City physician

{{Short description|Historical role of city-appointed physician}} {{more citations needed|date=February 2022}}

'''City physician''' (German: {{Lang|de|Stadtphysicus, Stadtphysikus, Stadtarzt}}; {{Langx|sv|stadsfysikus, stadsläkare}}, {{Langx|fi|kaupunginfysikus, kaupunginlääkäri}}, from Latin {{Lang|la|physicus}}) was a historical title in the Late Middle Ages for a physician appointed by the city council. The city physician was responsible for the health of the population, particularly the poor, and the sanitary conditions in the city. His duties also included the supervision of pharmacies and the supervision of those engaged in medical tasks, such as midwives and barber surgeons. In addition, he had forensic duties such as assessing the injuries of living persons, external postmortem examinations, and conducting autopsies in cases of non-natural and unexplained deaths. In times of epidemic, many city physicians published small, printed books of guidelines. His functions combined aspects of the modern health minister, chief medical officer, coroner, and medical/pharmaceutical licensing authority.

The role existed in what are today a number of European countries, including Germany, Estonia, Finland, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web|title=[EKSS] "Eesti keele seletav sõnaraamat" 2009|url=http://www.eki.ee/dict/ekss/index.cgi?Q=linnaarst|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113093002/http://www.eki.ee/dict/ekss/index.cgi?Q=linnaarst|archive-date=2022-01-13|access-date=2022-01-10|website=www.eki.ee|language=et}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brzeziński|first=Tadeusz|title=Historia medycyny|date=2000|publisher=Wydawn. Lekarskie PZWL|isbn=978-83-200-2416-6|edition=Wyd. 3|location=Warszawa|language=pl|oclc=50170715}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2000-04-20|title=Noen har skrevet stadsfysikatets historie|url=https://tidsskriftet.no/2000/04/bokomtaler/noen-har-skrevet-stadsfysikatets-historie|journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske Legeforening|language=nb|issn=0029-2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202080815/https://tidsskriftet.no/2000/04/bokomtaler/noen-har-skrevet-stadsfysikatets-historie|archive-date=2022-02-02}}</ref>

== Holy Roman Empire and German Confederation == A {{Lang|de|Stadtphysicus}} or {{Lang|de|Stadtphysikus}} (learned "body" physician in contrast to the practice-oriented {{Lang|la|chirurgicus}})<ref>{{Cite book|title=Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte|date=2005|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|others=Werner Gerabek|isbn=3-11-015714-4|location=Berlin|pages=251|language=de|oclc=57964854}}</ref> or {{Lang|de|Stadtarzt}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte|date=2005|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|others=Werner Gerabek|isbn=3-11-015714-4|location=Berlin|pages=1352|language=de|oclc=57964854}}</ref> (also, in about the 15th century in Augsburg, referred to as {{Lang|de|Stadt-Leibarzt}})<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reddig|first=Wolfgang F.|date=2019|title=Heilberufe: Doctores, Bader, Scharlatane. Medizin im Mittelalter. Zwischen Erfahrungswissen, Magie und Religion|journal=Spektrum der Wissenschaft. Spezial: Archäologie Geschichte Kultur|language=de|volume=2|issue=19|pages=62–65}}</ref> was appointed by the city council and, in addition to his private practice, performed roughly the tasks of a modern-day health department. The designation {{Lang|de|physicus}} was the title for the civil servant physician in Prussia until 1901.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Buck|first=August|date=1984|editor-last=Schmitz|editor-first=Rudolf|editor2-last=Keil|editor2-first=Gundolf|title=Die Medizin im Verständnis des Renaissancehumanismus|journal=Humanismus und Medizin|language=de|location=Weinheim an der Bergstraße|publisher=Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft: Mitteilungen der Kommission für Humanismusforschung|volume=11|pages=181–198}}</ref>

Well-known early city physicians include Hugh of Lucca, who was appointed surgeon in Bologna, Italy, in 1214, and William of Saliceto, who was appointed city physician in Verona, Italy in 1275. Other cities in the Empire established physician positions in the 13th and 14th centuries. Later, per the 1426 decree of Emperor Sigismund, all cities in the Holy Roman Empire were required to hire a city physician.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shephard|first=Roy J.|title=An illustrated history of health and fitness, from pre-history to our post-modern world|date=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-11671-6|location=|pages=294|oclc=897376985}}</ref>

In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the preparation of calendars with astrological weather forecasts was also often performed by city physicians.

Some city physicians also acted as personal physicians (''{{Interlanguage link|Leibarzt|lt=Leibärzte|de}}'') to noble or ecclesiastical dignitaries.

In less densely populated regions, the office was combined as city and district physician ({{Lang|de|Stadt- und}} ''{{Interlanguage link|District physician|lt=Kreisphysicus|de|Kreisarzt}}''), who had to care for or supervise a specific medical district in addition to the city.

