College fraternities and sororities

{{Short description|Social organizations at colleges and universities}} {{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}} {{Use American English|date=July 2023}} [[File:Phi Kappa Sigma 1872 W&J College.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Members of [[Phi Kappa Sigma]] at [[Washington & Jefferson College]] in [[Washington, Pennsylvania]] in 1872]] In [[North America]], '''fraternities''' and '''sororities''' ({{langx|la|{{linktext|lang=la|fraternitas}}}} and {{langx|la|label=none|{{linktext|lang=la|sororitas}}|lit=brotherhood' and 'sisterhood}}) are [[social club]]s at [[college]]s and [[universities]]. They are sometimes collectively referred to as '''Greek life''' or '''Greek-letter organizations''', as well as '''collegiate fraternities''' or '''collegiate sororities''' to differentiate them from general, non-university-based [[Fraternity|fraternal organizations]] and [[fraternal order]]s, [[Friendly society|friendly societies]], or [[Benefit society|benefit societies]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

Generally, membership in a fraternity or sorority is obtained as an [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] student but continues thereafter for life by gaining [[alumni]] status. Some accept [[Graduate school|graduate]] students as well; some also provide honorary membership in certain circumstances.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|url=http://www.phikappatau.org/learning/chapter-management/constitution-and-bylaws.html|title=For example, Phi Kappa Tau and Alpha Xi Delta both have provisions in their respective Constitutions that they can accept graduate students as well as undergraduates|year=2016|isbn=978-0-306-13192-9 |access-date=November 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131926/http://phikappatau.org/learning/chapter-management/constitution-and-bylaws.html|archive-date=March 6, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.alphaxidelta.org/clientuploads/Academic/2012%20Academic%20Achievement%20Chair%20Breakout%20Workbook.pdf|title=Alpha Xi Delta|access-date=November 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703134737/http://www.alphaxidelta.org/clientuploads/Academic/2012%20Academic%20Achievement%20Chair%20Breakout%20Workbook.pdf|archive-date=July 3, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Individual fraternities and sororities vary in organization and purpose, but most – especially the dominant form known as social fraternities and sororities – share five common elements:

# Secrecy # [[Sex segregation|Single-sex]] membership # Selection of new members based on a two-part vetting and probationary process known as ''[[Sorority recruitment|rushing]]'' and ''pledging'' (or ''orientation'') # Ownership and occupancy of a [[Fraternity and sorority housing|residential property]] where undergraduate members live # A set of complex identification symbols that may include [[Greek alphabet|Greek letters]], [[armorial achievement]]s, ciphers, badges, grips, hand signs, passwords, flowers, and colors

Fraternities and sororities engage in [[Philanthropy|philanthropic activities]]; host social events; provide "finishing" training for new members, such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners; and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members. Fraternities and sororities can be tax-exempt [[501(c)(7) organization]]s in the United States.

== History == {{Further|History of North American fraternities and sororities|Philhellenism}}

=== Establishment and early history === The term fraternity is derived from the Latin word {{Lang|lt|frater}}, which means "brother".<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=History of Fraternities/Sororities |url=https://fsl.appstate.edu/history-of-greek-life |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Appalachian State University}}</ref> Similarly the term "sorority", is derived from the Latin word {{Lang|lt|soror}}, meaning "sister".<ref name=":11" /> However, sorority was not used in 1874, well after the establishment of the first organizations for women.<ref name=":11" /> As a result, a fraternity can consist of men, women, or a mixture of the two.<ref name=":11" /> Members of fraternities and sororities address members of the same organization as "brother" in the case of fraternities or "sister" in the case of sororities.

The first fraternity in [[North America]] to incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities was [[Phi Beta Kappa]], founded at the [[College of William and Mary]] in 1776. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the earlier establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed on that campus as early as 1750. In 1779, Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard and Yale. By the early 19th century, the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy.<ref name="Bairds">{{Bairds20}}</ref>{{rp|page=I-10, I-13, I-20, VI-128–132}}

==== Social fraternities ==== {{See also|List of social fraternities}} [[File:Fraternity_men_wearing_t-shirts_with_Greek_letters_sitting_in_front_of_University_of_Texas_at_Arlington_sign_(10005982).jpg|thumb|Representatives from different fraternities at the [[University of Texas at Arlington]], {{Circa|1981}}]] In 1825, [[Kappa Alpha Society]], the first fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established at [[Union College]] in [[Schenectady, New York]]. In 1827, [[Sigma Phi]] and [[Delta Phi]] were also founded at the same institution,<ref name="handbook">{{cite book|last1=Whalen|first1=Richard|title=Handbook of Secret Organizations|date=1967|publisher=Bruce Publishing Company|location=Milwaukee|pages=43–45}}</ref> creating the [[Union Triad]]. The further birthing of [[Psi Upsilon]] (1833), [[Omicron Kappa Epsilon]] (1834), [[Chi Psi]] (1841), and [[Theta Delta Chi]] (1847) collectively established Union College as the [[Mother of Fraternities]]. The social fraternity [[Chi Phi]], officially formed in 1854, traces its roots to a short-lived organization founded at [[Princeton University]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]] in 1824 bearing the same name.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chiphi.dynamic.omegafi.com/about-chi-phi/|title=History of Chi Phi|website=www.chiphi.org|access-date=March 14, 2019|archive-date=April 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403010120/https://chiphi.dynamic.omegafi.com/about-chi-phi/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 19th century, college fraternities represented the intersection between [[dining club]]s, [[College literary societies|literary societies]], and secret initiatory orders such as [[Freemasonry]]. Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s.<ref name="handbook" /> The first fraternity meeting hall or lodge seems to have been that of the ''Alpha Epsilon chapter'' of Chi Psi at the [[University of Michigan]] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]], in 1845, leading to a tradition in that fraternity to name its buildings "lodges". As fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods.<ref>{{Citation |last=Birdseye |first=Clarence Frank |title=Individual Training in Our Colleges |place=New York |publisher=The MacMillan Company |year=1907 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv7ZFGz9MCYC |access-date=June 20, 2008}}</ref>

==== Social sororities ==== {{See also|List of social sororities and women's fraternities}} [[File:Delta_Rho_Sorority,_1901.jpg|thumb|Delta Rho sorority at [[Nevada State University]], 1901]] Sororities, originally called women's fraternities, began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean Society [[Alpha Delta Pi]].<ref>[[Wesleyan College|Wesleyan Female College]], originally Georgia Female College and now simply Wesleyan College, was the origin of the first two sororities, both the Adelphean Society and the Philomathean Society. The Adelphean, founded in 1851, eventually became [[Alpha Delta Pi]], while The Philomathean, founded in 1852, eventually became [[Phi Mu]]. Together, these sororities are known as the Macon Magnolias. Several other unrelated Philomathean Societies emerged during the 19th century, including literary societies at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[Philadelphia]] and at [[New York University]] in [[Manhattan]].</ref> However, fraternity-like organizations for women didn't take their current form until the establishment of [[Pi Beta Phi]] in 1867 and [[Kappa Alpha Theta]] and [[Kappa Kappa Gamma]] in 1870. The term sorority was used by a professor of [[Latin language|Latin]] at [[Syracuse University]], Frank Smalley, who felt the word "fraternity" was inappropriate for a group of ladies.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Becque |first1=Fran |title=Women's Fraternities, Sororities, and Dr. Frank Smalley |url=https://www.franbecque.com/womens-fraternities-sororities-and-dr-frank-smalley/ |website=Fraternity History & More |access-date=May 17, 2020 |date=August 12, 2013}}</ref> The word comes from Latin ''{{Lang|lt|soror}}'', meaning "sister," "cousin, daughter of a father's brother," or "female friend."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/soror#Noun_3|title = Soror - Wiktionary|date = December 25, 2021}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> The first organization to use the term "sorority" was [[Gamma Phi Beta]], established in 1874.<ref name="Bairds"/>{{rp|III-32}}<ref name=":11" />

The development of fraternities for women during this time was a major accomplishment in women's rights and equality. By mere existence, these organizations were defying the odds; the founding women were able to advance their organizations despite many factors working against them. The first "women's fraternities" not only had to overcome "restrictive social customs, unequal status under the law and the underlying presumption that they were less able than men,"<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.npcwomen.org/resources/pdf/Adventures%20in%20Friendship.pdf|title = Adventure in Friendship: A History of The National Panhellenic Conference|access-date = October 12, 2015|website = National Panhellenic Conference|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130628024619/https://www.npcwomen.org/resources/pdf/Adventures%20in%20Friendship.pdf|archive-date = June 28, 2013|url-status = dead}}</ref> but at the same time had to deal with the same challenges as fraternities with college administrations.

