www.the-soc.org.uk/files/docs/about-us/publications/scottish-birds/sb-vol06-no06.pdf#page=37|url-status=dead}}</ref> At first, the female invariably walks or flies a short distance away and the male follows her until she stops. At this point, he continues the bowing motion and very often makes full- or half-pirouettes in front of the female.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitman|first=C. O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tt1RAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR3|title=Posthumous Works: The behaviour of pigeons, ed. by Harvey A. Carr|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington|year=1919|location=Washington|page=10}}</ref> The male then proceeds to feed the female by regurgitating food, as they do when feeding the young.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}} The male then mounts the female, rearing backwards to be able to join their cloacae. The mating is very brief, with the male flapping his wings to maintain balance on top of the female.<ref name="Riddle-1971" /> {{Multiple image | image1 = PikiWiki Israel 38606 Bokek spring.JPG | caption1 = Pigeons nesting in outcrop nooks | image2 = Columba livia MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.73.7.jpg | alt2 = Two rock dove eggs in the collection of the Muséum de Toulouse | caption2 = Two rock dove eggs; MHNT | width = 200 | perrow = 1/1 | align = left }}

The rock dove is generally monogamous, with two squabs (young) per brood. Both parents care for the young for a time.<ref name = "Levi">{{cite book |last=Levi |first=Wendell |title= The Pigeon|year= 1977 |publisher=Levi Publishing Co.|location=Sumter, S.C.|isbn=0-85390-013-2 }}</ref> Current evidence suggests that wild, domestic and feral pigeons mate for life, although their long-term bonds are not unbreakable.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marchesan|first1=M.|year=2002|title=Operational sex ratio and breeding strategies in the Feral Pigeon Columba livia.|url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13995403|journal=Ardea|volume=90|issue=2|pages=249–57}}</ref> They are socially monogamous, but extra-pair matings do occur, often initiated by males.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lovell-Mansbridge|first1=C.|last2=Birkhead|first2=T.R.|year=1998|title=Do female pigeons trade pair copulations for protection?|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=56|issue=1|pages=249–57|doi=10.1006/anbe.1998.0774|pmid=9710482|bibcode=1998AnBeh..56..235L |s2cid=901466}}</ref>

The nest is a flimsy platform of straw and sticks, laid on a ledge, under cover.<ref name="Cornell"/> Two white eggs are laid; incubation, shared by both parents, lasts 17 to 19 days.<ref name="Levi"/> The newly hatched squab(s) (nestling) has pale yellow down and a flesh-coloured bill with a dark band.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} For the first few days, the chicks are tended and fed (through regurgitation) exclusively on crop milk (also called "pigeon milk" or "pigeon's milk"). The pigeon milk is produced in the crops of both parents in all species of pigeon and dove. Pigeons are altricial and their fledging period is about 30 days.<ref name="Jahan">{{cite web|last=Jahan |first=Shah |title=Feral Pigeon |publisher=The Birds I Saw |url=http://www.birdsisaw.com/bis/bird.aspx?q=15 |access-date=2008-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629210950/http://www.birdsisaw.com/bis/bird.aspx?q=15 |archive-date=29 June 2008 }}</ref>

A rock dove's lifespan ranges from 3–5 years in the wild to 15 years in captivity, though longer-lived specimens have been reported.<ref name = "BBC">{{cite web| title =Columba livia (domest.) | publisher =BBC Science & Nature | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3030.shtml | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20030402024900/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3030.shtml | archive-date =2 April 2003 | access-date =2008-02-19 }}</ref> The main causes of mortality in the wild are predators and persecution by humans.{{citation needed|date= June 2013}}

