Chalukya dynasty

{{Short description|Classical Indian dynasty (543–753)}} {{About|the Chalukyas of Vatapi|other dynasties|Chalukya (disambiguation)}} {{protection padlock|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}} {{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}

{{Distinguish|text=the Chaulukya dynasty}}{{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Chalukya dynasty | common_name = Chalukya dynasty | status_text = Empire (Subordinate to Kadamba Dynasty until 543) | government_type = Monarchy | area_km2 = | year_start = 543 | year_end = 753 | event_pre = Earliest records | date_pre = 543 | p1 = Kadamba dynasty | s1 = Rashtrakuta dynasty | s2 = Eastern Chalukyas | image_map = File:Chalukyas at their height.png | map_width = | image_map_caption = Greatest extent of the Chalukya Empire<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kamath|first1=Suryanath U. |title=A Concise History of Karnataka: (from Pre-historic Times to the Present) |date=2001 |publisher=Jupiter Books |page=327|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv-MnQEACAAJ}}</ref> | capital = Badami | common_languages = Kannada Sanskrit | religion = Hinduism Buddhism<ref name="buddha">An inscription dated 1095 AD of Vikramaditya VI mentions grants to a ''Vihara'' of Buddha and Arya-Taradevi (Cousens 1926, p11)</ref> Jainism | leader1 = Pulakeshin I | leader2 = Kirtivarman II | year_leader1 = 543–566 | year_leader2 = 746–753 | title_leader = Maharaja | today = India }} The '''Chalukya dynasty''' ({{IPA|kn|tʃaːlukjɐ|lang}}) was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.

The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Brahminical traditions. The 11th century saw the patronage of Telugu literature under the Eastern Chalukyas.

== Origins ==

=== Natives of Karnataka === thumb|Old Kannada inscription of Chalukya King Mangalesha dated 578 AD at Badami cave temple no.3 [[File:634 CE Aihole inscription Meguti Jain temple, 1879 photolithography print.jpg|thumb|Ravikirti's inscription, Meguti Jain Basadi, Aihole which celebrates Pulakeshin II's military achievements.]] [[File:8th century Kannada inscription on victory pillar at Pattadakal.jpg|thumb|Old Kannada inscription on victory pillar, Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal, 733–745 AD]] While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay, D.C. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh and Karmarkar is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modern Karnataka region.<ref name="historians">N. Laxminarayana Rao and Dr. S. C. Nandinath have claimed the Chalukyas were ''Kannadigas'' (Kannada speakers) and very much the natives of Karnataka (Kamath 2001, p. 57)</ref><ref name="sir">The Chalukyas were Kannadigas (D.C. Sircar in Mahajan V.D., 1960, Reprint 2007, Ancient India, Chand and Company, New Delhi, p. 690, {{ISBN|81-219-0887-6}})</ref><ref name="hans">Natives of Karnataka (Hans Raj, 2007, Advanced history of India: From earliest times to present times, Part-1, Surgeet publications, New Delhi, p. 339)</ref><ref name="historians1">The Chalukyas hailed from Karnataka (John Keay, 2000, p. 168)</ref><ref name="karna">Quote:"They belonged to Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada" (Sen 1999, p. 360)</ref><ref name="historians20">The Chalukyas of Badami seem to be of indigenous origin (Kamath 2001, p. 58)</ref><ref name="historians2">Jayasimha and Ranaraga, the first members of the Chalukya family were possibly employees of the Kadambas in the northern part of the Kadamba kingdom (Fleet [in ''Kanarese Dynasties'', p. 343] in Moraes, 1931, pp. 51–52)</ref><ref name="bad">Pulakesi I must have been an administrative official of the northern Kadamba territory centered in Badami (Moraes 1931, pp. 51–52)</ref><ref name="historians3">The Chalukya base was Badami and Aihole (Thapar 2003, p. 328)</ref><ref name="field">Inscriptional evidence proves the Chalukyas were native Kannadigas (Karmarkar, 1947, p. 26)</ref><ref name="identity"/>

A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku (from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves ''Vashisthiputras'' of the ''Hiranyakagotra''. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as ''Harithiputras'' of ''Manavyasagotra'' in their inscriptions, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.<ref name="kadamba">Pulakesi I of Badami who was a feudatory of the Kadamba king Krishna Varman II, overpowered his overlord in c. 540 and took control of the Kadamba kingdom (Kamath 2001, p. 35)</ref>

A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin I's father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin I's grandfather and Ranaraga, his father.<ref name="sapta">Jayasimha (Pulakesi I's grandfather) is known from the Kaira inscription of 472–473 CE. Both Jayasimha and Ranaraga (Pulakesi I's father) are known from Mahakuta inscription of 599 CE and Aihole record of 634 CE (Ramesh 1984, pp. 26–27, p. 30)</ref><ref name="gotra">From the Badami Cliff inscription of Pulakesi I and from the Hyderabad record of Pulakesi II which states their family ancestry (Kamath 2001, pp. 56–58)</ref><ref name="gotra1">Sastri (1955), p. 154</ref><ref name="father">Chopra (2003), p. 73, part 1</ref> Kamath and Moraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin.<ref name="legend">Kamath (2001), p. 56</ref><ref name="silent">Moraes (1931). pp. 10–11</ref>