Today, both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States and Canada. The [[National Panhellenic Conference]] (NPC) serves as the umbrella organization for 26 international sororities. Founded in 1902, NPC is one of the oldest and largest women's membership organizations, representing more than four million women at 655 college and university campuses and 4,500 local alumni chapters in the U.S. and Canada.<ref name="about npc">{{cite web|url=http://www.npcwomen.org/about.aspx|title=National Panhellenic Conference|publisher=National Panhellenic Conference|access-date=January 1, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126110021/http://npcwomen.org/about.aspx|archive-date=January 26, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Internationalization === {{See also|Fraternities and sororities in Canada|List of fraternities and sororities in Estonia|List of fraternities and sororities in France|Studentenverbindung|List of fraternities and sororities in the Philippines|Nations in Finnish universities|Nations in Scottish universities|Nations in Swedish universities}}[[File:College._Rushee_Party_BAnQ_P48S1P03539.jpg|thumb|Rush party at Gamma Phi Beta sorority at [[McGill University]] in Montreal, 1939]] [[File:85th_Fraternal_Year_PKM.jpg|thumb|[[Phi Kappa Mu]] celebrates its 85th anniversary at the [[University of the Philippines]]]] In 1867, the [[Chi Phi]] fraternity established its Theta chapter at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in [[Scotland]], marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from the [[American South]] were moving to Europe to study because of the disrepair southern universities fell into during the [[American Civil War]]. One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh; however, during the Theta chapter's existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh closed in 1870.<ref name="Bairds"/>{{rp|III-32}}

Nine years following Chi Phi's abortive colonization of the University of Edinburgh, a second attempt was made to transplant the fraternity system outside the United States. In 1879, [[Zeta Psi]] established a chapter at the [[University of Toronto]]. Zeta Psi's success in Toronto prompted it to open a second Canadian chapter at [[McGill University]], which it chartered in 1883. Other early foundations were [[Kappa Alpha Society]] at Toronto in 1892 and at McGill in 1899, and [[Alpha Delta Phi]] at Toronto in 1893 and at McGill in 1897.<ref name="auto">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/FraternitiesinCanada.htm |title=Fraternities in Canada |access-date=August 19, 2010 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Canada, Vol. II |publisher=University Associates of Canada |year=1948}}</ref>

The first sorority outside the United States, [[Kappa Alpha Theta]], was established in Toronto in 1887. By 1927, there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at the [[University of British Columbia]], [[Carleton University]], [[Dalhousie University]], [[University of Manitoba]], [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]], [[University of Western Ontario]], [[Wilfrid Laurier University]], [[University of Waterloo]] and [[Brock University]].<ref name="auto" />

The arrival of the fraternity system in Asia accompanied the introduction of the American educational system in the [[Philippines]]. The first fraternities were established in the [[University of the Philippines]]. The now-defunct Patriotic and Progressive Rizal Center Academic Brotherhood (Rizal Center Fraternity), a brotherhood of Jose Rizal followers, was founded in 1913.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://xiaochua.net/2013/06/19/xiao-time-18-june-2013-ika-105-na-anibersaryo-ng-unibersidad-ng-pilipinas/ |title=XIAO TIME, 18 June 2013: Ika-105 na Anibersaryo ng Unibersidad ng Pilipinas | access-date=August 9, 2018|date=June 19, 2013 }}</ref> This was followed by the Rizal Center Sorority. The first Greek-letter organization and fraternity in Asia, the [[Upsilon Sigma Phi]], was founded in 1918.<ref name="History of Philippine Fraternities">{{cite web |url=http://oddfellowsorder.blogspot.com/2017/11/history-of-philippine-fraternities.html |title=History of Philippine Fraternities |access-date=August 9, 2018 |date=November 4, 2017 |archive-date=August 10, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810110203/http://oddfellowsorder.blogspot.com/2017/11/history-of-philippine-fraternities.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first Greek-letter sorority, UP Sigma Beta Sorority, was recognized in 1932.<ref name="History of Philippine Fraternities" />

=== Religion === {{Main|Christian fraternity (fraternities and sororities)|Christian sorority|List of Jewish fraternities and sororities}} [[File:Sigma_Delta_Tau_Sorority_members_graduating_from_the_University_of_Minnesota_(4419507684).jpg|thumb|Sisters of the [[Sigma Delta Tau]] at the [[University of Minnesota]], 1940. The sorority was founded by seven women at Cornell University who were denied membership into other sororities because they were Jewish.]] Many early fraternities referred to [[Christian values|Christian principles]] or to a [[God|Supreme Being]] in general, as is characteristic of [[fraternal order]]s.<ref name="BrownParks2012">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Tamara L. |title=African American Fraternities and Sororities: The Legacy and the Vision |last2=Parks |first2=Gregory S. |last3=Phillips |first3=Clarenda M. |date=January 1, 2012 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=9780813136622 |page=53 |language=en}}</ref> Some, such as [[Alpha Chi Rho]] (1895) and [[Alpha Kappa Lambda]] (1907), only admitted [[Christians]],<ref name="BrownParks2012" /> while others, such as [[Beta Sigma Psi]] (1925) and [[Phi Kappa Theta]] (1959), catered to students belonging with certain denominations of Christianity, such as [[Lutheranism]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]].<ref name="BrownParks2012" />

Due to their exclusion from Christian fraternities in the United States, [[Jewish]] students began to establish their own fraternities in 1895 and 1920, with the first one being [[Zeta Beta Tau]], founded in 1898.<ref name="BrownParks2012" />

Although many of the religion-specific requirements for many fraternities and sororities have been relaxed or removed, there are some today that continue to rally around their faith as a focal point, such as [[Beta Upsilon Chi]] (1985) and [[Sigma Alpha Omega]] (1998).<ref name="BrownParks2012" /><ref name="Barnett2011">{{cite book |last=Barnett |first=George A. |title=Encyclopedia of Social Networks |date=September 8, 2011 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=9781412979115 |page=298 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Multiculturalism === {{See also|Cultural interest fraternities and sororities}} [[File:U.S. Airmen and Soldiers from the Georgia National Guard assists law enforcement agencies during protests in Atlanta.jpg|thumb|[[Alpha Phi Alpha]] fraternity members assist the [[Georgia Air National Guard]] during a [[George Floyd protests in Atlanta|George Floyd protest]] in [[Atlanta]] in June 2020]] Numerous Greek organizations in the past have enacted formal and informal prohibitions on pledging individuals of different [[Race (human categorization)|races]] and cultural backgrounds. This began with historically White fraternities and sororities excluding African Americans due to racism. [[List of African-American fraternities|Historically Black fraternities and sororities]] were spearheaded thereafter in response.

Racist policies have since been abolished by the [[North American Interfraternity Conference]], and students of various ethnicities have come together to form a council of multicultural Greek organizations. The [[National Multicultural Greek Council]], officially formed in 1998, is a coordinating body of 19 Greek organizations, including nine fraternities and ten sororities with cultural affiliations.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=http://mgc.tamu.edu/history |access-date=October 12, 2015 |website=Multicultural Greek Council}}</ref>

The first multicultural sorority, [[Mu Sigma Upsilon]], was established in November 1981 at [[Rutgers University]] in [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]].<ref name="nationalmgc.org">{{cite web |title=Emergence of multicultural fraternal organizations |url=http://nationalmgc.org/about/ |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015055815/http://nationalmgc.org/about/ |archive-date=October 15, 2015 |access-date=October 12, 2015 |website=National Multicultural Greek Council}}</ref> The formation of this Greek organization allowed for the emergence of a multicultural fraternity and sorority movement, giving birth to a multicultural movement.

=== Professional fraternities and sororities === {{Further|Professional fraternities and sororities}} The main purpose of professional fraternities and sororities is to promote the interests of a particular profession and whose membership is generally restricted to students and alumni in particular [[academic discipline]]s or [[Industry (economics)|industries]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-12 |title=Studying in the US: fraternities and sororities explained |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/advice/studying-us-fraternities-and-sororities-explained |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=Student |language=en}}</ref>

=== Service fraternities and sororities === {{Further|Service fraternities and sororities}} The term service fraternities and sororities, is used to describe Greek life organizations whose primary purpose is facilitate and accomplish acts of [[community service]]; this is in contrast to certain social fraternities and sororities or religious fraternities and sororities that participate in [[philanthropy]] and community service as a non-primary (secondary or tertiary) mission.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-04 |title=Prospective Members |url=https://drexel.edu/studentlife/activities-involvement/fraternity-sorority-life/prospective-members |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=drexel.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-04-03 |title=Title IX Statute |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/cor/coord/titleixstat.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403084259/http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/cor/coord/titleixstat.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-04-03 |access-date=2024-11-07 }}</ref><ref name=":1" />

==Structure and organization== === Gender exclusivity === Fraternities and sororities traditionally have been single-sex organizations, with fraternities consisting exclusively of men and sororities consisting exclusively of women. In the United States, fraternities and sororities have a statutory exemption from [[Title IX]] legislation prohibiting this type of gender exclusion within student groups, and organizations such as the [[Fraternity and Sorority Political Action Committee]] lobby to maintain it.<ref name="bi1">{{cite news|title=Why One School Decided To Make All Of Its Fraternities And Sororities Co-Ed |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/trinity-college-fraternities-sororities-co-ed-2014-10 |first1= Peter |last1=Jacobs |work=[[Business Insider]]|date=October 9, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022014820/https://www.businessinsider.com/trinity-college-fraternities-sororities-co-ed-2014-10 |archive-date= Oct 22, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="bl">{{cite news|title=Fraternities Lobby Against Campus Rape Investigations|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-24/fraternities-lobby-against-campus-rape-investigations |first1=David |last1=Glovin |url-access=subscription |work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]|date=March 24, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127104458/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-24/fraternities-lobby-against-campus-rape-investigations |archive-date= Nov 27, 2020 }}</ref>

Since the mid-20th century, a small number of fraternities, such as [[Alpha Theta]] and [[Lambda Lambda Lambda]], have opted to become co-educational and admit female members; however, these generally represent a minority of Greek-letter organizations and no such fraternity is currently a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the largest international association of fraternities.<ref name="bi1" /><ref name="bl" /> The first coed fraternity was Pi Alpha Tau (1963–1991) at the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Office of Student Affairs -- Organizations and Activities -- Pi Alpha Tau Papers, 1963-1991 |url = http://findingaids.library.uic.edu/ead/lhsc/059-07-16.pdf|website = University of Illinois Chicago Library |access-date = April 6, 2012|archive-date = August 13, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160813040608/http://findingaids.library.uic.edu/ead/lhsc/059-07-16.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Much more commonly, coed fraternities exist in the form of service fraternities, such as [[Alpha Phi Omega]] and [[Epsilon Sigma Alpha]] [[Service fraternities and sororities|and others]]. These organizations are similar to social fraternities and sororities, except they are coed and non-residential. Similarly, in the United States, professional fraternities, such as [[Alpha Kappa Psi]], [[Delta Sigma Pi]], and [[Phi Gamma Nu]], are required to be co-ed under the [[Title IX]] amendments, as are any fraternities that are not social.