The deputy of the city physician was called {{Lang|de|Subphysicus}}, e.g. in Hamburg.

== Sweden == In Sweden, city physicians ({{Langx|sv|stadsläkare}}, formerly {{Lang|sv|stadsfysikus}}) were responsible for the duties in cities which in rural areas belonged to provincial physicians (''{{Interlanguage link|Provinsialläkare|lt=provinsialläkare|sv}}'').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://runeberg.org/nfcf/0493.html|title=Nordisk familjebok|publisher=Nordisk familjeboks förlags aktiebolag|year=1917|edition=2nd|location=Stockholm|pages=905|language=sv|chapter=Stadsläkare|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918072345/http://runeberg.org/nfcf/0493.html|archive-date=2021-09-18}}</ref>

As early as the beginning of the 17th century, some of Sweden's cities (Stockholm, Gothenburg, Falun, Gävle, Malmö and Kalmar) hired a {{Lang|sv|stadsfysikus}} in their service. In 1669, a city surgeon (city barber) was hired to work alongside the city physician in Stockholm, to assist in the treatment of external diseases and accidents.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://runeberg.org/nfcr/0257.html|title=Nordisk familjebok|publisher=Nordisk familjeboks förlags aktiebolag|year=1926|edition=Supplement to the 2nd|location=Stockholm|pages=462|language=sv|chapter=Stadsläkare|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130023655/http://runeberg.org/nfcr/0257.html|archive-date=2020-11-30}}</ref> By royal decree in 1827, both posts were transformed into those of city physician (first and second city physician). In 1757, the first city district doctors in Stockholm (three in number) were employed to provide medical care for the city's ailing poor.

In Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, the chief city physician or city physician was equal to the chief provincial physician in the counties, with almost the same duties as the latter. City doctors were appointed by the city council (''{{Interlanguage link|Stadsfullmäktige|lt=stadsfullmäktige|sv}}''), after the Medical Board had given an opinion on the competence of the respective applicants and the city's health board had been given the opportunity to give its opinion on the matter.

City district physicians ({{Lang|sv|stadsdistriktsläkare}}), that is to say, persons who exercised the function of city physicians only within a certain district of the city, were appointed in the same order by the city council, unless the administration of the public health service was entrusted to the board of health, in which case the appointment of these physicians could also be entrusted to the same board.

In Stockholm, the role of city physician was established in 1827 and lasted until 1971.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-03-20|title=Förste stadsläkaren (Hälsovårdsnämnden)|url=https://stadsarkivet.stockholm/berattelser-ur-arkiven/arkivartiklar/f-g/forste-stadslakaren-halsovardsnamnden/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110103323/https://stadsarkivet.stockholm/berattelser-ur-arkiven/arkivartiklar/f-g/forste-stadslakaren-halsovardsnamnden/|archive-date=2022-01-10|access-date=2022-01-10|website=stadsarkivet.stockholm|language=sv}}</ref>

== Finland == The position of city physician ({{Langx|fi|kaupunginfysikus}}, later {{Lang|fi|kaupunginlääkäri}}) existed in Finland during the Swedish era and for a time after the country declared independence. Turku was the first city to hire a city physician, in 1755, and Helsinki was the second in 1774.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Förvaltningshistorisk ordbok - stadsläkare|url=https://fho.sls.fi/uppslagsord/6577/stadslakare/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518203419/https://fho.sls.fi/uppslagsord/6577/stadslakare/|archive-date=2021-05-18|access-date=2022-01-10|website=fho.sls.fi|language=sv, fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Förvaltningshistorisk ordbok - stadsfysikus|url=https://fho.sls.fi/uppslagsord/12753/stadsfysikus/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418164419/https://fho.sls.fi/uppslagsord/12753/stadsfysikus/|archive-date=2021-04-18|access-date=2022-01-10|website=fho.sls.fi|language=sv, fi}}</ref>

== Norway == In Norway, Bergen was the first city to have a city physician ({{Lang|no|stadsfysikus}} or {{Lang|no|bylege}}, {{Literal translation|city doctor}}), appointed in 1603.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Helsetjenester|url=https://www.bergenbyarkiv.no/bergenbyleksikon/arkiv/1424967|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111145358/https://www.bergenbyarkiv.no/bergenbyleksikon/arkiv/1424967|archive-date=2022-01-11|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Bergen byleksikon|language=no}}</ref> Oslo's city physician role existed from 1626 until it was abolished in 1988; its city physician also held the role of head of the city's health council.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stadsfysikus|url=https://oslobyleksikon.no/side/Stadsfysikus|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111153138/https://oslobyleksikon.no/side/Stadsfysikus|archive-date=2022-01-11|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Oslo Byleksikon|language=no}}</ref> In Trondheim, the post was created in 1661, with Jens Nicolaisen as its first doctor.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stadsfysikus / Kommuneoverlege i Trondheim 1661-1999|url=https://www.trondheim.kommune.no/byarkivet/stadsfysikus/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908064635/https://www.trondheim.kommune.no/byarkivet/stadsfysikus/|archive-date=2021-09-08|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Trondheim kommune|language=no}}</ref>