While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination.<ref name="migration">Ramesh (1984), p. 19</ref> According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region.<ref name="identity">Ramesh (1984), p. 20</ref> The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriya caste.<ref name="Sudra-Kshatriya">Bilhana, in his Sanskrit work ''Vikramanakadevacharitam'' claims the Early Chalukya family were born from the feet of Hindu God Brahma, implying they were Shudras by caste, while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriyas (Ramesh 1984, p. 15)</ref> According to Xuanzang, the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was a Kshatriya by birth.<ref name="Jain 2011 p. 266">{{cite book | last=Jain | first=S. | title=THE INDIA THEY SAW (VOL-1): THE INDIA THEY SAW (VOL-1) by SANDHYA JAIN: Perspectives on India | publisher=Ocean Books | series=The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts | year=2011 | isbn=978-81-8430-106-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 | access-date=28 September 2023 | page=266}}</ref>

The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukya inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit.<ref name="south">Sircar D.C. (1965), p. 48, ''Indian Epigraphy'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, {{ISBN|81-208-1166-6}}</ref><ref name="south1">Kamath (2001), p. 57</ref><ref name="south2">Houben (1996), p. 215</ref> According to the historian N. L. Rao, their inscriptions call them ''Karnatas'' and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as ''Priyagallam'' and ''Noduttagelvom''. The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada term ''arasa'' (meaning "king" or "chief").<ref name="arasa">Professor N.L. Rao has pointed out that some of their family records in Sanskrit have also named the princes with "arasa", such as Kattiyarasa (Kirtivarman I), Bittarasa (Kubja Vishnuvardhana) and Mangalarasa (Mangalesha, Kamath 2001, pp. 57–60)</ref><ref name="arasa_1">Historians Shafaat Ahmad Khan and S. Krishnasvami Aiyangar clarify that '''Arasa''' is Kannada word, equivalent to Sanskrit word '''Raja''' – ''Journal of Indian History'' p. 102, Published by Department of Modern Indian History, University of Allahabad</ref> The Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of Badami ''Karnatakabala'' ("Power of Karnataka").<ref name="Abhinav Publications, New Delhi">{{cite book |last1=Dikshit |first1=Durga Prasad |title=POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI |quote= The Rashtrakuta inscriptions also praise the heroic nature of the Chalukyan army (Karṇāṭakabala, in their records)|date=1968 |publisher=Abhinav Publications, New Delhi |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12709/page/n281/mode/2up}}</ref> It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated from ''Salki'' or ''Chalki'' which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.<ref name="Chalki">Dr. Hoernle suggests a non-Sanskrit origin of the dynastic name. Dr. S.C. Nandinath feels the Chalukyas were of agricultural background and of Kannada origin who later took up a martial career. He feels the word ''Chalki'' found in some of their records must have originated from ''salki'', an agricultural implement (Kamath 2001, p. 57)</ref><ref name="root">The word ''Chalukya'' is derived from a Dravidian root (Kittel in Karmarkar 1947, p. 26)</ref><ref name="Kanisetti"/> According to some historians, the Chalukyas originated from agriculturists.<ref name="Kanisetti">{{cite book |author1=Anirudh Kanisetti|year=2022|title=Lords of the Deccan: Southern India from the Chalukyas to the Cholas |url=|location=India|publisher=Juggernaut |page=35|isbn=978-93-91165-0-55|quote=there seems to have been some connection to the crowbar, chalke, pointing to very humble origins, likely as a leader of an agricultural group in the valley of the Malaprabha river, in the northern part of the modern state of Karnataka.}}</ref><ref name="Chalki"/>

=== Historical sources === Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main source of information about Badami Chalukya history. Among them, the Badami cave inscriptions of Mangalesha (578), Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakeshin II, the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple inscription and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscription of Vikramaditya II (all in Kannada language) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language.<ref name="chalukyalangauge">Kamath (2001), p. 6, p. 10, p. 57, p. 59, p. 67</ref><ref name="chalukyalanguage1">Ramesh (1984), p. 76, p. 159, pp. 161–162</ref> The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I (543), the Mahakuta Pillar inscription of Mangalesha (595) and the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script.<ref name="language">Kamath (2001), p. 59</ref><ref name="language1">{{cite web|title=Badami Chalukyans' magical transformation|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210222449/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp|archive-date=10 February 2007 |author= Azmathulla Shariff |work= Deccan Herald, Spectrum, July 26, 2005|access-date=10 November 2006}}</ref><ref name="language2">{{cite journal|jstor=3249519|title=The Mahākuṭa Pillar and Its Temples|first=Carol Radcliffe|last=Bolon|date=1 January 1979|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=41|issue=2/3|pages=253–268|doi=10.2307/3249519}}</ref> The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilakam (Tamil country).<ref name="Peninsula">Thapar, (2003), p. 326</ref> Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period.<ref name="coins">Kamath (2001), pp. 12, 57, 67</ref>

thumb|300px|Coinage of the Chalukyas of Badami. Uncertain ruler. {{Circa|597}}–757 AD. Boar and Temple type. Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang had visited the court of Pulakeshin II. At the time of this visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into three ''Maharashtrakas'' or great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present day Karnataka, Maharashtra and coastal Konkan.<ref name="rastra">Pulakesi II's ''Maharashtra'' extended from Nerbudda (Narmada river) in the north to Tungabhadra in the south (Vaidya 1924, p. 171)</ref><ref name="actions">Kamath (2001), p. 60</ref> Xuanzang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II.<ref name="Persia">From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p. 60)</ref><ref name="persia1">Chopra (2003), p. 75, part 1</ref><ref>The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion, Pia Brancaccio, BRILL, 2010 [https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA82 p.82]</ref>