In 2014, [[Sigma Phi Epsilon]] became the first fraternity in the [[North American Interfraternity Conference]] to accept transgender members, or those identifying as male, to join the social fraternity.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 2014 |website=Sigma Phi Epsilon |url=http://www.sigep.org/resourcedocs/about-resources/2014-December-Minutes-of-the-Meeting-Final.pdf |title=National Board of Directors Meeting Minutes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101725/http://www.sigep.org/resourcedocs/about-resources/2014-December-Minutes-of-the-Meeting-Final.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2015|access-date=March 22, 2021}}</ref> Several sororities have adjusted their policies to confirm that transgender prospective members are allowed.

Importantly, all these variants have stemmed from a process of self-determination, without challenge by other fraternities and sororities. In a [[Bellwether (politics)|bellwether]] case in 2016, [[Harvard University]] changed its student conduct code to bar members of single-sex groups from leading campus groups, serving as captains of sports teams, or participating in valuable academic fellowships. This is being contested vigorously in U.S. federal court by several affected fraternities and sororities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/united-states/2019/01/17/harvards-policy-against-single-sex-clubs-was-meant-to-protect-women |url-access=subscription |title=Harvard's policy against single-sex clubs was meant to protect women|date=January 17, 2019|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=January 28, 2019|issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/harvard-sued-fraternities-sororities-over-single-sex-rule-n942961 |title=Harvard sued by fraternities and sororities over single-sex rule |website=NBC News |date=December 3, 2018 |access-date=August 2, 2019 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref>

=== Governance === Individual chapters of fraternities and sororities are largely self-governed by their active (student) members; however, alumni members may retain legal ownership of the fraternity or sorority's property through an alumni chapter or alumni corporation. All of a single fraternity or sorority's chapters are generally grouped in a national or international organization that sets standards, regulates insignia and ritual, publishes a journal or magazine for all of the chapters of the organization, and has the power to grant and revoke charters to chapters. These federal structures are largely governed by alumni members of the fraternity, though with some input from the active (student) members.<ref>{{cite web|title=Recognition and Governance of Undergraduate Social Fraternities and Sororities |url=http://provost.upenn.edu/policies/pennbook/2013/02/15/recognition-and-governance-of-undergraduate-social-fraternities-and-sororities|website=Penn Provost |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]]|access-date=September 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727030604/http://provost.upenn.edu/policies/pennbook/2013/02/15/recognition-and-governance-of-undergraduate-social-fraternities-and-sororities|archive-date=July 27, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ERM, ORSA and Corporate Governance: The Small Company Challenges|url=http://www.firstconsulting.com/erm-orsa-and-corporate-governance-small-company-challenges |first1=Carol S. |last1=Stern |publisher=First Consulting |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170630130000/http://www.firstconsulting.com/erm-orsa-and-corporate-governance-small-company-challenges|archive-date= Jun 30, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=10 Biggest Fraternities In The US |author=Ishita |url=https://studentsorted.com/biggest-fraternities-in-the-us/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711102843/https://studentsorted.com/biggest-fraternities-in-the-us/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=July 11, 2022 |date=June 25, 2022 |publisher=StudentSorted}}</ref>

=== Leadership === The leadership structure of a typical college fraternity chapter is designed as a hierarchical "Executive Board" that mirrors corporate or civic governance to ensure the chapter's operational stability. At the top is the President, who serves as the primary liaison between the chapter, the university administration, and the national headquarters.<ref name="Arshad">{{Cite web |last=Arshad |first=Faiza |date=13 September 2024 |title=A Quick Guide To Frat Leadership Positions And Which One is Right For You |url=https://www.freshprints.com/blogs/a-quick-guide-to-frat-leadership-positions-and-which-one-is-right-for-you?srsltid=AfmBOooQzq405qA51uSPI5oll7Tx68wLF4cikgnifEmEimtSF6kwpDxA |website=freshprints.com |access-date=3 May 2026}}</ref> Supporting the President are several key officers: the Vice President, who often oversees internal committee operations; the Treasurer, responsible for managing the chapter's budget and dues collection; and the Secretary, who handles records and communications.<ref name="Arshad"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Greta |date=4 September 2018 |title=A Greek life president's duties: explained |url=https://temple-news.com/a-greek-life-presidents-duties-explained/ |newspaper=[[The Temple News]] |access-date=3 May 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What a Great Fraternity President Brings to the Table |url=https://www.omegafi.com/what-a-great-fraternity-president-brings-to-the-table |website=omegafi.com |access-date=3 May 2026}}</ref> Specialized roles such as the Recruitment Chair (responsible for growth), the Risk Manager (ensuring safety and policy compliance), the [[Serjeant-at-arms]] (counting votes and ensuring attendance), and the Scholarship Chair (monitoring academic performance) are also standard.<ref name="Arshad"/> These positions are usually elected annually by the general membership.<ref name="Arshad"/>

=== Rushing and pledging === {{redirect|Rush week|other uses|Rush week (disambiguation)}} {{See also|Sorority recruitment}} Before 1900, the expansion of fraternal housing and competition among fraternities led to increasingly aggressive recruitment among the social fraternities, which had hitherto followed the methodical process of tapping and individualized invitations that are still present among honorary and professional fraternities. In an introductory article about the nature and history of fraternal life, ''[[Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities]]'' indicates that the term "'''Rushing'''" and later, "'''Rush week'''" hearken to the effort to rush to meet incoming trains filled with new classmates and delegations of freshmen students, where bids were offered and lapel pins then "spiked" the new fellow to mark him as a new member of the fraternity which he opted to join. ''Baird's Manual'' further indicates that the tradition was adopted from English boarding schools, similarly jostling to recruit incoming prospects, which the aggressive fraternities found to be "handy to imitate". Variations of Rush Week continued to evolve, some offering immediate recruitment and some deferred until the second half of freshman year, or even into the second year. Formal recruitment on all, or virtually all, campuses continues as a defined Rush week, while many campuses and most chapters offer ongoing "informal rush" to welcome potential members, amounting to hundreds of thousands of new members every year.<ref name="Bairds"/>{{rp|pages=I-2 and ff}}

Today, most fraternities and sororities select potential members through a two-part process of vetting and probation, called rushing and pledging, respectively. During rush (recruitment), students attend designated social events, and sometimes formal interviews, hosted by the chapters of fraternities and sororities in which they have particular interests. Usually, after a potential new member has attended several such events, officers or current members meet privately to vote on whether or not to extend an invitation, known as a "bid", to the prospective applicant.

Those applicants who receive a bid and choose to accept it are considered to have "pledged" the fraternity or sorority, thus beginning the pledge period (new member period). Students participating in rush are known as "rushees", Potential New Members "PNMs", while students who have accepted a bid to a specific fraternity or sorority are known as "new members" or in some cases "pledges".<ref name="tfa">{{cite web|title=Rush and Pledging Problems|url=http://thefraternityadvisor.com/rush-and-pledging-problems/|website=The Fraternity Advisor|access-date=September 2, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907082212/http://thefraternityadvisor.com/rush-and-pledging-problems/ |archive-date= Sep 7, 2015 }}</ref>

A new member period may last anywhere from one weekend to several months. During this time, new members might participate in almost all aspects of the life of the fraternity or sorority, but most likely not be permitted to hold office in the organization. After the new member period, a second vote of members may sometimes be taken, often, but not always, using a [[blackballing|blackball]] system. New members who pass this second vote are invited to a formal and secret ritual of initiation into the organization, advancing them to full membership.<ref name="handbook" />

Many Greek-letter organizations give preferential consideration for pledging to candidates whose parent or sibling was a member of the same fraternity or sorority. Such prospective candidates are known as "legacies".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmu.edu/org/ifc/faq_glossary.htm |title=Glossary of Greek Life Terms |website=gmu.edu |publisher=George Mason University Interfraternity Council |access-date=December 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325043212/http://www.gmu.edu/org/ifc/faq_glossary.htm |archive-date=March 25, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thefraternityadvisor.com/fraternity-legacy/ |title=Fraternity Legacies |website=thefraternityadvisor.com |publisher=The Fraternity Advisor |access-date=December 28, 2014}}</ref>

Membership in more than one fraternity or sorority is acceptable, but only under specific Greek councils. Recently, some Greek-letter organizations have replaced the term "pledge" with that of "associate member" or "new member". [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]], in 2014, abolished pledging altogether. Potential members are now immediately initiated into the fraternity upon accepting a bid.<ref name="tfa" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Deadliest U.S. Fraternity Abolishes Pledging for New Members|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-03-07/most-deadly-u-s-fraternity-scraps-initiation-for-new-members|work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]|issue=March 7, 2014}}</ref>

