Chiwere language

{{Short description|Siouan language}} {{use mdy dates|date=June 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Chiwere | nativename = {{lang|iow|Báxoje-Jíwere-Nyútʼachi}} {{lang|iow|Báxoje ich'é}} {{lang|iow|Jíwere ich'é}} | states = United States | region = Oklahoma, Missouri, and Kansas | ethnicity = 1,150 Iowa, Otoe, Missouria (2007)<ref name=e18/> | extinct = 1996, with the death of Truman Washington Dailey | ref = e18 | speakers2 = <40 semi-fluent speakers (2009)<ref name="status">{{cite web |last=Anderton |first=Alice |url=http://www.ahalenia.com/iws/status.html |title=Status of Indian Languages in Oklahoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917050404/http://www.ahalenia.com/iws/status.html |archive-date=2010-09-17 |website=Intertribal Wordpath Society |date=2009-02-22}}</ref><ref name="iolang">{{cite web |url=http://iowayotoelang.nativeweb.org/ |title=Welcome to the Ioway, Otoe-Missouria Language Website |department=Ioway, Otoe-Missouria Language |website=NativeWeb |access-date=2009-02-23}}</ref> | familycolor = American | fam1 = Siouan | fam2 = Western Siouan | fam3 = Mississippi Valley | fam4 = Chiwere–Winnebago | iso3 = iow | glotto = iowa1245 | lingua = 64-AAC-c | glottorefname = Iowa-Oto | notice = IPA | map2 = Lang Status 01-EX.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|Chiwere is classified as Extinct by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''}}.<ref>{{cite report |title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |publisher=UNESCO |edition=3rd |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026 |date=2010 |page=11}}</ref> | pronunciation = {{IPA|[b̥aꜜxodʒɛ itʃʼeꜜ]}} {{IPA|[d̥ʒiꜜweɾɛ itʃʼeꜜ]}} }} {{Infobox ethnonym|person= |people= Iowa (''Báxoje''), Otoe (''Jiwére''), Missouria (''Ñiútachi'')|language= Ich'é, Hand Talk|country=Báxoje Máyaⁿ, Jíwere Máyaⁿ, Ñút’achi Máyaⁿ}}

'''Chiwere''' (also called '''Iowa–Otoe–Missouria''' or '''{{lang|iow|Báxoje-Jíwere-Nyútʼach}}''') is a Siouan language originally spoken by the Missouria, Otoe, and Iowa peoples, who originated in the Great Lakes region but later moved throughout the Midwest and plains. The language is closely related to Ho-Chunk, also known as Winnebago.

Non-Native Christian missionaries first documented Chiwere in the 1830s, but since then not much material has been published about the language. Chiwere suffered a steady decline after extended European American contact in the 1850s, and by 1940 the language had almost totally ceased to be spoken.

"Tciwere itce" (in the Otoe dialect) and "Tcekiwere itce" (in the Iowa dialect) translate to "To speak the home dialect."<ref>NAA MS 4800 [59]. "Three drafts of On the Comparative Phonology of Four Siouan Languages - James O. Dorsey papers, circa 1870-1956, bulk 1870-1895." National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution.</ref> The name "Chiwere" is said to originate from a person meeting a stranger in the dark. If a stranger in the dark challenged a person to identify their self, that person might respond "I am Tci-we-re" (Otoe) or "I am Tce-ki-we-re" (Iowa), which translates to "I am belonging to the people of this land" or "I am belonging to those dwelling here."