=== Feeding === Rock doves are omnivorous, but prefer plant matter: chiefly fruit and grains.<ref name=":BOTW">{{Cite journal|last1=Lowther|first1=P.|last2=Johnston|first2=R.|date=2020|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=S.|title=Rock Dove (Columba livia), version 1.0|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/rocpig/cur/introduction|publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology|doi=10.2173/bow.rocpig.01|url-access=subscription|access-date=6 August 2020|journal=Birds of the World|s2cid=216428981}}</ref> [[File:Hill Pigeons (Columba rupestris) & a Rock Dove (Columba livia), Gojal, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan (46557702732).jpg|thumb|A rock dove foraging with hill pigeons (''Columba rupestris'')]] Pigeons feed on the ground in flocks or individually. Pigeon groups typically consist of "producers", which scout out food sources, and "scroungers", which follow the producers and feed on food located by them.<ref name="Dugatkin" /> Generally, groups of pigeons contain a greater proportion of scroungers than producers. Pigeons are naturally granivorous, eating seeds that fit down their gullet. They may sometimes consume small invertebrates such as worms or insect larvae as a protein supplement. While most birds take small sips and tilt their heads backwards when drinking, pigeons are able to dip their bills into the water and drink continuously, without having to tilt their heads back.<ref name="Dugatkin">{{cite book|last1=Dugatkin|first1=Lee Alan|title=Principles of Animal Behavior|date=2014|publisher=W. W. Norton Company|isbn=978-0-393-92045-1|edition=3rd|location=New York|pages=373–376}}</ref>

=== Preening === Pigeons primarily use powder down feathers for preening, which gives a soft and silky feel to their plumage. They have no preen gland or at times have very rudimentary preen glands, so oil is not used for preening. Rather, powder down feathers are spread across the body. These have a tendency to disintegrate, and the powder, akin to talcum powder, helps maintain the plumage.<ref name="Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia">{{cite web|title=Columbiformes (Pigeons, Doves, and Dodos)|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/columbiformes-pigeons-doves-and-dodos|access-date=26 April 2017|website=Encyclopedia.com|publisher=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc.}}</ref>

=== Predators === thumb|A feral pigeon with entirely missing tail feathers With only their flying abilities protecting them from predation, rock doves are a favoured prey item for a wide range of raptors. Peregrine falcons are significant natural predators of rock doves and quite adept at catching and feeding upon this species. Doves and pigeons in general are considered to be game birds, since many species are hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Krissy Anne|title=Keeping & Breeding Doves & Pigeons|url=http://www.gamebird.com/dove.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228062340/http://www.gamebird.com/dove.html|archive-date=2008-02-28|access-date=2008-02-23|publisher=Game Bird Gazette Magazine}}</ref>

Their body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches a pigeon, large numbers of feathers are often pulled by the attacker's mouth and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape.<ref name="Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia" /> Tail feathers are also dropped when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Naish|first1=Darren|title=The detachable tails of pigeons|url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/09/18/detachable-tails-of-pigeons/|access-date=18 September 2008|website=Scienceblogs.com|publisher=2006-2017 ScienceBlogs LLC}}</ref>