=== Residency === {{main|North American fraternity and sorority housing}} [[File:AlphaSigmaPhiUIUC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Alpha Sigma Phi]] chapter house at the [[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign]]]] Unique among most campus organizations, members of social fraternities and sororities usually congregate and sometimes live together in large houses, generally privately owned by the organization or by the organization's alumni association. Often, fraternities and sorority houses, called lodges or chapter houses, are located on the same street or in close quarters within the same neighborhood, which may be colloquially known as "Greek row", "frat row", or "sorority row". Often, chapter houses are uniquely designed, highly elaborate, and very expensive to operate and maintain.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | url=https://www.pennlive.com/nation-world/2021/08/tiktok-user-shares-experience-managing-millions-of-dollars-for-her-alabama-sorority.html | title=TikTok user shares experience managing 'millions of dollars' for her Alabama sorority | date=August 31, 2021 }}</ref>

Chapter houses became more common in the late 19th century, when organizations began to grow in size, and wealthy alumni were able to help purchase or build houses.<ref name=":11" /> The first purpose-built residential chapter house is believed to have been [[Alpha Delta Phi]]'s chapter at [[Cornell University]], with groundbreaking dated to 1878.<ref>[http://www.alphadeltaphi.org/AboutUs/Chapters/tabid/59/agentType/View/ChapterID/12/Default.aspx Chapter History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826152136/http://www.alphadeltaphi.org/AboutUs/Chapters/tabid/59/agentType/View/ChapterID/12/Default.aspx|date=August 26, 2016}}, accessed October 16, 2015. The chapter has since moved to larger quarters.</ref> [[Alpha Tau Omega]] became the first fraternity to own a residential house in the [[Southern United States|South]] when, in 1880, its chapter at the [[University of the South]] acquired one.<ref>{{cite web |title=ATO Facts & Firsts |url=http://www.ato.org/alphatauomega/atohistory/factsandfirsts.aspx |access-date=August 21, 2012}}</ref> Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and, less often, building them with the support of alumni. [[Phi Sigma Kappa]]'s chapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders.<ref>[https://www.cornellphisig.org/public2.asp Gamma Chapter history], accessed October 16, 2015.</ref>

Usually, the more expensive the house, the higher the annual organization dues. The features and size of chapter houses play a major role in chapters remaining competitive in recruiting and retaining members on many campuses.<ref name="auto1" /> At some, often small colleges, fraternities and sororities occupy a specific section of university-owned housing provided to them. Some fraternities and sororities are un-housed, with members providing their own accommodations. In many of these cases, the fraternity or sorority owns or rents a non-residential clubhouse on or off campus to use for meetings and other activities.

=== Secrecy and ritual === Most fraternities and sororities are [[secret societies]]. While the identity of members or officers is rarely concealed, fraternities and sororities initiate members following the pledge period through sometimes elaborate private rituals, frequently drawn or adopted from Masonic ritual practice or that of the [[Greek mysteries]].<ref name="handbook" /><ref name=":11" />

After an initiation ritual, the organization's secret motto, secret purpose, and secret identification signs, such as handshakes and passwords, are usually revealed to its new members. Some fraternities also teach initiates an identity search device used to confirm fellow fraternity members.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dundes |first=Allan |date=1993 |title=Folklore Matters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDPbnS8PjcMC |publisher=[[University of Tennessee Press]] |page=31 |isbn=978-0870497766 }}</ref>

[[File:The Model Chapter Room (526839509).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A model chapter room of [[Kappa Sigma]]]] [[Julian Hawthorne]], the son of [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], wrote in his posthumously published ''Memoirs'' of his initiation into [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]]:<ref>{{cite magazine| title= Nathaniel Hawthorne's Untold Tale | url= http://chronicle.com/article/Nathaniel-Hawthornes-Untold/123889 | first= Jack | last=Matthews | magazine=Excerpts from [[Julian Hawthorne]]'s Memoirs| date= August 15, 2010 | publisher= [[The Chronicle of Higher Education|The Chronicle Review]] | access-date=August 17, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |date=April 25, 1938 |title=Books: Hawthorne's Line |url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,931060,00.html |url-status=dead |access-date=August 17, 2010 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref>{{New archival link needed|date=April 2026}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Matthews |first=Jack |date=August 15, 2010 |title=Nathaniel Hawthorne's Untold Tale |url=http://chronicle.com/article/Nathaniel-Hawthornes-Untold/123889 |journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education |access-date=2010-08-17 |quote=This was, of course, all very collegiate for that long-ago time, and—except the "red-hot iron" and "boiling oil" references, if taken too literally—quite typical.}}</ref> <blockquote>I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humored [[rodomontade]] and horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over-heels in boiling oil, that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon.</blockquote>

Meetings and rituals are sometimes conducted in what is known as a chapter room located inside the fraternity's house. Entry into chapter rooms is often prohibited to all but the initiated. In one extreme case, the response of firefighters to a blaze signaled by an automated alarm at the [[Sigma Phi]] chapter house at the [[University of Wisconsin]] in 2003 was hampered in part because fraternity members refused to disclose to emergency responders the location of the hidden chapter room, where the conflagration had erupted.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bizarre fire burns frat house; blaze startedin secret room|url=http://journaltimes.com/news/local/bizarre-fire-burns-frat-house-blaze-startedin-secret-room/article_255dacac-4f82-5a4d-9f83-99116987231d.html|access-date=September 2, 2015|work=Journal Times|date=September 27, 2003}}</ref>

=== Symbols and naming conventions === [[File:Fraternal_Society_Badges.jpg|thumb|Badges of [[Sigma Alpha Mu]] (left), [[Delta Sigma Pi]] (center), and [[Phi Kappa Phi]] (right)]] Dating back to their origins in the 19th century, fraternities and sororities adopted symbolism from the ancient Greeks and Romans, chivalric traditions, and Jewish and Christian scripture learned in their classes, along with some influences of Freemasonry.<ref name=":11" /> The names of almost all fraternities and sororities consist of a sequence of two or three Greek letters, for instance, [[Delta Delta Delta]], [[Sigma Chi]], [[Chi Omega]], or [[Psi Upsilon]].<ref name=":11" /> There are a few exceptions to this general rule, as in the case of the fraternities [[Triangle Fraternity|Triangle]] and [[Acacia (fraternity)|Acacia]].<ref name="handbook" /> In many cases, the Greek letters that are selected stand for Greek words or the organization's motto.

Most fraternities and sororities adopted the chivalric tradition of heraldry, including a crest, coat of arms, colors, and motto.<ref>{{cite Butterfield1931|page=11}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> They may also have official flags, symbols, flowers, jewels, mascots, patron saints, or a Greek divinity. Many European fraternities also have [[Zirkel (Studentenverbindung)|zirkels]], an identifying [[monogram]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=AV Veda Fraternity Banner |url=https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/250878 |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Leo Baeck Institute |language=en-US}}</ref>

The fraternity or sorority badge is an enduring symbol of membership in a Greek letter organization, and often incorporates the organization's Greek letters and various symbols.

== Membership profile == === Demographics === As of 2011, there were approximately nine million student and alumni members of fraternities and sororities in [[North America]], or about three percent of the total population.<ref name="Fact Sheet">{{cite web|title=Fact Sheet|url=https://greeks.unm.edu/about-us/resources/fact-sheet-.html|publisher= The University of New Mexico}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Hagerty |first=Pat |date=January 10, 2011 |title=Greek Life Statistics |url=https://thefraternityadvisor.com/greek-life-statistics/#sthash.2KK6H8LT.dpuf |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=The Fraternity Advisor |language=en-US}}</ref> Roughly 750,000 undergraduate students belong to 12,000 fraternity and sorority chapters on 800 campuses in Canada and the United States.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /><ref name=":4" />

A 2007 survey conducted by [[Princeton University]] found that White and higher-income Princeton students are much more likely than other Princeton students to be in fraternities and sororities.<ref name="princeton">{{cite web|url=https://www.princeton.edu/reports/2011/campuslife/obs-rec/fraternities-sororities|title=Fraternities & Sororities|website=Princeton University Reports|access-date=July 25, 2016}}</ref> Senior surveys from the classes of 2009 and 2010 showed that 77 percent of sorority members and 73 percent of fraternity members were White.<ref name="princeton"/>

=== Notable fraternity and sorority members === [[File:Bush reagan.jpg|thumb| [[Ronald Reagan]] was initiated into [[Tau Kappa Epsilon]] at [[Eureka College]] in [[Eureka, Illinois]] and his successor, [[George H. W. Bush]], was a member of [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] at [[Yale University]].]] Since 1900, 63 percent of members of the [[United States cabinet]] have been members of fraternities and sororities, and the current [[chief executive officers]] of five of the ten largest [[Fortune 500]] companies are members of fraternities and sororities. In addition, 85 percent of all justices of the [[United States Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]] since 1910 have been members of fraternities. [[U.S. presidents]] since [[World War II]] who have been initiated into fraternities are [[George W. Bush]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Gerald Ford]], and [[Franklin Roosevelt]]. Three [[Prime Ministers of Canada]] have been members of fraternities.<ref>{{cite news|last=Borislow|first=Jared|date=February 20, 2017|title=Here's A List Of Every U.S. President Who Was In A Fraternity|url=https://totalfratmove.com/list-of-every-u-s-president-who-was-in-a-fraternity/|newspaper=Total Frat Move|access-date=March 27, 2018|archive-date=June 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618125732/https://totalfratmove.com/list-of-every-u-s-president-who-was-in-a-fraternity/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nicindy.org/fraternity-statistics.html |title=Fraternity Statistics |website=nicindy.org |publisher=[[North American Interfraternity Conference]] |access-date=December 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807141810/http://www.nicindy.org/fraternity-statistics.html |archive-date=August 7, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Prominent Pi Gamma Mu Members|url = https://pigammamu.org/prominent-members.html|website = Pi Gamma Mu|access-date = March 27, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Famous Betas of Achievement|url = https://beta.org/about/famous-betas/|website = Beta Theta Pi|access-date = March 27, 2018|archive-date = August 10, 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180810042234/https://beta.org/about/famous-betas/|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name="themontrealer2009">{{cite web|url=http://www.themontrealeronline.com/2009/08/paul-martin-life-after-politics/ |title=Paul Martin – life after politics |work=The Montrealer |date=August 1, 2009 |first=Peter |last=Kerr |access-date=October 21, 2014 }}</ref>