==Names== The Iowa tribe refers to their language as '''Báxoje ich'é''' or '''Bah Kho Je''' (pronounced {{IPA|sio|b̥aꜜxodʒɛ itʃʼeꜜ|}}). The Otoe–Missouria dialect is called '''Jíwere ich'é''' (pronounced {{IPA|sio|d̥ʒiꜜweɾɛ itʃʼeꜜ|}}). The spelling ''Chiwere'', used mostly by linguists, derives from the fact that the language has an aspiration distinction rather than a voice distinction (see the phonology section below), so that the unaspirated stops {{IPA|/b̥ d̥ d̥ʒ ɡ̊/}} are variably voiced {{IPA|[b d dʒ ɡ]}} or unvoiced {{IPA|[p t tʃ k]}}. Although {{IPA|[tʃ]}} is a valid pronunciation of the first sound of ''Jiwere ~ Chiwere'', it may mislead English speakers into pronouncing it {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}}.

Similarly, a common folk etymology of ''Báxoje'' is "dusty noses", based on the misunderstanding of the first syllable ''bá'' as ''pá'', or "nose".<ref name="jg">GoodTracks, Jimm (1992) ''Baxoje-Jiwere-Nyut'aji - Ma'unke: Iowa-Otoe-Missouria Language to English.'' Boulder, CO: Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest. ''(also)'' GoodTracks, Jimm (16 August 2008), personal communication. [http://iowayotoelang.nativeweb.org/ Ioway Otoe-Missouria Language Website]</ref> However, the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma says that ''Bah-Kho-Je'' means "grey snow", due to their winter lodges being covered with snow that is stained grey by fire smoke.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iowanation.org/Government/History.html |title=History of the Ioway |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054443/http://www.iowanation.org/Government/History.html |archive-date=2009-02-28 |website=Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma |date=2009-02-22}}</ref>

== Status == The last two fluent speakers died in the winter of 1996, and only a handful of semi-fluent speakers remain, all of whom are elderly,<ref name="iolang" /> making Chiwere critically endangered. As of 2006, an estimated four members of the Otoe–Missouria Tribe of Indians still speak the language, while 30 members of the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma speak their language.<ref name="status" /> The Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma has sponsored language workshops in the past and hopes to host more in the future. They have provided tribal elders with recording devices to collect Chiwere words and songs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iowanation.org/Government/OralHistory.html |title=Oral History and Language |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227091840/http://www.iowanation.org/Government/OralHistory.html |archive-date=2009-02-27 |website=Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma |access-date=2009-02-23}}</ref> A 2012 NSF grant was used to provide digital access to existing audio recordings of fluent speakers.<ref> {{Cite web | title = Award#1160665 - Chiwere (ISO 639-3: iow) Audio Archive Project (CAAP) | access-date = 2012-11-09 | url = https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=1160665 }}</ref> The Third Annual Otoe–Missouria Language and Culture Day was planned for September 2012.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Otoe-Missouria company hosts language day | work = Pictographs: Preserving Native Languages and Cultures through Words and Pictures | access-date = 2012-09-15 | url = http://pictographs.turquoisetales.com/2012/09/otoe-missouria-company-hosts-language.html }}</ref> The Otoe–Missouria Tribe of Indians is{{when|date=June 2024}} establishing a language program in conjunction with the University of Oklahoma Native American Studies Department.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204132542/http://www.thejobnetwork.com/employee/c.asp?action=employee.jobDescription.init&AffiliateID=1033&param=3775892 |title=Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians Job Announcement |date=2009-01-07 |access-date=2009-02-23 |archive-date=2013-02-04 |url=http://www.thejobnetwork.com/employee/c.asp?action=employee.jobDescription.init&AffiliateID=1033&param=3775892 }}</ref>

=== Classes === The Otoe–Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma's Otoe Language Program teaches weekly classes in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Red Rock, Oklahoma.<ref>[http://www.omtribe.org/index.php?education-otoe-language-program "Otoe Language Program."] ''The Otoe-Missouria Tribe.'' Retrieved 11 Feb 2012.</ref>

==Phonology== The phoneme inventory of Chiwere consists of approximately 33 consonants, and five vowel qualities (three of which occur as nasalized).