=== Legends === Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate: :"Once when Brahma, the creator, was engaged in the performance of the ''sandhya'' (twilight) rituals, Indra approached and beseeched him to create a hero who could put to an end the increasing evil on earth. On being thus requested, Brahma looked steadily into the ''Chuluka-jala'' (the water of oblation in his palm) and out sprang thence a great warrior, the progenitor of the Chalukyas".<ref name="palm">Ramesh (1984), p. 14</ref> The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by the ''Sapta Matrikas'' ("seven divine mothers") and were worshippers of many gods including Siva, Vishnu, Chamundi, Surya, Kubera, Parvati, Vinayaka and Kartikeya.

Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with the Chaulukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat.<ref name="sen28">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |page=28}}</ref> According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso, Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) at Mount Abu. However it has been reported that the story of Agnikula is not mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ldo1QtQigosC&pg=PA325 |title=Early Aryans to Swaraj |last1=S.R. Bakshi |last2=S.G |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-7625-537-0 |page=325 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |quote=It has been reported that the story of agnikula is mot mentioned at all in the original version of the Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner.}}</ref>

According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of God Brahma.<ref name="ayodhya">Kamath 2001, pp. 56</ref><ref name="ayodhya1">Quote:"Another unhistorical trend met with in the epigraphical records of the 11th and subsequent centuries is the attempt, on the part of the court poets, no doubt, again, with the consent of their masters, to invent mythical genealogies which seek to carry back the antiquity of the royal families not merely to the periods of the epics and the Vedas but to the very moment of their creation in the heavens. As far as the Chalukyas of Vatapi are concerned, the blame of engineering such travesties attaches, once again, to the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and their Eastern Chalukya contemporaries. The Eastern Chalukyas, for instance, have concocted the following long list of fifty-two names commencing with no less a personage than the divine preserver"(Ramesh 1984, p. 16)</ref> Some genealogical accounts point to an Ayodhya origin and claim that the Chalukyas belonged to the Solar dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Andhras through the ages|author=Kandavalli Balendu Sekaram|publisher=Sri Saraswati Book Depot, 1973|page=188}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Classical Age|author=R.K. Pruthi|publisher=Discovery Publishing House, 2004 – India – 288 pages|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Soul of India|author=Satyavrata Ramdas Patel|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1974 – India – 220 pages|page=177}}</ref>

According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleukia" tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "Parthians", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names.<ref name="Lewis">Dr. Lewis's theory has not found acceptance because the Pallavas were in constant conflict with the Kadambas, prior to the rise of Chalukyas (Kamath 2001, p. 57)</ref>

== Periods in Chalukya history == {{Chalukyas|Badami}} The Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the "Chalukyas of Badami" (also called "Early Chalukyas"), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the "Chalukyas of Kalyani" (also called Western Chalukyas or "Later Chalukyas") and the "Chalukyas of Vengi" (also called Eastern Chalukyas).

=== Chalukyas of Badami === [[File:Bhutanatha temple in Badami, Karnataka, India.jpg|thumb|300px|Bhutanatha temple complex, at Badami]] In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindhyas – the Deccan and Tamilakam. The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.<ref name="politics">Thapar (2003), p. 326</ref> The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543.<ref name="puli">Popular theories regarding the name are: ''Puli'' – "tiger" in Kannada and ''Kesin'' – "haried" in Sanskrit; ''Pole'' – "lustrous" in Kannada, from his earliest Badami cliff inscription that literally spells ''Polekesi''; ''Pole'' – from Tamil word ''Punai'' (to tie a knot; Ramesh 1984, pp. 31–32)</ref><ref name="Pulikesi">The name probably meant "the great lion" (Sastri 1955, p. 134)</ref><ref name="strength">The name probably meant "One endowed with the strength of a great lion" (Chopra 2003, p. 73, part 1)</ref> Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.

Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya,<ref name="coronate">Kamath (2001), pp. 58–59</ref> commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.<ref name="ereya">Ramesh (1984), p. 76</ref><ref name="greatest">Chopra 2003, p. 74, part 1</ref> He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history.<ref name="fame">Quote:"His fame spread far and wide even beyond India" (Chopra 2003, p. 75 part 1)</ref><ref name="Immadi">Quote:"One of the great kings of India". He successfully defied the expansion of king Harshavardhana of Northern India into the deccan. The Aihole inscription by Ravikirti describes how King Harsha lost his ''Harsha'' or cheerful disposition after his defeat. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsiang also confirms Pulakesi II's victory over King Harsha in his travelogue. Pulakesi II took titles such as ''Prithvivallabha'' and ''Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy'' (Kamath 2001, pp. 58–60)</ref><ref name="Immadi1">Quote:"Thus began one of the most colourful careers in Indian History" (Ramesh 1984, p. 76)</ref> His queens were princess from the Alupa Dynasty of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad, clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships.<ref name="son">Vikramaditya I, who later revived the Chalukya fortunes was born to Pulakesi II and the daughter of Western Ganga monarch Durvinita (Chopra 2003, p. 74, part 1)</ref><ref name="kadam">His other queen, an Alupa princess called Kadamba was the daughter of Aluka Maharaja (G.S. Gai in Kamath 2001, p. 94)</ref> Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the south-eastern Deccan.<ref name="super">Quote:"The Aihole record gives an impressive list of his military conquests and other achievements. According to the record, he conquered the Kadambas, the Western Gangas, the north Konkan by naval victory, Harsha of Thanesar, the Latas, the Malwas, the Gurjaras (thereby obtaining sovereignty over the Maharashtras), Berar, Maharashtra and Kuntala (with their nine and ninety thousand villages), the Kalingas and the Kosalas, Pishtapura (Pishtapuram in eastern Andhra) and Kanchipuram, whose king had opposed the rise of his power" (Chopra 2003, p. 74 part 1)</ref><ref name="harsha">Ramesh (1984), pp. 79–80, pp. 86–87</ref><ref name="submit">According to Dr. R. C. Majumdar, some principalities may have submitted to Pulakesi II out of fear of Harsha of Kanauj (Kamath 2001, p. 59)</ref><ref name="submit1">Sastri (1955), pp. 135–136</ref> Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died fighting.<ref name="persia1" /><ref name="fell">Sastri (1955), p. 136</ref>

The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.<ref name="occupy">This is attested to by an inscription behind the Mallikarjuna temple in Badami (Sastri 1955, p. 136)</ref><ref name="decline">Chopra (2003), pp. 75–76, part 1</ref> It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (''lit'' "Sovereign of the ''Mallas''" or Pallavas).<ref name="pushout">From the Gadval plates dated c. 674 of Vikramaditya I (Chopra 2003, p. 76, part 1)</ref> The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.<ref name="activity">Chopra (2003), p. 76, part 1</ref><ref name="temple">Sastri (1955), p. 138</ref>

The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.<ref name="activity" /><ref name="capital1">From the Kannada inscription at the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram (Sastri 1955, p. 140)</ref><ref name="behave">Kamath (2001), p. 63</ref> He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.<ref name="capital1" /><ref name="kanchi">Thapar (2003), p. 331</ref><ref name="kanchi2">Ramesh (1984), pp. 159–160</ref> During his reign Arab intruders of the Caliphal province of Sind invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule, but the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, the governor of the Chalukya branch of Navsari.<ref>Dikshit, Durga Prasad (1980), p. 166–167, ''Political History of the Chālukyas of Badami'', Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, OCLC 831387906</ref> Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.<ref name="kanchi3">Ramesh (1984), p. 159</ref> The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753.<ref name="overthrow">Ramesh (1984), pp. 173–174</ref> At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.

=== Chalukyas of Kalyani === {{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}} {{Asia 576 CE|right|The Chalukyas and contemporary polities {{c.|576}}}} The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century<ref name="related">Poet Bilhanas 12th century Sanskrit work '' Vikramadeva Charitam'' and Ranna's Kannada work ''Gadayuddha'' (982) and inscriptions from Nilagunda, Yevvur, Kauthem and Miraj claim Tailapa II was son of Vikramaditya IV, seventh in descent from Bhima, brother of Badami Chalukya Vikramaditya II (Kamath 2001, p. 100)</ref><ref name="Malla">Kings of the Chalukya line of Vemulavada, who were certainly from the Badami Chalukya family line used the title "Malla" which is often used by the Western Chalukyas. Names such as "Satyashraya" which were used by the Badami Chalukya are also names of a Western Chalukya king, (Gopal B.R. in Kamath 2001, p. 100)</ref> while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.<ref name="unrelated">Unlike the Badami Chalukyas, the Kalyani Chalukyas did not claim to be ''Harithiputhras'' of ''Manavysya gotra'' in lineage. The use of titles like ''Tribhuvanamalla'' marked them as of a distinct line (Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar in Kamath 2001, p. 100)</ref>

Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 (Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II, re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.<ref name="Tailapa">Later legends and tradition hailed Tailapa as an incarnation of the God Krishna who fought 108 battles against the race of Ratta (Rashtrakuta) and captured 88 fortresses from them (Sastri 1955, p. 162)</ref><ref name="indi">From his c. 957 and c.965 records (Kamath 2001, p. 101</ref> The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas, and with their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty.<ref name="Vijnyan">Vijnyaneshavara, the Sanskrit scholar in his court, eulogised him as "a king like none other" (Kamath 2001, p. 106)</ref><ref name="era2">The writing ''Vikramankadevacharita'' by Bilhana is a eulogy of the achievements of the king in 18 cantos (Sastri, 1955 p. 315)</ref> Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the original ''Saka'' era and established the ''Vikrama Era''. Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.<ref name="Era">Cousens 1926, p. 11</ref><ref name="era1">Vikrama–Chalukya era of 1075 CE (Thapar 2003, p. 469)</ref> Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.<ref name="end">Chopra (2003), p. 139, part 1</ref><ref name="dominant">Sastri (1955), p. 175</ref> The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature.<ref name="golden">Kamath (2001), pp. 114–115</ref><ref name="golden1">Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 18–20</ref> They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire, the Pandyas, the Kakatiya and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.<ref name="disappear">Sastri (1955), p. 192</ref>