In 2013, about 25 percent of members of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] and 40 percent of members of the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] were members of fraternities or sororities.<ref name="huffpo">{{cite news |last=Kingkade |first=Tyler |date=July 25, 2013 |title=FratPAC Lobbies Congress For Tax Breaks, To Stop Anti-Hazing Law |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/25/fratpac-fraternity-lobby_n_3653692.html |newspaper=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=December 9, 2014 }}</ref>

===Academic performance=== Studies have found that university graduation rates are 20 percent higher among members of Greek-letter organizations than among non-members, and students who are members of fraternities and sororities typically have higher-than-average [[grade point averages]]. One reason for this may be that many chapters and colleges require members to maintain a certain academic standard.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jacobs |first=Peter |date=January 8, 2014 |title=Don't Ban Fraternities |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/dont-ban-fraternities-2014-1#ixzz3NBjLlLkC |newspaper=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=December 28, 2014}}</ref>

Each organization requires its members to maintain a minimum [[Grading in education|GPA]] to continue their membership. Fraternity and sorority members who maintain high GPAs may be invited to join notable Greek honor societies, such as [[Gamma Sigma Alpha]] and [[Order of Omega]]. Gamma Sigma Alpha acknowledges fraternity and sorority members who hold a 3.5 GPA in upper-division classes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Blann |first=Claire |date=2014-03-04 |title=Student honor society promotes Greek unity |url=https://www.creightonian.com/news/article_f9c7e268-a009-11e3-8a90-0017a43b2370.html |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=The Creightonian |language=en}}</ref> Order of Omega recognizes the top three percent of fraternity and sorority members who exemplify leadership qualities.<ref name=":0" /> Greek honor societies provide lifetime membership with opportunities such as scholarships and networking.

===Professional advancement=== Many fraternities and sororities provide "finishing" training for new members, such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners, and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members. There is a high representation of former fraternity and sorority members among certain elites in the United States. Fraternity and sorority members "are more likely to be thriving in their well-being and engaged at work than college graduates who did not go Greek," according to a study done by [[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]] and [[Purdue University]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Fraternity and Sorority Membership Linked to Higher Well-Being for College Grads|url = http://www.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/173630/fraternity-sorority-membership-linked-higher-college-grads.aspx|website = Gallup.com|date = May 27, 2014 |access-date = October 12, 2015 |archive-date = August 7, 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170807195520/http://www.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/173630/fraternity-sorority-membership-linked-higher-college-grads.aspx|url-status = dead}}</ref> Not only that, but researchers at [[Union College]] studied the effects of fraternity and sorority membership on the incomes of those who participated when attending university versus those who did not, finding that those that had participated had incomes higher than their non-Greek peers by as much as 36%.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blumberg |first=Yoni |date=2017-10-09 |title=Here's how much more money you could make just from joining a frat |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/10/09/joining-a-fraternity-could-boost-your-income-significantly.html |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

===Personal fulfillment=== Fraternities and sororities engage in [[Philanthropy|philanthropic activities]] and host social events. A 2014 Gallup survey of 30,000 university alumni found that persons who said they had been members of Greek-letter organizations while undergraduates reported having a greater sense of purpose, as well as better social and physical well-being, than those who had not.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.vox.com/2014/5/28/5758788/college-grads-in-greek-organizations-have-better-lives-after-college|title=Sorry, nerds: Fraternity brothers have more fulfilling lives later on|last=Nelson|first=Libby|date=May 28, 2014|newspaper=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|access-date=December 28, 2014}}</ref>

== Criticism == Fraternities and sororities have been criticized for practicing [[elitism]] and [[In-group favoritism|favoritism]], discriminating [[Racism in United States college fraternities and sororities|against non-White students]] and other marginalized groups, conducting dangerous [[Hazing in Greek letter organizations|hazing rituals]], and facilitating [[Alcohol abuse among college students|alcohol abuse]] and [[campus sexual assault]] including [[rape culture]]. Many colleges and universities have sought to reform or eliminate them due to these concerns, but these efforts have typically been met with intense controversy.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 5, 2012 |title=Fraternities & Sororities at Queen's: Your Thoughts - Alma Mater Society - Queen's University Student Government |url=https://www.myams.org/fraternities-sororities-at-queens-your-thoughts/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fraternities and Sororities &#124; Queen's Encyclopedia |url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/f/fraternities-and-sororities}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=March 31, 2017 |title=The pledge against fraternities |url=https://www.queensjournal.ca/story/2017-03-30/features/the-pledge-against-fraternities/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=June 3, 2019 |title=How Queen's rejected the rise of fraternities |url=https://www.queensjournal.ca/story/2019-06-02/news/how-queens-rejected-the-rise-of-fraternities/}}</ref>

===Homogeneous membership and elitism=== Fraternities and sororities have often been characterized as elitist or exclusionary associations, organized for the benefit of a largely White, upper-class membership base. Members of fraternities and sororities disproportionately come from certain socio-economic demographics.<ref name="princeton" /> Fraternities specifically have been criticized for what is perceived as their promotion of an excessively alcohol-fueled, party-focused lifestyle.

''[[New York Times]]'' columnist [[Frank Bruni]] questioned the existence of exclusive clubs on campuses that are meant to facilitate independence, writing "Colleges should be cultivating the kind of sensibility that makes you a better citizen of a diverse and distressingly fractious society. How is that served by retreating into an exclusionary clique of people just like you?"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/03/opinion/frank-bruni-a-pox-on-campus-life.html|title=A Pox on Campus Life|last=Bruni|first=Frank|date=December 2, 2014|website=New York Times|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref>

Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations. The oldest ban was at [[Princeton University]], though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/28/nyregion/princeton-s-fraternities-growing.html|title=Princeton's Fraternities Growing|date=November 28, 1993|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=May 31, 2009|pages=Section 1 Page 56}}</ref> [[Oberlin College]] banned "secret societies" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.gospeltruth.net/oberlinhistory.htm#41|title=A History of Oberlin College from Its Foundation Through the Civil War|last=Fletcher|first=Robert Samuel|publisher=Oberlin College|year=1943}} "Revised codes were issued every few years, but not many important changes were made in them. Provisions about the hours of 'athletic exercises and sport' were added in 1847. In the same revision, there appeared for the first time the 'peculiar' Oberlin rule against secret societies. 'No student,' it runs, 'is permitted to join any secret society or military company.'"</ref> and the prohibition continues to the present.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://new.oberlin.edu/students/policies/2011-2012/0-OberlinRulesRegs2011_12.pdf|title=Student Regulations, Policies, and Procedures, Oberlin College 2011–2012|publisher=Oberlin College|year=2011|pages=34}} D. Secret Societies: "No secret society is allowed at Oberlin, and no other societies or self-perpetuating organizations are allowed among students, except by permission of the faculty. This is to be understood to include social and rooming-house clubs."</ref> [[Quaker]] universities, such as [[Guilford College]] and [[Earlham College]], often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.guilford.edu/about-guilford/quaker-heritage/quaker-testimony/equality/ |title=Equality &#124; Guilford College |access-date=May 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515170740/http://www.guilford.edu/about-guilford/quaker-heritage/quaker-testimony/equality/ |archive-date=May 15, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlham.edu/student-handbook/community-life|title=Community Life|work=earlham.edu|access-date=May 19, 2012|archive-date=October 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021064622/http://earlham.edu/student-handbook/community-life/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Brandeis University]] has never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brandeis.edu/studentlife/sdc/rr/html/rr_appendix.html|title=2007–2008 Rights & Responsibilities Handbook, Appendix B: University Policy on Fraternities and Sororities|publisher=Brandeis University|access-date=March 17, 2008}}</ref> [[Hamilton College]] did not prohibit fraternities, but to improve campus social conditions, in 1995 mandated that all students would be required to live and eat on campus; the college also bought the fraternity houses.<ref name=Miller>{{cite book |title=Going Coed: Women's Experiences in Formerly Men's Colleges, 1950–2000 |first=Leslie |last=Miller-Bernal |year=2004 |location=Nashville, Tennessee |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University Press]] |editor-first1=Leslie |editor-last1=Miller-Bernal |editor-first2=Susan L. |editor-last2=Poulson |pages=245–257, at p. 254–255 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gppluIPq6sQC |chapter=Coeducation after a Decade of Coordination. The Case of Hamilton College |isbn=9780826514493 }}</ref>

===Alcohol use=== {{See also|Alcoholism|Alcohol and sex}} One [[Harvard University]] study found that "4 out of 5 fraternity and sorority members are [[binge drinking|binge drinkers]]. In comparison, other research suggests 2 out of 5 college students overall are regular binge drinkers."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.addictioncenter.com/college/drinking-drug-abuse-greek-life/|title=Binge Drinking in Greek Organizations|website=addictioncenter.com|publisher=Addiction Center|access-date=September 2, 2015}}</ref> There is also a higher rate of alcohol-related deaths and injuries among fraternities, which has resulted in many lawsuits and suspensions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2017/10/13/hazing-deaths-on-american-college-campuses-remain-far-too-common|title=Hazing deaths on American college campuses remain far too common|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=August 9, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4784875/fraternities-timothy-piazza/|title=Why Colleges Should Get Rid of Fraternities for Good|magazine=Time|access-date=August 9, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eplocalnews.org/2022/02/03/missouri-fraternity-sued-over-alcohol-induced-brain-injuries-to-2021-eden-prairie-grad/ | title=Missouri fraternity sued over alcohol-induced brain injuries to 2021 Eden Prairie grad | date=February 3, 2022 }}</ref>