== Relationship to humans == The rock dove was central to Charles Darwin's discovery of evolution, and featured in four of his works from 1859 to 1872. Darwin posited that, despite wide-ranging morphological differences, the many hundreds of breeds of domestic pigeon could all be traced back to the wild rock dove; in essence human selection of pigeon breeds was analogous to natural selection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baptista|first=L.|date=2009|title=Darwin's pigeons and the evolution of the columbiforms: recapitulation of ancient genes|url=https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/575/57512077023.pdf|journal=Acta Zoológica Mexicana |series=Nueva Serie|volume=25|issue=3|pages=719–741|doi=10.21829/azm.2009.253674 }}</ref> [[File:Doves eating grains New Delhi India.webm|thumb|A flock of rock doves eating grains in New Delhi, India. Humans often engage in bird feeding, providing rock doves with grains or breadcrumbs.]] Rock doves often have a commensal relationship with humans, gaining both ample access to food and nesting spots in inhabited areas. Human structures provide an excellent imitation of cliff structures, making rock doves very common around human habitation. Skyscrapers, highway overpasses, farm buildings, abandoned buildings, and other human structures with ample crevices are conducive to rock dove nesting. Thus the modern range of the rock dove is due in large part to humans.<ref name="Lowther-2020" /> Agricultural settlements are favoured over forested ones.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hetmański|first1=Tomasz|last2=Bocheński|first2=Marcin|last3=Tryjanowski|first3=Piotr|last4=Skórka|first4=Piotr|date=2011-06-01|title=The effect of habitat and number of inhabitants on the population sizes of feral pigeons around towns in northern Poland|journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research|language=en|volume=57|issue=3|pages=421–428|doi=10.1007/s10344-010-0448-z|s2cid=20351031|issn=1439-0574|doi-access=free|bibcode=2011EJWR...57..421H }}</ref> Ideal human nesting attributes combine areas with tall buildings, green spaces, ample access to human food, and schools. Conversely, suburban areas which are far from city centers and have high street density are the least conducive to pigeons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Przybylska|first1=Katarzyna|last2=Haidt|first2=Andżelika|last3=Myczko|first3=Łukasz|last4=Ekner-Grzyb|first4=Anna|last5=Rosin|first5=Zuzanna M.|last6=Kwieciński|first6=Zbigniew|last7=Tryjanowski|first7=Piotr|last8=Suchodolska|first8=Joanna|last9=Takacs|first9=Viktoria|last10=Jankowiak|first10=Łukasz|last11=Tobółka|first11=Marcin|date=2012-06-30|title=Local and landscape-level factors affecting the density and distribution of the Feral Pigeon Columba livia var. domestica in an urban environment|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/miiz/actao/2012/00000047/00000001/art00004|journal=Acta Ornithologica|volume=47|issue=1|pages=37–45|doi=10.3161/000164512X653908|bibcode=2012AcOrn..47...37P |s2cid=56390450|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Their versatility among human structures is evidenced by a population living inside a deep well in Tunisia.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

=== Domestication === {{main|Domestic pigeon|Feral pigeon}}

Rock doves have been domesticated for several thousand years, giving rise to the domestic pigeon.<ref name="Levi"/> They may have been domesticated as long as 5,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnston|first=Richard F.|date=1992-07-01|title=Evolution in the Rock Dove: Skeletal Morphology|url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/109/3/530/5172583|journal=The Auk|language=en|volume=109|issue=3|pages=530–542|doi=10.1093/auk/109.3.530|doi-broken-date=12 July 2025|issn=0004-8038}}</ref> Domesticated pigeons are used as homing pigeons as well as food and pets. They were in the past also used as carrier pigeons, used to deliver messages in peacetime or during war. Numerous breeds of fancy pigeons of all sizes, forms, and colours have been bred.<ref>{{cite book |last=McClary |first=Douglas |title= Pigeons for Everyone|year= 1999|publisher= Winckley Press|location= Great Britain|isbn=0-907769-28-4 }}</ref>

Feral pigeons (sometimes given the invalid names "''Columba livia domestica''" or "''Columba livia'' forma ''urbana''"), also called city doves, city pigeons, or street pigeons,<ref name="flying rats">Blechman, Andrew D. ''Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World's Most Revered and Reviled Bird'', St Lucia, Qld., University of Queensland Press, 2007.</ref> are descendants of domestic pigeons living independently and often unwanted by humans.<ref>{{cite web |title=Science & Nature: Animals: Feral Pigeon |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Rock_Pigeon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708135927/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Rock_Pigeon |archive-date=8 July 2018 |access-date=5 January 2008 |publisher=BBC |format=Web article |url-status=live }}</ref> They are often described as a public nuisance, being a potential reservoir of disease and cause of property damage.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Bonnefoy |first1=Xavier |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/107363/9789289071888-eng.pdf |title=Public health significance of urban pests |last2=Kampen |first2=Helge |last3=Sweeney |first3=Kevin |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2008}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist|33em}}

rock dove Category:Birds of Eurasia Category:Birds of North Africa rock dove Category:Articles containing video clips rock dove