=== Chalukyas of Vengi === {{Main|Eastern Chalukyas}} Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621.<ref name="kubja">Pulakesi II made Vishnuvardhana the ''Yuvaraja'' or crown prince. Later Vishnuvardhana become the founder of the Eastern Chalukya empire (Sastri 1955, pp. 134–136, p. 312)</ref><ref name="yuva">Chopra (2003), p. 132, part 1</ref> Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock.<ref name="stock10">Kamath (2001), p. 8</ref> After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Visakhapatnam.<ref name="yuva" /><ref name="Vengi">Kamath 2001, p. 60</ref>

After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.<ref name="subordinate">Chopra (2003), p. 133</ref> Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.<ref name="subordinate" />

The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in the Chola kingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I.<ref name="rajaraja">Sastri (1955), pp. 164–165</ref> This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.<ref name="subordinate" /><ref name="brook">Sastri (1955), p. 165</ref>

Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language.<ref name="stock">Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68</ref><ref name="stock1">The Eastern Chalukya inscriptions show a gradual shift towards Telugu with the appearance of Telugu stanzas from the time of king Gunaga Vijayaditya (Vijayaditya III) in the middle of the 9th century, {{cite web|title=APOnline-History of Andhra Pradesh-ancient period-Eastern Chalukyas|url=http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_ancient.html#ChalukyasPart|author=Dr. K.S.S. Seshan, University of Hyderabad|publisher=Tata Consultancy Services|work=Revenue Department (Gazetteers), Government of Andhra Pradesh|access-date=12 November 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206081329/http://www.aponline.gov.in/Quick%20links/HIST-CULT/history_ancient.html#ChalukyasPart|archive-date=6 December 2006}}</ref> Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.<ref name="born">The first work of Telugu literature is a translation of ''Mahabharata'' by Nannaya during the rule of Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra (1019–1061; Sastri 1955, p. 367)</ref>

== Architecture == {{See also|Badami Chalukya Architecture|Western Chalukya architecture|Pattadakal|Badami Cave Temples|Aihole}} [[File:Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal.jpg|thumb|right|Virupaksha temple in ''Dravidian'' style at Pattadakal, built 740 CE]] The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. The kings of this dynasty were called ''Umapati Varlabdh'' and built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva.<ref name="Tartakov">by Tartakov, Gary Michael (1997), ''The Durga Temple at Aihole: A Historiographical Study'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-563372-6}}</ref> Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture".<ref name="dravida">Hardy (1995), p. 5</ref><ref name="monuments1">Quote"The Badami Chalukyas had introduced a glorious chapter, alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace, in the western Deccan" (K.V. Sounder Rajan in Kamath 2001, p. 68)</ref> Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.<ref name="arch">Kamath 2001, p. 68</ref> The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. These cave temples are basically excavations, cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not built as their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural.<ref>Tarr, Gary (1970), p.156, ''Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples'', Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8, pp. 155–184</ref> Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.<ref name="mahakuta">Hardy (1995), p. 65</ref>

Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).<ref name="alam" /> These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah, a columned hall (''mantapa'') and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship.<ref name="motif">Sastri (1955), p. 406</ref> In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara, Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).<ref name="trivikrama">Quote:"The Chalukyas cut rock like titans but finished like jewellers"(Sheshadri in Kamath 2001, pp. 68–69)</ref>

The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture"<ref name="cradle">Percy Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 68</ref>) and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600.<ref name="struct">Sastri (1955), p. 407</ref><ref name="victory">Hardy (1995), p. 67</ref><ref name="debate">Foekema (2003), p. 11</ref> These are the Lad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist ''Chaitya'' design to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian styles.<ref name="Tartakov" />); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, a vestibule, connecting the sanctum to the hall.<ref name="hucci">Sastri (1955), pp. 407–408</ref> Other ''dravida'' style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami.<ref name="victory" /> Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the Early Chalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple at Sanduru which dates to the late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has a ''nagara'' (north Indian) style ''vimana'' (tower) and ''dravida'' (south Indian) style parts, has no mantapa (hall) and consists of an ''antarala'' (vestibule) crowned with a barrel-vaulted tower (''sukhanasi''). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became popular much later, in the 11th century.<ref name="parvati">Carol Radcliffe Bolon, (1980) pp. 303–326, ''The Pārvatī Temple, Sandur and Early Images of Agastya'', Artibus Asiae Vol. 42, No. 4</ref><ref name="sand">Hardy (1995), p.342, p.278</ref>

The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern ''dravida'' style and four in the northern ''nagara'' style. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in the ''nagara'' – ''dravida'' fusion style.<ref name="fuse">Sastri (1955), p. 408</ref> Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.<ref name="victory" /> Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda.<ref name="artist">Kamath (2001), p. 69</ref>

The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.<ref name="indianart">Quote:"Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art tradition" (Kamath 2001, p. 115)</ref><ref name="indianart1">Sastri (1955), p. 427</ref> The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-day Dharwad district; it included areas of present-day Haveri and Gadag districts.<ref name="heart">Cousens (1926, p 17</ref><ref name="gad">Foekema (1996), p. 14</ref> Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments.<ref name="workshop">Hardy (1995), p. 156</ref> These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the ''Karnata dravida'' tradition.<ref name="kardra">Hardy (1995), pp. 6–7</ref>