===Drug use=== {{See also|Substance abuse}} Studies have shown that fraternity and sorority members are more likely than the average college student to use or abuse drugs. Since the 1990s, fraternity members have experienced an increase of over 400 percent in the recreational use of prescription [[benzodiazepines]] like [[Alprazolam|Xanax]] and [[Valium]]. [[Amphetamine]] use, including drugs like [[Ritalin]] and [[Adderall]], is more common among fraternity members than other college students. Fraternity members also abuse amphetamines at double the rate of their non-college peers. [[Marijuana]] use is also more prevalent among fraternity and sorority members compared to college men and women not in fraternities or sororities.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/resources/college-students/greek-life/ | title=The Connection Between College Greek Life and Substance Abuse }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://wp.nyu.edu/dispatch/2018/03/23/are-fraternities-and-substance-abuse-creating-addicts/ | title=Are Fraternities and Substance Abuse Creating Addicts? | work=The NYU Dispatch | date=March 23, 2018 }}</ref>

===Hazing=== {{See also|Hazing in Greek letter organizations}} [[File:Flying Machine.jpg|thumb|An illustration depicting fraternity [[hazing]] from the early 20th century]] Fraternities, and to a lesser extent, sororities, have been criticized for [[hazing]], sometimes committed by active undergraduate members against their chapter's pledges. Common hazing practices include sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, [[Paddle (spanking)|paddling]], use of [[stress positions]], forced runs, [[Busy work#Military settings|busy work]], forced smoking, forced drinking, forced drug use, forced consumption of spoiled food, [[public humiliation]], and [[mind games]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Types of Hazing {{!}} Student Affairs |url=https://studentaffairs.lehigh.edu/hazing-prevention/types |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Lehigh University |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Types of Hazing {{!}} Stop Hazing |url=https://stophazing.georgetown.edu/recognize/types-of-hazing/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Georgetown University |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Fraternity Hazing |url=https://tfnlgroup.com/fraternity-hazing/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=The Fierberg National Law Group |language=en-US}}</ref> Rarer incidents have involved [[human branding|branding]], [[enemas]], urination and feces on pledges, puking, and public masturbation. Historically, hazing of pledges culminated in an event known as "Hell Week," in which a week-long series of physical and mental torments are inflicted on pledges.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Brumbaugh |first=Elsa |date=2025-04-02 |title=A history of fraternity hazing at Penn State through Collegian reporting |url=https://www.psucollegian.com/news/a-history-of-fraternity-hazing-at-penn-state-through-collegian-reporting/article_14592faf-13b3-4dea-a6d7-a05c166b5f0e.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=The Daily Collegian |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Anti-Hazing FAQ {{!}} Office of Fraternity and Sorority Life |url=https://miamioh.edu/life-at-miami/student-involvement/fraternity-sorority-life/our-community/hazing-prevention-and-reporting/anti-hazing-faq.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Miami University |language=en}}</ref> In its worst form, hazing has led to the injury or death of fraternity and sorority pledges or members.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" />

In the 21st century, most fraternities and sororities prohibit hazing, as do colleges and universities.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Bennett |first=Melanie |date=March 2025 |title=Prevent Fraternity and Sorority Hazing |url=https://www.ue.org/risk-management/enterprise-risk-management/prevent-fraternity-and-sorority-hazing/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=United Educators |language=en}}</ref> In addition, there are anti-hazing laws in most states, criminalizing hazing in the United States.<ref name=":10" /> As a result, reports of hazing have led to the permanent expulsion of particular chapters of fraternities and sororities by both universities and the national fraternity or sorority and, in some cases, criminal charges.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Hebbeler |first=Amy |date=January 2017 |title=University Expulsions Spanning For Decades or More |url=https://fraternallaw.com/newsletter2/university-expulsions-spanning-for-decades-or-more |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Fraternal Law Newsletter |language=en}}</ref> At some colleges, Hell Week has evolved into Help Week, a time for community service.<ref name=":6" /> Despite this, hazing deaths continue to be reported.<ref name=":9" />

In 2007, the [[National Anti-Hazing Hotline]] was set up to report incidents of hazing on college and university campuses.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Help Us Stop Hazing |url=https://fraternallaw.com/help-us-stop-hazing |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Fraternal Law |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Currently, 47 national fraternity and sorority organizations support the toll-free number and reporting service of the National Anti-Hazing Hotline.<ref name=":5" /> Annually, the last week of September is considered to be National Hazing Prevention Week.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-19 |title=National Hazing Prevention Week |url=https://hazingpreventionnetwork.org/national-hazing-prevention-week/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Hazing Prevention Network |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Terhune |first=Michelle |date=May 2013 |title=National Hazing Prevention Week is 365 Days Long |url=https://fraternallaw.com/newsletter2/national-hazing-prevention-week-is-365-days-long |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Fraternal Law Newsletter |language=en}}</ref>

===Nepotism and networking=== Critics of Greek-letter organizations assert that they create a culture of [[nepotism]] in later life, while supporters have applauded them for creating networking opportunities for members after graduation. A 2013 report by ''[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]'' found that fraternity connections are influential in obtaining lucrative employment positions at top [[Wall Street]] brokerages. According to the report, recent graduates have been known to exchange the secret handshakes of their fraternities with executives whom they know are also members to obtain access to competitive appointments.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Abelson |first1=Max |last2=Faux |first2=Zeke |date=December 22, 2013 |title=Secret Handshakes Greet Frat Brothers on Wall Street |newspaper=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-12-23/secret-handshakes-greet-frat-brothers-on-wall-street.html |access-date=December 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202014643/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-23/secret-handshakes-greet-frat-brothers-on-wall-street |archive-date=February 2, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Bennett"/>

===Sexism and sexual violence=== {{See also|Date rape drug|Sexual addiction}} Studies show that fraternity men are three times more likely to commit [[rape]] than other men on college campuses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/09/opinion/foubert-fraternities-rape/|title='Rapebait' e-mail reveals dark side of frat culture|website=CNN.com|first=John|last=Foubert|date=October 9, 2013|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Foubert|first1=John|last2=Newberry|first2=Johnathan|last3=Tatum|first3=Jerry|date=2007|title=Behavior differences seven months later: Effects of a rape prevention program on first-year men who join fraternities|url=https://www.academia.edu/14925590|journal=[[NASPA - Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education#Publications|NASPA Journal]]|volume=44|issue=4|pages=728–749|doi=10.2202/1949-6605.1866|s2cid=219289954|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref><ref name="interpersonal">{{cite journal|last1=Loh|first1=Catherine|last2=Gidycz|first2=Christine|last3=Lobo|first3=Tracy|last4=Luthra|first4=Rohini|date=2005|title=A Prospective Analysis of Sexual Assault Perpetration: Risk Factors Related to Perpetrator Characteristics|url=http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/jhamlin/3925/4925HomeComputer/Rape%20myths/Prospective%20Analysis.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Interpersonal Violence]]|volume=20|issue=10|pages=1325–1348|doi=10.1177/0886260505278528|pmid=16162492|access-date=July 23, 2016|citeseerx=10.1.1.208.7187|s2cid=30121860|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109013012/http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/jhamlin/3925/4925HomeComputer/Rape%20myths/Prospective%20Analysis.pdf|archive-date=November 9, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Fraternity pledges are at a higher likelihood to commit rape or [[Campus sexual assault|sexual assault]] because of the pressure to meet the hyper-masculine standards that fraternities expect of their members.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sexual assault on campus: The problem and the solution|last1=Bohmer|first1=Carol|last2=Parrot|first2=Andrea|publisher=Lexington Books|year=1993|isbn=978-0029037157|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/sexualassaultonc00bohm}}</ref> Overall, fraternity men are shown to have more rape-supportive attitudes than non-fraternity men.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bleecker|first1=Timothy E.|last2=Murnen|first2=Sarah K.|date=Oct 2005|title=Fraternity Membership, the Display of Degrading Sexual Images of Women, and Rape Myth Acceptance|journal=Sex Roles|volume=53|issue=7–8|pages=487–493|doi=10.1007/s11199-005-7136-6|s2cid=144874772}}</ref>

Fraternities have often been accused of fostering rape-supportive attitudes by promoting male dominance and brotherhood, and fraternity affiliation is a significant predictor of sexually predatory behavior in retrospective research.<ref name="interpersonal"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lackie|first1=Leandra|last2=de Man|first2=Anton|date=1997|title=Correlates of Sexual Aggression Among Male University Students|journal=Sex Roles|volume=37|issue=5/6|pages=451–457|doi=10.1023/A:1025613725757|s2cid=142047025}}</ref>