===Consonants=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ Chiwere Consonant Inventory{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=234}}<ref name="HNAI">{{cite book |last=Schweitzer |first=Marjorie M. |year=2001 |chapter=Otoe and Missouria |volume=13: Plains |editor-first=Raymond J. |editor-last=DeMallie |title=Handbook of North American Indians |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |page=447}}</ref> ! colspan=2| ! Labial ! Interdental ! Dental ! Palatal ! Velar ! Glottal |- ! rowspan="3" |Plosive !Voiceless | {{IPA link|p}} | | {{IPA link|t}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|ʔ}} |- !Aspirated | {{IPA link|pʰ}} | | {{IPA link|tʰ}} | {{IPA link|tʃʰ}} | {{IPA link|kʰ}} | |- !Ejective | {{IPA link|pʼ}} | | {{IPA link|tʼ}} | {{IPA link|tʃʼ}} | {{IPA link|kʼ}} | |- ! rowspan=3|Fricative !Voiceless | | {{IPA link|θ}} | colspan=2| {{IPA link|s}} ~ {{IPA link|ʃ}} | {{IPA link|x}} | {{IPA link|h}} |- !Voiced | | {{IPA link|ð}} | | | | |- !Ejective | | {{IPA link|θʼ}} | {{IPA link|sʼ}} | | {{IPA link|xʼ}} | |- ! colspan=2|Nasal | {{IPA link|m}} | | {{IPA link|n}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}} | {{IPA link|ŋ}} | |- ! colspan=2|Approximant | {{IPA link|w}} | | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | |}

Voiceless stop sounds {{IPA|/p, t, tʃ, k/}} may be heard as voiced {{IPA|[b, d, dʒ, ɡ]}} in final position.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=234}} The phoneme {{IPA|/ɾ/}} has a number of variants and allophones. It can appear as a dental tap or flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} (especially word-medially), as an alveolar fricative {{IPA|[r]}}, as an (inter)dental fricative {{IPA|[ð]}}, as a lateral {{IPA|[l]}}, as a nasal {{IPA|[n]}}, or as a voiced dental plosive {{IPA|[d]}}.<ref name="HNAI" /><ref>{{cite web |last=GoodTracks |first=Jimm G. |url=http://iowayotoelang.nativeweb.org/pdf/orthographic_updates.pdf |title=Orthographic Updates |website=Ioway Otoe Language Study |access-date=2011-10-17}}</ref> The velar nasal phoneme {{IPA|/ŋ/}} does not occur word-initially, being confined to "medial position after a nasal vowel".{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=235}}

====Phoneme combinations==== In languages a certain clusters of phonemes show up in particular environments within a word. According to William Whitman's research of Chiwere, approximately 23 known consonant clusters exist that are word medial, and approximately 14 of these show up word initially or word medially. In this research Whitman found that the stop + stop consonant cluster ''čd'', as in ''áčda'' ('then'),{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} shows up in the word medial position but not as a word initial phoneme cluster.

The stop + spirant clusters ''ʔθ'', ''ʔs'', and ''ʔh'' all show up word initially and word medially, whereas the stop + semivowel clusters ''dw'' and ''gw'' only show up word medially.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} The stop + liquid clusters ''bl'' and ''gl'' show up word initially and word medially.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} Spirant + stop clusters generally appear in both word initial and word medial position, these clusters include ''θg'', ''sǰ'', ''sg'', ''hd'', and ''hg'', however the spirant + stop clusters ''sd'' and ''xd'' only appear word medially.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} These are all the spirant + stop clusters accounted for in the research of William Whitman, however, the spirant + stop cluster ''hk'' has been found to exist word medially, as in ''chéthka'' ('domestic cow').{{sfn|GoodTracks|2007|p=2}}

According to Whitman's, research two spirant + nasal consonant clusters that have been found, which are ''hm'', as in ''sáhmã'' ('seven') and ''hn'', as in ''láhnũwe'' ('calumet'), however Whitman does account that ''hñ'' is a combination which appears as a future tense suffix.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} After reviewing further data, the cluster ''hñ'' has been found in the word medial position, as in ''péhñi'' ('whiskey'){{sfn|GoodTracks|2010|p=13}} and thus appears to be another possible spirant + nasal consonant combination.