The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district,<ref name="maha">Cousens (1926), pp. 100–102</ref><ref name="hardy10">Hardy (1995), p. 333</ref> the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district,<ref name="kasi">Cousens (1926), pp. 79–82</ref><ref name="hardy11">Hardy (1995), p. 336</ref> the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti,<ref name="hardy11" /> and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali,<ref name="hardy13">Hardy (1995), p. 323</ref> both in the Davangere district.<ref name="kal">The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi has been called the finest in Kannada country after the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu (Cousens in Kamath 2001, p 117)</ref> Other notable constructions are the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (Gadag district),<ref name="dam1">Cousens (1926), pp. 114–115</ref><ref name="hardy14">Hardy (1995), p. 326</ref> the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri (Haveri district),<ref name="sidd">Cousens (1926), pp. 85–87</ref><ref name="hardy15">Hardy (1995), p. 330</ref> and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district).<ref name="amrtesh">Foekema (2003), p. 52</ref><ref name="hardy16">Hardy (1995), p. 321</ref> The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="alam">Hardy (1995), p. 66</ref><ref name="alampur">The Badami Chalukyas influenced the art of the rulers of Vengi and those of Gujarat (Kamath 2001, pp. 68, 69)</ref>

<gallery> File:Badami, Höhle 4, Bahubali (1999).jpg|Bahubali at Jain Cave temple No. 4 at Badami, 6th century File:Vishnu image inside cave number 3 in Badami.jpg|Vishnu image in Cave temple No. 3 File:Bhutanatha temple complex in Badami.jpg|Bhutanatha group of temples facing the Badami tank File:Parvati temple at Krauncha Giri near Sandur, Ballary district.jpg|The Parvati Temple, located about 140 km southeast to the Badami File:Durga Temple.jpg|Aihole – Durga Temple Front View File:Jain basadi.JPG|Aihole – Meguti Jain Temple File:Mallikarjuna and Kasivisvanatha temples at Pattadakal.jpg|Mallikarjuna temple in ''dravidian'' style and Kashi Vishwanatha temple in ''nagara'' style at Pattadakal, built 740 CE File:Badami-shiva.JPG|Dancing Shiva in cave no. 1 in Badami File:Papanatha temple at Pattadakal.jpg|Papanatha temple at Pattadakal – fusion of southern and northern Indian styles, 680 CE File:Cave temple number 3 at Badami.jpg|Vaishnava Cave temple No. 3 at Badami, 578 AD </gallery>

== Literature == {{See also|Western Chalukya literature}} [[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|Poetry on stone at the Meguti Jain Basadi (Aihole inscription) dated 634 AD, in Sanskrit language and old Kannada script, with a Kannada language endorsement of about the same date at the bottom.<ref name="south" />]] The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry.<ref name="language" /><ref name="kirti">Quote:"He deemed himself the peer of Bharavi and Kalidasa". An earlier inscription in Mahakuta, in prose is comparable to the works of Bana (Sastri, 1955, p. 312)</ref> A few verses of a poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "dark Sarasvati" have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya (a son of Pulakeshin II).<ref name="jayakirti">Sastri, 1955, p. 312</ref> Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Someshvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopaedia of all arts and sciences called ''Manasollasa''.<ref name="science">The writing is on various topics including traditional medicine, music, precious stones, dance etc. (Kamath 2001, p. 106)</ref>

From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived.<ref name="survive10">Sen (1999), p. 366</ref> Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".<ref name="survive">Thapar (2003), p. 345</ref> The Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 in ''tripadi'' (three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics.<ref name="tri">Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1717</ref><ref name="karnateshwara" /> ''Karnateshwara Katha'', which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period.<ref name="karnateshwara">Chidananda Murthy in Kamath (2001), p. 67</ref> Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references<ref name="inde">Such as Indranandi's ''Srutavatara'', Devachandra's ''Rajavalikathe'' (Narasimhacharya, 1934, pp. 4–5); Bhattakalanka's ''Sabdanusasana'' of 1604 (Sastri 1955, p. 355)</ref> are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have authored the ''Prabhrita'', and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of the ''Chudamani'' ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on logic.<ref name="survive10" /><ref name="tumbu">Sastri (1955), p. 355</ref><ref name="srivarada">Mugali (1975), p. 13</ref><ref name="extinct1">Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 4</ref>

The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period.<ref name="gems">Sastri 1955, p. 356</ref><ref name="gems1">Chopra (2003), p. 196, part 1</ref> In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.<ref name="gems1" /><ref name="begin">Sastri (1955), p. 367</ref>

== Badami Chalukya country == {{Karnataka History}}

=== Army === The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakeshin II's success beyond the Vindyas.<ref name="vindya">Chopra (2003), p. 77, part1</ref> It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle.<ref name="persia1" /><ref name="elephant">Kamath (2001), p. 64</ref> It was with their navy that they conquered ''Revatidvipa'' (Goa), and Puri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term ''Karnatakabala'' when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies.<ref name="bala">Kamath 2001, pp. 57, 65</ref><ref name="Abhinav Publications, New Delhi"/>