== City physicians ==

*William of Saliceto (after 1210 – {{circa|1286}}), Lombard surgeon, professor in Bologna and city physician in Verona from 1275 *Hugh of Lucca ({{circa|1270}}–1259), city surgeon and court physician in Bologna *Konrad Müntzmeister (14th–15th century), city physician in Straßburg *Heinrich Steinhöwel (1410–1411 – 1479), city physician in Ulm * {{Interlanguage link|Hans Seyff|de}} ({{circa|1440}} – after 1518), German wound surgeon and leading surgeon of the Late Middle Ages *Johann Stocker (1453–1513), city physician in Ulm *Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, called Paracelsus (1493–1541), city physician in Basel *Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), city physician in Chemnitz *{{Interlanguage link|Christoph Stathmion|de}} ({{circa|1508–1509}} – 1585), city physician in Coburg *{{Interlanguage link|Paulus Kyr|de}} ({{circa|1510}} – 1588), Transylvanian city physician in Brașov *{{Interlanguage link|Wilhelm Schefferlein|de|Wilhelm Upilio}} (died 1594), city physician in Bad Neustadt an der Saale, director of the Würzburg Juliusspital *Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), chief city physician in Zurich *{{Interlanguage link|Thomas Schöpf|de}} (1520–1577), city physician in Colmar and Bern *{{Interlanguage link|Johannes Ewich|de}} (1525–1588), city physician in Bremen *{{Interlanguage link|Peter de Spina I.|de}} (1526–1569), city physician in Aachen *{{Interlanguage link|Joachim Strupp|de}} (1530–1606), city physician in Frankfurt am Main *{{Interlanguage link|Peter Memmius|de}} (1531–1587), city physician in Lübeck *{{Interlanguage link|Caspar Ratzenberger|de}} (1533–1603), city physician in Naumburg/Saale *Zacharias Stopius ({{circa}} 1535{{spnd}}late 16th or early 17th century), city physician in Riga *Felix Platter (1536–1614), city physician in Basel *{{Interlanguage link|Johannes Wittich|de}} (1537–1596), city physician in Arnstadt and personal physician to the Counts of Schwarzburg *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Thal|de}} (1542–1583), city physician in Nordhausen * Wilhelm Fabry (1560–1634), wound surgeon, city physician in Bern and founder of scientific surgery *{{Interlanguage link|Raymund Minderer|de}} ({{circa|1565–1570}} – 1621), city physician in Augsburg *Martin Ruland the Younger (1569–1611), city physician in Regensburg *Johann Remmelin (1583–1632), city physician in Ulm, Schorndorf and Augsburg *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Agricola (alchemist)|lt=Johann Agricola|de|Johann Agricola (Alchemist)}} (1590–1668), city physician in Frankenhausen, Altenburg and Wrocław *{{Interlanguage link|Johannes May|de}} (1592–1671), city physician in Römhild and Coburg *{{Interlanguage link|Johannes Scultetus|de|Johannes Scultetus (Mediziner, 1595)}} (1595–1645), city physician in Ulm *{{Interlanguage link|Cornelius Pleier|de}} (1595 – {{circa|1646–1649}}), city physician in Coburg and Kitzingen *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Lorenz Bausch|de}} (1605–1665), city physician in Altorf * {{Interlanguage link|Balthasar Uloth|de}} (1608–1642), city physician in Darmstadt and Babenhausen *Philipp Jakob Sachs (1627–1672), city physician in Wrocław * {{Interlanguage link|Johann Peter Albrecht|de}} (1647–1724), city physician in Hildesheim *{{Interlanguage link|Benjamin Scharff|de}} (1651–1702), city physician in Sondershausen, Weißensee and personal physician to the prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen *{{Interlanguage link|Georg Henning Behrens|de}} (1662–1712), city physician in Nordhausen *Christoph von Hellwig (1663–1721), city physician at Erfurt, editor of the ''{{Interlanguage link|Hundertjähriger Kalender|de}}'' (Centennial Calendar) *{{Interlanguage link|Siegmund Hahn|de}} (1664–1742) and his son {{Interlanguage link|Johann Siegmund Hahn|de}} (1696–1773), city physicians in Świdnica * {{Interlanguage link|Eberhard Barnstorff|de}} (1672–1712), city physician in Anklam and Greifswald *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Philipp Burggrav|de}} (1673–1746), city physician in Darmstadt *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Storch|de}} (1681–1751), city physician in Eisenach *{{Interlanguage link|Johannes Burchart V|et}} (1683–1738) and son {{Interlanguage link|Johannes Burchart VI|et}} (1718–1756), city physicians in Tallinn *Nathanael Sendel (1686–1757), city physician in Elbląg *{{Interlanguage link|Georg Christian Maternus de Cilano|de}} (1696–1773), city physician in Altona, Hamburg *{{Interlanguage link|Peter Carpser|de}} (1699–1759), city physician in Hamburg *{{Interlanguage link|Bernhard Feldmann|de}} (1704–1776), city physician in Neuruppin * {{Interlanguage link|Johannes Christoph Ludwig Beringer|de}} (1709–1746), city and district physician in Heidelberg, personal physician to the prince-bishop of Speyer *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Jakob Kollmann|de}} (1714–1778), city physician in Deggendorf * {{Interlanguage link|Joachim Friedrich Bolten|de}} (1718–1796), city physician in Hamburg *{{Interlanguage link|Friedrich Ludwig Christian Cropp|de}} (1718–1796), deputy city physician in Hamburg *Johann Friedrich Struensee (1737–1772), city physician in Altona, later minister in Copenhagen *Friedrich von Wendt (1738–1818), city physician in Pszczyna *Ernst Ludwig Heim (1747–1834), city physician in Spandau *{{Interlanguage link|Arnold Wienholt (physician)|lt=Arnold Wienholt|de|Arnold Wienholt (Mediziner)}} (1749–1804), city physician in Bremen *{{Interlanguage link|Johann Wilhelm Ludwig von Luce|de|Johann Wilhelm Ludwig von Luce|et|Johann von Luce}} (1756–1842), city physician and pharmacist in Kuressaare *{{Interlanguage link|Friedrich August Röber|de}} (1765–1827), city physician in Dresden *Wilhelm Daniel Joseph Koch (1771–1849), city physician in Trarbach *Johann Christian August Clarus (1774–1854), city physician in Leipzig *Dietrich Georg von Kieser (1779–1862), city and county physician in Northeim * Karl Ernst Büchner (1786–1861), city physician in Darmstadt * {{Interlanguage link|Wilhelm Johann Theodor Mauch|de}} (1788–1863), physician of the city and county (''Amt'') Rendsburg * Frederik Holst (1791–1871), city physician in Christiania (Oslo) *Georg Carl {{Interlanguage link|Riesenkampff|et}} (1793–1835), city physician in Tallinn *Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882), city physician in Võru * {{Interlanguage link|Isak Schlockow|de}} (1837–1890), city physician in Wrocław * {{Interlanguage link|Carl Türk|de}} (1838–1890), city physician in Lübeck * Juhan Luiga (1873–1927), city physician in Tallinn