The stop + semivowel consonant clusters ''θw'', ''xw'', and ''hw'' all appear to be restricted to the word medial environment, whereas the stop + semivowel consonant cluster ''sw'' appears to be the only stop + semivowel known to show up both word initially, as in ''swá̃la'' ('to be soft') and ''baswá'' ('to cut piece off').{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} The stop + liquid phoneme clusters ''θl'', ''sl'', and ''xl'' have all been found in the word initial and word medial environments.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}}

===Cluster metamorphosis and phenomenon=== An interesting analysis of the Chiwere language has shown that the spirant + stop consonant cluster ''hg'' is the more commonly used pronunciation of the spirant + stop cluster ''θg'' and that the ''hg'' cluster may be replacing the ''θg'' altogether.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}}

In William Whitman's research, the spirant + stop combination ''xd'', with the one given example used in this journal being ''iblí̃xdo'' ('blackbird'), is mentioned as being an error for the spirant + stop combination ''hd''.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=236}} But the spirant + stop combination ''xd'' has also been found in the words ''chéxdó'' ('buffalo bull'),{{sfn|GoodTracks|2010|p=2}} ''náxda'' ('sour'), and ''náxdage'' ('kick').{{sfn|GoodTracks|2007|p=10}} With this data we can see that the consonant cluster ''xd'' is a possible combination and can show up in word medial position.

===Vowels=== Chiwere has five oral vowel phonemes, {{IPA|/a e i o u/}}, and three nasal vowel phonemes, {{IPA|/ã ĩ ũ/}}. Vowel length is distinctive as well.<ref name="HNAI"/>

==Grammar== Chiwere grammar is agglutinative; its verbal complex is central to the structure of the language.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=241}} Verbs are formed by addition various affixes to a verb stem, each of which corresponds to a part of speech, such as a preposition, pronoun, case marker and so forth. Concepts such as possession, reflexivity and grammatical number, as well subject-object relation and case (including nine instrumental prefixes) are also expressed via affixing. In this way, large, complete sentences can be formed out of a single complex word.

Aside from its complex verbal morphology, Chiwere differs from English in a number of significant ways. There are separate male and female registers,{{sfn|Wistrand-Robinson|1977|p=86}} and interrogatives are formed with the question particle ''je'', though this is omitted in informal speech. Finally, Chiwere word order is subject-object-verb, in contrast to English SVO order.{{sfn|Wistrand-Robinson|1977|pp=91-92}}

===Verbal complex===

The verbal complex is formed of preverbal and postverbal affixes, with preverbal affixes communicating positional, instrumental and pronominal elements.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=241}} These are added to a verb stem, which can be mono-, duo- or polysyllabic, and either agent (transitive) or patient (intransitive). Most verb stems are passive. Altogether, the Chiwere verb complex is arranged as follows:

[wa- pronoun] [wa- directional] [positional] [-wa/ri- pronouns] [ha-/ra- pronouns] [reflexive] [possession] [gi- directional] [instrumental] STEM [pronoun suffix] [causative]{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=247}}

===Positional prefixes===

Positional prefixes occupy the first position in the verbal complex. These prefixes refer to the location or direction of the verb's action:{{sfn|GoodTracks|2002|page=1}} * {{lang|iow|a-}} {{gloss|on, upon, over}} * {{lang|iow|i-}} {{gloss|at, to, by}} * {{lang|iow|u-}} {{gloss|in, within, into}}