=== Land governance === The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after the Magadhan and Satavahana administrative machinery.<ref name="persia1" /> The empire was divided into ''Maharashtrakas'' (provinces), then into smaller ''Rashtrakas'' (''Mandala''), ''Vishaya'' (district), ''Bhoga'' (group of 10 villages) which is similar to the ''Dasagrama'' unit used by the Kadambas. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called ''Dasagrama''.<ref name="grama">The breakup of land into ''mandalas'', ''vishaya'' existed in the Kadamba administrative machinery (Kamath 2001, pp. 36, 65, 66)</ref> In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, the Gangas, the Banas and the Sendrakas.<ref name="bana">Kamath (2001), p. 65</ref> Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups of ''mahajanas'' (learned brahmins) looked after ''agraharas'' (called ''ghatika'' or "place of higher learning") such as at Badami which was served by 2000 ''mahajans'' and Aihole which was served by 500 ''mahajanas''. Taxes were levied and were called the ''herjunka'' – tax on loads, the ''kirukula'' – tax on retail goods in transit, the ''bilkode'' – sales tax, the ''pannaya'' – betel tax, ''siddaya'' – land tax and the ''vaddaravula'' – tax levied to support royalty.<ref name="bana" />

=== Coinage === The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms.<ref name="Varaha">However, they issued gold coins that weighed 120 grams, in imitation of the Gupta dynasty (A.V. Narasimha Murthy in Kamath 2001, p. 65)</ref> The coins had ''Nagari'' and Kannada legends.<ref name="south1" /> The coins of Mangalesha had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakeshin II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada, ''hun'' (or ''honnu'') and had fractions such as ''fana'' (or ''fanam'') and the ''quarter fana'' (the modern day Kannada equivalent being ''hana'' – which literally means "money").<ref name="hana">{{cite web|title=The Southern India: Coinage of the Chalukyas|url=http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/chalukya/south_chalcoin.html |author=Govindaraya Prabhu, S|publisher=Prabhu's Web Page On Indian Coinage|date=1 November 2001|access-date=6 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201142248/http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/chalukya/south_chalcoin.html|archive-date=1 December 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> A gold coin called ''gadyana'' is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at Pattadakal, which later came to be known as ''varaha'' (their royal emblem).<ref name="Varaha" />

=== Religion === thumb|left|Aihole – Meguti Jain Temple The Chalukyas supported multiple faiths, but unlike the Rashtrakutas and Gangas whose personal religious affiliations are better known, the personal faith of the Chalukyas remains unclear. Scholars have given different views. some suggest Jainism while others suggest Hinduism. However, many scholars such as Hampa N and S. Settar point out that Jainism was a prominent religion during the early Chalukya period.<ref>Hampa.N (2014), pp. 22–23.</ref><ref>Settar. s (1992), pp. 56–58.</ref>

Hampa and Settar suggest that ''Puligere'' (modern Lakshmeshwara), the first capital of the Chalukyas, was a major Jain centre. Historical records and local tradition mention that there were more than ''300 Basadis'' or likely more around Puligere region. The present Someshwara temple is believed, based on inscriptions and historical evidence, to have originally been a Jain temple built during the reign of Pulakeshin, along with the Shanka Basadi constructed by Pulakeshin II and his family.<ref>Hampa.N (2014), pp. 23–25.</ref><ref>Settar. s (1992), pp. 73–74.</ref> An inscription fixed on the left wall of the Shanka Basadi at Basti-Bana at Lakshmeshwara, records a grant of ''500 nivartanas of land to the north of Puligere-nagara'' for the worship of ''"Shankha-Jinendra (Bhagwan Neminatha)"''. It was made by Durgasakti, son of Kundasakti and grandson of Vijayasakti of the Sendra lineage. The same inscription mentions that Pulakeshin II was also known as "''Ereyamma"''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lakshmeswar – Inscriptions |url=https://puratattva.in/lakshmeswar-inscriptions/ |access-date=10 October 2025 |website=Puratattva |publisher=Indian Archaeological Society}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/epigraphiacarnat09myso/page/n501/mode/1up |title=Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. IX: Inscriptions of the Bangalore District |publisher=Mysore Government Central Press |year=1905 |page=n501 |access-date=11 October 2025}}</ref> The Shanka Basadi was one of the most famous Jain shrines during the Chalukya period.<ref>Hampa.N (2014), pp. 26–28.</ref><ref>Settar. s (1992), pp. 74–77.</ref>

Hampa Nagarajaiah and Settar also noted that the Meguti Jain Basadi inscription, commissioned during the reign of Pulakeshin II, begins with the line ''“Jayati Bhagwan Jinendra”'' and mentions Pulakeshin’s military achievements. The composer of the inscription, Ravikirti, was a Jain monk and likely served as the spiritual teacher of Pulakeshin II.<ref>Hampa.N (2014), pp. 12–15.</ref> and Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,<ref name="grant">From the Shiggaon plates of c. 707 and Gudigeri inscription dated 1076 (Ramesh 1984, pp. 142, 144)</ref> Hampa Nagarajaiah further states that the Chalukyas had martial connections with several Jain dynasties, including the Gangas, Alupas, and Kalachuris.<ref>Hampa.N (2014), pp. 30–31.</ref>