Attitudes towards women learned in fraternity life can perpetuate fraternity men's lifelong attitudes, leading to the potential to commit sexual assault and rape after college life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Auster|first1=Carol J|last2=Leone|first2=Janel M|date=2001|title=Late adolescents' perspectives on marital rape: The impact of gender and fraternity/sorority membership|journal=Adolescence|volume=36|issue=141|pages=141–152|pmid=11407630}}</ref> Studies show that women in sororities are almost twice as likely to experience rape than other college women.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Minow|first1=Jacqueline|last2=Einolf|first2=Christopher|date=2009|title=Sorority Participation and Sexual Assault Risk|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24442315|journal=Violence Against Women|volume=15|issue=7|pages=835–851|doi=10.1177/1077801209334472|pmid=19458092|s2cid=21877160|access-date=August 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mohler-Kuo|first1=Meichun|last2=Dowdall|first2=George|last3=Koss|first3=Mary|last4=Wechsler|first4=Henry|date=2004|title=Correlates of rape while intoxicated in a national sample of college women|url=http://archive.sph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/rapeintox/037-Mohler-Kuo.sep1.pdf|journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol|volume=65|issue=1|pages=37–45|doi=10.15288/jsa.2004.65.37|access-date=August 13, 2016|pmid=15000502}}</ref> A 2017 research article studied campus demographics and reported rapes, and found that campuses that report more rapes have more fraternity men, athletes and liquor violations.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Wiersma-Mosley|first1=Jacquelyn D.|last2=Jozkowski|first2=Kristen N.|last3=Martinez|first3=Taylor|date=June 22, 2017|title=An empirical investigation of campus demographics and reported rapes|journal=Journal of American College Health|volume=65|issue=7|pages=482–491|doi=10.1080/07448481.2017.1343829|pmid=28641039|s2cid=26691712|issn=0744-8481}}</ref>

Researchers have found that in predominantly male environments, such as fraternities, athletics, and military groups, men feel pressure to meet the group's standard of masculinity, which may contribute to men being more accepting of [[sexual violence]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seabrook|first1=Rita C.|last2=Ward|first2=L. Monique|last3=Giaccardi|first3=Soraya|date=January 2018|title=Why is fraternity membership associated with sexual assault? Exploring the roles of conformity to masculine norms, pressure to uphold masculinity, and objectification of women.|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|volume=19|issue=1|pages=3–13|doi=10.1037/men0000076|s2cid=151332972|issn=1939-151X}}</ref> Nicholas Syrett, a professor of history at the [[University of Northern Colorado]], has been a vocal critic of the evolution of fraternities in the 20th century. In 2011, Syrett stated that "fraternal masculinity has, for at least 80 years, valorized athletics, alcohol abuse, and sex with women."<ref>{{cite news |last=Syrett |first=Nicholas |date=May 6, 2011 |title=Colleges Condone Fraternities' Sexist Behavior |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/05/05/frat-guys-gone-wild-whats-the-solution/colleges-condone-fraternities-sexist-behavior |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=December 30, 2014 }}</ref>

''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine columnist [[Jessica Bennett (journalist)|Jessica Bennett]] has denounced fraternities as breeding "sexism and misogyny that lasts long after college". In her column, Bennett recounts that, while she was an undergraduate student at the [[University of Southern California]], doormen at fraternity parties "often ranked women on a scale of 1 to 10, with only 'sixes' and up granted entry to a party".<ref name="Bennett">{{cite news |last=Bennett|first=Jessica |date=December 3, 2014 |title=The Problem With Frats Isn't Just Rape. It's Power. |url=https://time.com/3616158/fraternity-rape-uva-rolling-stone-sexual-assault/ |newspaper=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=December 30, 2014 }}</ref>

Fraternity and sorority members face a higher risk of [[STDs]] compared to their non-Greek college peers, largely due to their higher rates of socializing, substance abuse (impaired judgement), sexual violence, and more casual sex partners.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Goldsberry | first1=Jennifer | last2=Moore | first2=Leslie | last3=MacMillan | first3=Deborah | last4=Butler | first4=Scott | title=Assessing the effects of a sexually transmitted disease educational intervention on fraternity and sorority members' knowledge and attitudes toward safe sex behaviors | journal=Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners | date=2016 | volume=28 | issue=4 | pages=188–195 | doi=10.1002/2327-6924.12353 | pmid=26990512 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2327-6924.12353 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

To protect their fraternity's brotherhood, fraternity men and athletes may not confront or report sexual assault when it happens.<ref name=":02" /> Perpetrators often receive little to no consequences for their actions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jozkowski|first1=Kristen N.|last2=Wiersma-Mosley|first2=Jacquelyn D.|date=February 2017|title=The Greek System: How Gender Inequality and Class Privilege Perpetuate Rape Culture|journal=Family Relations|volume=66|issue=1|pages=89–103|doi=10.1111/fare.12229|issn=0197-6664}}</ref>

=== Test and homework banks === It is common for members of Greek-letter organizations to have higher-than-average GPAs; some claim that this is partly due to test and homework banks filled over the years by members of their organization. There is much backlash condemning the test and homework banks as [[academic dishonesty]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Burkholder|first=Sophie|date=November 13, 2019|title=Access Denied: A Closer Look at Test Banks|url=https://www.34st.com/article/2019/11/test-banks-academic-integrity-upenn-ivy-league-curve-accessibility-inequality|website=[[The Daily Pennsylvanian|34th Street Magazine]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Butler|first=Matt|date=April 18, 2014|title=Ttest bank use prompts ethical concerns|work=The Review|url=http://udreview.com/test-bank-use-prompts-ethical-concerns/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Handel|first=Sarah|date=September 16, 2008|title=Breaking The Test Bank Wide Open|publisher=[[NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/talk/2008/09/breaking_the_test_bank_wide_op.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=McKenzie|first=Lindsay|date=May 14, 2018|title=Professors warned about popular learning tool used by students to cheat|url= https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/05/14/professors-warned-about-popular-learning-tool-used-students-cheat |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=McManigal |first=Christine|date=April 24, 2017|title=Test files: The no-no word|work=[[The Daily of the University of Washington]]|url=https://www.dailyuw.com/opinion/article_7e88b0a8-2898-11e7-ab34-e77b7db3d15d.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Postal|first=Leslie|date=November 21, 2010|title='Test banks' are at the center of UCF's cheating scandal|work=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |url= https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-2010-11-21-os-ucf-cheating-online-20101121-story.html}}</ref>

=== Alleged racism and minority discrimination === {{Further|Racism in United States college fraternities and sororities}} Researchers, such as [[Matthew Hughey|Matthew W. Hughey]], claim to have linked [[racism]] in Greek life to people experiencing [[microaggression]]s, fewer opportunities to use the networking system built into Greek life, and the use of stereotypes.<ref name="W. Hughey 2010 653–679">{{Cite journal|last=W. Hughey|first=Matthew|s2cid=145206339|date=2010|title=A Paradox of Participation: Nonwhites in White Sororities and Fraternities|jstor=10.1525/sp.2010.57.4.653|journal=Social Problems|volume=57|issue=4|pages=653–679|doi=10.1525/sp.2010.57.4.653}}</ref> In response to allegedly experiencing racism and exclusion from solely or predominantly White sororities, Black and multicultural organizations were founded.<ref name="W. Hughey 2010 653–679"/> Additionally, [[homophobia]], [[transphobia]], [[antisemitism]], and [[xenophobia]] are alleged issues with many college Greek systems across the US.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Johnson|first=Elin|date=December 17, 2019|title=IU Bloomington Suspends Frat for Anti-Semitism|url= https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2019/12/17/iu-bloomington-suspends-frat-anti-semitism |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Noel|first=Gabrielle |date= April 27, 2018|title=Greek Life Needs To Take Racism As Seriously As It Takes Hazing|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/opinion-noel-racism-greek-life_n_5ae2b1a2e4b055fd7fca4141 |website= [[HuffPost]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ruiz|first=Michelle|date=October 17, 2016|title=Can Trans Girls Be Sorority Girls?|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/college/a4465624/transgender-sorority-members-public-policy/ |website=[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sherbet|first=Maddy|date=November 13, 2019|title=My Sorority Was Supposed to be Interfaith. It Wasn't.|url=https://www.heyalma.com/my-sorority-was-supposed-to-be-interfaith-it-wasnt/|website=Alma}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Spinelli|first=Dan |date= September 20, 2015|title=Transgender students underrepresented in Greek Life|work=[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]|url=https://www.thedp.com/article/2015/09/transgender-students-underrepresented-in-greek-life}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Stewart|first=Mariah|date=September 15, 2020|title=The 'Abolish Greek Life' Movement Calls for an End to Toxic Fraternity, Sorority Culture|url=https://www.insightintodiversity.com/the-abolish-greek-life-movement-calls-for-an-end-to-toxic-fraternity-sorority-culture/|website=INSIGHT Into Diversity}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Van Syckle|first=Katie|date=September 25, 2016|title=Pledging change: the transgender college students integrating Greek life |work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/sep/25/transgender-students-fraternities-and-sororities}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Windmeyer|first1=Shane L.|last2=Freeman|first2=Pamela W.|date=1998|title=How Homophobia Hurts the College Fraternity|url=https://www.slu.edu/life-at-slu/cross-cultural-center/docs/reading.greek.pdf|publisher=[[Saint Louis University (United States)|Saint Louis University]]|access-date=September 17, 2020|archive-date=January 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123181530/https://www.slu.edu/life-at-slu/cross-cultural-center/docs/reading.greek.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{citekill|date=May 2026}}