===Pronominal prefixes===

Chiwere distinguishes three persons – first, second and inclusive, which functions as an inclusive first person plural. Each person has an agent (subject) and patient (object) form. The agent forms mark the subjects of active verbs, whereas the patient forms mark the objects of active verbs and the subjects of passive verbs, making Chiwere, like many other Siouan languages, active-stative. Third person forms as they exist in English are not directly marked.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=242}} Following are the subject and object forms of the pronominal prefixes:{{sfn|GoodTracks|2002|p=1}}

{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center ! rowspan=2| !! colspan=3|Subject !! colspan=3|Object |- ! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|DU}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|DU}} !! {{gcl|PL}} |- ! {{gcl|1}} | {{lang|iow|ha-}} || {{lang|iow|hiⁿ-}} || {{lang|iow|hiⁿ-…wi}} || {{lang|iow|hiⁿ-}} ~ {{lang|iow|mi-}} || {{lang|iow|wa-wa-}} || {{lang|iow|wa-wa-…wi}} |- ! {{gcl|2}} | {{lang|iow|ra-}} || {{emdash}} || {{lang|iow|ra-…wi}} || {{lang|iow|ri-}} || {{emdash}} || {{lang|iow|ri-…wi}} |- ! {{gcl|3}} | ∅ || {{lang|iow|…wi}} || {{lang|iow|…ñe}} || ∅ || {{lang|iow|wa-}} || {{lang|iow|wa-…wi}} |}

The inclusive object form is spelled {{lang|iow|wa-wa}} because it can be separated by the positional prefixes. The {{gcl|3SG}} is not marked; the {{gcl|2DU}} form does not exist.

===Wa- prefix===

This prefix, perhaps best translated as "something", occurs before every other verbal element except for the pronominal {{lang|iow|hi-}}, and approximates the English third person plural object of a transitive verb. Additionally, the prefix can be used as a dummy pronoun to make transitive verbs intransitive; these verbal forms are often used as nouns, and this prefix is thus the general method of forming nouns from verb stems. There are several intransitive verbs that take the {{lang|iow|wa-}} prefix idiomatically, wherein the prefix has no literal meaning.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=244}}

===Reflexive prefix===

Verbs are made reflexive by the {{lang|iow|ki-}} prefix; the reduplicated form {{lang|iow|kiki-}} expresses reciprocity.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=244-245}}{{sfn|GoodTracks|2002|p=5}} Thus:

* {{lang|iow|Uhá'''ki'''gisaⁿ}} {{gloss|I helped myself}} * {{lang|iow|U'''kiki'''sa ke}} {{gloss|They helped each other}}{{sfn|GoodTracks|2002|p=5}}

A number of verbs that are non-reflexive in English take the reflexive prefix in Chiwere.{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=244}}

===Directional prefixes===

These three prefixes serve to indicate an indirect object{{sfn|Whitman|1947|p=245}} and as such are grouped together, even though they do not occupy the same position within the verbal complex: * {{lang|iow|wa-}} indicates that the action moves away from a third point not occupied by the speaker * {{lang|iow|gi-}} indicates that the action moves towards a third point and communicates the English prepositions of to, for or concerning * {{lang|iow|gra-}}{{efn|Whitman uses {{IPAslink|l}}, while this article and GoodTracks use {{IPAslink|ɾ}}}} indicates that the action reverts towards the subject and is used to form possessive constructions

===Instrumental prefixes=== There are nine separate prefixes that indicate instrumentality, all of which change passive verbs into active.{{sfn|GoodTracks|2002|p=7}} * {{lang|iow|wa-}} by pushing with the hand * {{lang|iow|gi-}} by pushing or striking with a held object * {{lang|iow|ru-/ri-}} by hand * {{lang|iow|na-}} by means of the feet or a machine * {{lang|iow|ra-}} by means of the mouth or teeth * {{lang|iow|bo-}} by means of blow or blast * {{lang|iow|ba-}} by cutting * {{lang|iow|da-}} because of heating or freezing