However, the Chalukyas also known for supporting Hinduism as well and built several temples dedicated to Shaiva and Vaishnava deities.<ref name="popular">Chopra (2003), p. 191, part 1</ref> Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta<ref name="dana">Sastri (1955), p. 391</ref> The Badami kings were also supported Vedic priests to do their rituals and builted Hindu temples in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya and ''Sapta Matrikas'' ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha.<ref name="deity">Kamath 2001, p. 66</ref> The worship of Lajja Gauri, a fertility goddess is known. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged all prominent religions. they builted the caves Caves temples to all faiths.<ref name="maguti">Chopra (2003), p. 78, part 1</ref>

The dynasty, therefore, extended patronage to all the major religions of India Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ravikirti, the Jain monk and poet and spirtual advisor of Pulakeshin II. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti, Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and ''Ardhanarishwara'' (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance.<ref name="deity" /> Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar in the Gadag district) were primary places of learning.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

=== Society === The society under the Chalukyas was marked by religious pluralism and cultural diversity. Some kings had concubines (''ganikas'') who were given much respect, Inscriptions record donations to Jain basadis (temples), and prominent Jain scholars such as Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshin II, flourished under their reign.<ref name="ganikas">Vinopoti, a concubine of King Vijayaditya is mentioned with due respect in an inscription (Kamath 2001, p. 67)</ref> Devadasis were however present in temples. Sage Bharata's ''Natyashastra'', the precursor to Bharatanatyam, the classical dance of South India was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions.<ref name="natyasastra">One record mentions an artist called Achala who was well versed in ''Natyashastra'' (Kamath 2001, p. 67)</ref> Kumkumadevi the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,<ref name="grant" /> Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poet,<ref name="jayakirti" /> and the queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) but also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.<ref name="sanga">Cousens (1926), p. 59</ref>

== In popular culture == The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the ''Vesara'' style of architecture which includes elements of the northern ''nagara'' and southern ''dravida'' styles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already popular.<ref name="politics" /> Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today. This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages.<ref name="enrich">Sastri (1955), p. 309</ref> The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work ''Mitakshara'' by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature, ''Mitakshara'' is a commentary on ''Yajnavalkya'' and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. Englishman Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British Indian court system.<ref name="legal">Sastri (1955), p. 324</ref> It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna, later spreading into northern India.

A celebration called ''Chalukya utsava'', a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the Government of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.<ref name="utsav">{{cite web|title=Chalukya Utsava: Depiction of grandeur and glory|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20060226013433&Topic=0&Title=Southern%20News%20-%20Karnataka&Page=K|publisher=NewIndia Press|date=26 February 2006|access-date=12 November 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929092610/http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20060226013433&Topic=0&Title=Southern%20News%20-%20Karnataka&Page=K|archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the {{Nowrap|26 February}} 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cutouts of the ''Varaha'' the Chalukya emblem, ''Satyashraya'' Pulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural masterpieces such as Durga, Mahishasuramardhini (Durga killing demon Mahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is named ''Anivaritacharigund vedike'' after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple, Gundan Anivaritachari. At Badami it is called ''Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike'' and at Aihole, ''Ravikirti Vedike'' after the famous poet and Jain monk (Ravikirti) in the court of Pulakeshin II. ''Immadi Pulikeshi'', a Kannada movie of the 1960s starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king.<ref name="utsav" />

== Notes and references == {{Reflist}}

== References == '''Books''' {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal|jstor=3249519|title=The Mahākuṭa Pillar and Its Temples|first=Carol Radcliffe|last=Bolon|date=1 January 1979|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=41|issue=2/3|pages=253–268|doi=10.2307/3249519}} * {{cite book |last1= Chopra|first1= P.N.|last2= Ravindran|first2= T.K.|last3=Subrahmanian|first3= N|title= History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher= Chand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn= 81-219-0153-7}} * {{cite book|author=Cousens, Henry|title= The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts|orig-year= 1926|year= 1996|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |location= New Delhi|oclc = 37526233}} * {{cite book|last=Foekema|first=Gerard|title=Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples|publisher=Abhinav|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7017-345-0|year=1996}} * {{cite book |last=Foekema|first=Gerard |title= Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 1000–1300 AD|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. 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== External links == {{Commons category}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/chalukya/|title=Chalukyan Art by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006|access-date=10 November 2006 }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history1.htm|title=History of the Kannada Literature, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, on Kamat's Potpourri, Timeless Theater-Karnataka-History of Kannada, 4 November 2006|access-date=12 November 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403213846/http://kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history1.htm|archive-date=3 April 2005|url-status=dead}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/aihole/aihplan.html |title=Aihole Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002|access-date=10 November 2006 }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/badami/baplan.html |title=Badami Cave Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002|access-date=10 November 2006 }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/pattadakal/pat0.html |title=Pattadakal Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002|access-date=10 November 2006 }} * [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/chalukya/kalyani.htm Chalukyas of Kalyana (973–1198 CE)] by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat * {{cite web |url=http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/alupa/south_alupacat.html |title=Coins of Alupas|access-date=10 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060815095514/http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/alupa/south_alupacat.html  |archive-date=15 August 2006 }}

Category:Chalukya dynasty Category:States and territories established in the 540s Category:States and territories disestablished in the 8th century Category:Medieval Karnataka Category:Former monarchies of India Category:543 establishments Category:6th-century establishments in India Category:753 disestablishments Category:8th-century disestablishments in India Category:Dynasties of medieval Andhra