==Fraternity and sorority vocabulary== [[File:El_Paso_Black_History_Month_Parade_140228-A-JK968-005.jpg|thumb|[[Omega Psi Phi]] members perform a step routine during the 2015 Black History Month Parade in [[El Paso, Texas]].]] * Active – an initiated, undergraduate student member of a fraternity or sorority<ref name="fit">{{cite web|title=Greek Terminology|url=http://www.fit.edu/greeklife/terminology.php|website=fit.edu|publisher=Florida Institute of Technology|access-date=September 4, 2015|archive-date=September 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905183256/http://www.fit.edu/greeklife/terminology.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=GreekLife 101 |url=https://www.dualberta.ca/greeklife101 |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=Delta Upsilon Alberta |language=en-US}}</ref> * [[Alumni]], Alumna, or Alumnus – a member of a sorority or fraternity who has graduated or is no longer an undergraduate student.<ref name="elon"/><ref name=":12" /> They are often organized as an [[alumni association]] that owns and manages the fraternity's or sorority's chapter house. *An auxiliary group (also "sweetheart" or "little brother/sister" group) is an unofficial, unsanctioned partner organization to a fraternity or sorority, usually for members of the opposite sex. The two largest [[Greek umbrella organizations]] for social fraternities and sororities, the [[North American Interfraternity Conference]] and the [[National Panhellenic Conference]], ban the formation of or discourage membership in auxiliary groups.<ref name="NIC">{{cite web|url=http://www.nicindy.org/about/constitution-and-bylaws/|title=Constitution and Bylaws|date=April 23, 2012|publisher=[[North-American Interfraternity Conference]]|access-date=January 4, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709192446/http://nicindy.org/about/constitution-and-bylaws/|archive-date=July 9, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NPC">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.npcwomen.org/resources/pdf/Unanimous%20Agreements.pdf|title=Unanimous Agreements|author=National Panhellenic Conference|year=2012|edition=17th|pages=37–8|chapter=Protecting the Right of NPC Members to Remain Women-Only Organizations|author-link=National Panhellenic Conference|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031916/http://www.npcwomen.org/resources/pdf/Unanimous%20Agreements.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some fraternities and sororities outside of these conferences also ban auxiliaries, including [[Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia]]<ref name="Sinfonia">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.sinfonia.org/resources/riskmanagementpolicies.pdf|title=Risk Management Policies|author=Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia|year=2011|page=7|chapter=Policy on Sweethearts/Little Sisters/Auxiliary Groups|author-link=Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia}}</ref> and [[Sigma Alpha Iota]].<ref name="SAI">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.sai-national.org/home/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=nQNNlUg8PVM%3d&tabid=235|title=Chapter Procedures Manual|author=Sigma Alpha Iota International Music Fraternity|year=2010|editor1-last=Nieburg|editor1-first=Janet T.|edition=3rd|page=A-3|chapter=Current Policies and Position Statements|chapter-format=PDF|author-link=Sigma Alpha Iota|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=February 24, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224071709/http://www.sai-national.org/home/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=nQNNlUg8PVM%3D&tabid=235|url-status=dead}}</ref> Part of the rationale behind banning auxiliary groups is that such groups could jeopardize the host organizations' [[Title IX]] exemptions, citing the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s ruling in ''[[Roberts v. United States Jaycees]]''.<ref name="NPC" /><ref name="SAI" /> * Badge – a pin worn by an initiated member of a fraternity or sorority.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2013-08-23 |title=Greek Vocabulary {{!}} Fraternity & Sorority Life |url=https://greeklife.louisiana.edu/node/95 |access-date=2025-12-20 |website=University of Louisiana at Lafayette |language=en}}</ref> In the 19th and early 20th century, badges were also worn as a [[watch fob]]. See also pledge pin. * Bid – a formal offer to become a pledge (see below) of a fraternity or sorority.<ref name="fit" /><ref name=":14" /> * [[Blacklisting|Blacklist]] – an official or unofficial list of people not allowed inside the house or to any events of the fraternity or sorority. * [[Blackballing|Blackballed]] – in this context used as a definition of expelling from a community or group. This means that a person may not be accepted by any fraternity or sorority because of the negative reputation they gained at a particular group. This is usually an informal discussion made by the presidents or rush chairs of the fraternities or sororities. * Brother – term used by members of fraternities when referring to each other or an active member of a fraternity<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |date=2024-04-23 |title=Greek Terminology {{!}} Center for Fraternity & Sorority Life |url=https://gogreek.oregonstate.edu/greek-terminology |access-date=2025-12-20 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}}</ref> * Call – a vocal expression used by members of a fraternity or sorority<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Greek Life Terminology |url=https://www.alphapsilambda.org/terminology |access-date=2025-12-20 |website=Alpha Psi Lambda}}</ref> * Chapter – a local branch or unit of a fraternity or sorority<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" /> * Chapter room – a room inside a fraternity house, often secret or hidden, where meetings occur and where rituals are performed.<ref name="elon">{{cite web|title=Fraternity/Sorority Terms|url=http://www.elon.edu/e-web/students/greek_life/glterminology.xhtml|website=elon.edu|publisher=[[Elon University]]|access-date=September 4, 2015|archive-date=August 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810042450/http://www.elon.edu/e-web/students/greek_life/glterminology.xhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Charter]] – an official document establishing the creation of a chapter of a fraternity or sorority<ref name=":14" /> * Class – term used for members of a fraternity or sorority who join in the same semester or initiation period; see also Line<ref name=":14" /> * [[Coat of arms|Coat of Arms]] or Crest – insignia used by fraternities and sororities, often including secret meanings<ref name=":14" /> * [[Colony (fraternity or sorority)|Colony]] – a newly established chapter of a national/international fraternity or sorority in the process of organization.<ref name="elon"/> * Crossover – an initiation ceremony for some fraternities and sororities<ref name=":13" /> * [[Fracket]] – a disposable coat worn to a fraternity party, coined from the words "fraternity" and "jacket".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lange |first=Maggie |date=2014-10-24 |title=The Best Idea Ever to Come From a Frat Party {{!}} The Cut |url=https://www.thecut.com/2014/10/song-of-praise-for-the-fracket-a-frat-jacket.html |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Swiatkowski |first=Megan |date=2013-02-22 |title=The Fracket Bible |url=https://onwardstate.com/2013/02/22/the-fracket-bible/ |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=Onward State |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University]] |language=en-US}}</ref> *Frat Boy – a member of a fraternity characterized by a way of dressing<ref>{{Cite web|title=The frat boy look|url=https://education-gov.us/frat-boy-look|website=Education in USA|access-date=October 20, 2021|archive-date=October 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020201338/https://education-gov.us/frat-boy-look/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and a homogeneous behavior as other members of that fraternity. *Geed or GDI (for "God Damn Independent") – someone who isn't a member of a fraternity or sorority. *Greek – a fraternity or sorority member<ref name=":13" /> *Initiation – ritual or ceremony where pledge transitions to full member of a fraternity or sorority<ref name=":14" /> * International – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, located in different nations<ref name="elon" /> * Legacy – a rushee who is related to a member of the fraternity or sorority they are rushing. Traditionally, a legacy has a parent or sibling that is a member, but some organizations have expanded on their definition of a legacy's relation to members.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Are You a Legacy? {{!}} Prospective Members |url=https://www.sigmanu.org/prospective-members/are-you-a-legacy |access-date=August 9, 2024 |website=Sigma Nu Fraternity}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a Legacy? |url=https://www.shoplhp.com/pages/what-is-a-legacy |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=Legacy History Pride |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> * Line – term used by [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] for members who join in the same semester; similar to class<ref name=":15" /> * Local – a fraternity or sorority with only one chapter.<ref name="elon"/> * National – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, both of which are in different states within the same nation<ref name="elon" /> * Pledge – a person who has accepted a bid from a fraternity or sorority but has not yet been initiated, sometimes also called associate member<ref name="fit"/><ref name=":12" /> * Pledge Class – pledges who were recruited in the same semester or cycle<ref name=":12" /> *Pledge pin – a pin worn by pledges for the duration of the pledging period. It is usually given to a pledge following a ceremony when they are first offered membership in the organization and can be worn until their initiation. With some organizations, especially those that no longer have a pledge process, it may be called a new member pin. See also badge. * Potential new member – Abbreviated PNM, one who is in the process of seeking a bid.<ref name="fit" /> * [[Sorority recruitment|Rush]] – the process of recruitment to a fraternity or sorority.<ref name="fit"/><ref name=":14" /> * Rushee – one who is in the process of seeking a bid.<ref name="fit"/><ref name=":14" /> * Sign – a unique hand signal used between members of a fraternity or sorority<ref name=":13" /> * Sister – term used by sorority members when referring to each other or an active member of a sorority<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /> * Soror – term used by sorority members when referring to each other, mostly within [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] sororities<ref name=":14" /> * [[Step dance]] – form of traditional African American dance popularized by [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] members as synchronized group routines.<ref name=":15" /> Now also performed by some multi-cultural Greek letter organizations.<ref name=":15" /> * [[Stepping (African-American)|Stepping]] – when members of a fraternity or sorority perform synchronized movements without music, such as clapping, chanting, jumping, or stomping their feet.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" /> Usually associated with [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] members or multi-cultural Greek letter organizations.<ref name=":15" /> * Strolling – when members of a fraternity or sorority move together or dance in a line, without music. Usually associated with [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] members.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" />

==See also== * [[Collegiate secret societies in North America]] * [[Defunct North American collegiate sororities]] * [[Greek letter society effect on youth identity]] * [[High school fraternities and sororities]] * [[Honor society]] * [[Old boy network]] * [[Secret society]]

== References == {{Reflist}}

== Further reading == * Caitlin Flanagan, "The Dark Power of Fraternities," ''[[The Atlantic]]'', March 2014, pp.&nbsp;72–91. * {{cite book |title=True Gentlemen: The Broken Pledge of America's Fraternities |year=2017 |author=John Hechinger |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1610396820}}

==External links== {{commons}} {{Wikiquote}}

{{Fraternities and Sororities |collapsed}} {{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fraternities And Sororities}} [[Category:Fraternities and sororities| ]] [[Category:Fraternity and sorority culture]]