== See also ==

* Archiater * Barber surgeon * Plague doctor

== References == {{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* Hils, Hans-Peter (1986). "{{Lang|de|Cuonrat Muentzmeister, arzat. Zum Leben eines mittelalterlichen Stadtarztes|italic=no}}". {{Lang|de|Medizinhistorisches Journal}}''.'' '''20''': 92–103. {{In lang|de}} * Marstein, Oddlaug (1999). {{Lang|no|Legeliv i Trondheim: Trondheim stadsfysikats første 238 år, 1661–1899}}. Molde: Forlaget Helped. {{ISBN|9788299281522}}. {{In lang|no}} * Russell, Andrew W., ed. (1981). ''The town and state physician in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment''. Wolfenbüttel: Herzog August Bibliothek. {{ISBN|9783883730172}}. * Schilling, Ruth; Schlegelmilch, Sabine; Splinter, Susan (2011). "{{Lang|de|Stadtarzt oder Arzt in der Stadt? Drei Ärzte der Frühen Neuzeit und ihr Verständnis des städtischen Amtes|italic=no}}" [Town physician or physician in a town? Three early modern physicians and their understanding of their municipal function] {{Lang|de|Medizinhistorisches Journal}}. '''46''' (2). {{In lang|de}} * Straube, Manfred (1965). "{{Lang|de|'Von der artzenten stat': Ein Kapitel aus der sogenannten Reformatio Sigismundi und das Stadtarztwesen in der ersten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts im Südwesten des Reichs, vornehmlich in Basel|italic=no}}". NTM Schriftenreihe für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Technik und Medizin. '''2''' (5): 87–103. {{In lang|de}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:City physician}} Category:Medical doctors Category:History of medicine Category:Medieval occupations Category:Historical health care occupations Category:Professional titles and certifications