===Causative suffix===

The causative, wherein the subject causes or makes something else to do or be something, is expressed via the suffix {{lang|iow|-hi}}. The verbs prefixed by {{lang|iow|da-}} are intransitive and are made transitive with the {{lang|iow|-hi}} suffix.{{sfn|GoodTracks|2002|p=7}}

===Tense===

"Tense" in Chiwere can be divided into present/past and future. Present and past tenses are unmarked in the language, and are distinguished by actual statements of time using words like "yesterday" or "today". The future tense is indicated with the particle ''hnye'', which follows the verb.{{sfn|Wistrand-Robinson|1977|p=97}}

===Personal pronouns===

Chiwere is a pro-drop language;{{sfn|Wistrand-Robinson|1977|p=95}} once the subject of the sentence has been established, it can be omitted.

*First Person: mi'e (sing.), hi'e (inc.) *Second Person: ri'e *Third Person: alé

===Negation===

Statements are negated with the particle ''skunyi'', which follows the verb.{{sfn|Wistrand-Robinson|1977|p=97}}

===Commands===

Commands are formed using the simple verb stem plus a gender-specific particle – le for male speakers and lé for female speakers.{{sfn|Wistrand-Robinson|1977|p=23}}

==See also== *Truman Washington Dailey (Otoe–Missoura, 1898–1996), the last fully fluent native speaker

==Footnotes== {{notelist}}

==Notes== {{reflist}}

== References == * {{cite book |last=GoodTracks |first=Jimm G. |year=2010 |title=Iowa, Otoe-Missouria Language Dictionary: English / Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñútˀačhi ~ Maʔúŋke |edition=Revised |publisher=Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest, University of Colorado}} * {{cite book |last=GoodTracks |first=Jimm G. |year=2007 |title=Iowa, Otoe-Missouria Language Dictionary: English / Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñútˀačhi ~ Maʔúŋke |edition=Revised |publisher=Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest, University of Colorado |url=https://www.kshs.org/p/the-ioway-otoe-missouria-baxoje-jiwere-nut-achi-language-project-and-dictionary/16055}} * {{cite web |last=GoodTracks |first=Jimm G. |year=2002 |title=Ioway-Otoe Verb Composition: Elements of the Verb and Conjugations |edition=Revised |website=Ioway Cultural Institute |url=https://ioway.nativeweb.org/language/conjugations.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041026131741/http://ioway.nativeweb.org/language/conjugations.pdf |archive-date=2004-10-26}} * {{cite journal |last=Whitman |first=William |year=1947 |title=Descriptive Grammar of Ioway-Oto |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=233–248|doi=10.1086/463961 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Wistrand-Robinson |editor-first=Lila |year=1977 |title=Jiwele-Baxoje Wan'shige Ukenye Ich'e Otoe-Iowa Indian Language – Book I |publisher=Jiwele Baxoje Language Project |id={{ERIC|ED361995}} |url=https://iowanation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Otoe-Iowa-Indian-Language.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101082335/https://iowanation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Otoe-Iowa-Indian-Language.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-01}}

== External links == *[http://www.iowayotoelang.nativeweb.org Ioway-Otoe-Missouria Language Website] *[http://ioway.nativeweb.org/language/conjugations.pdf Ioway-Otoe Verb Composition] *[http://ioway.nativeweb.org/language/index.htm Ioway Cultural Institute: Language] *[http://www.native-languages.org/otoe.htm Iowa-Otoe-Missouri page], Native-Languages.org *[https://web.archive.org/web/20071216062041/http://native.brokenclaw.net/otoe/otoe_hymns.html "Otoe-Missouria Hymns"], translated from English by Earl Plumley. *[http://www.omlanguage.org/ Otoe-Missouria Language Department]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chiwere Language}} Category:Iowa tribe Category:Otoe Category:Endangered Siouan-Catawban languages Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma Category:Native American language revitalization Category:Endangered languages of the United States Category:Western Siouan languages