{{Short description|Early form of Tibetan language}} {{redirect-distinguish|Choke language|Chokwe language|Choco languages}} {{Infobox language | name = Classical Tibetan | nativename = | region = [[Tibet]], [[Nepal|North Nepal]], [[Sikkim]] | era = 9th century onwards<ref>{{Cite web |title=Old Tibetan / Classical Tibetan: Tibetan: Language Portal: Center for Language Technology: Indiana University |url=https://celt.indiana.edu/portal/Tibetan/old_tibetan.html |access-date=2026-01-01 |website=Center for Language Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> | script = [[Tibetan script]] | familycolor = Sino-Tibetan | fam2 = [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] ? | fam3 = [[Bodish languages|Bodish]] | fam4 = [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] | ancestor = [[Old Tibetan]] | iso3 = xct | glotto = clas1254 | glottorefname = Classical Tibetan | linglist = xct }} '''Classical Tibetan''', sometimes called '''Chöke''' in [[Bhutan]],<ref>{{Citation |last=Hyslop |first=Gwendolyn |title=The Role of Classical Tibetan (Chöke) on the Development of Kurtöp, a Language of Bhutan |date=2022-09-01 |work=Bordering Tibetan Languages |pages=53–82 |editor-last=Roche |editor-first=Gerald |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9789048552719%23c3/type/book_part |access-date=2026-03-17 |edition=1 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |doi=10.1017/9789048552719.003 |isbn=978-90-485-5271-9 |editor2-last=Hyslop |editor2-first=Gwendolyn|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is a [[Sacred language|liturgical language]] of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] that dates from the 9th century. It particularly refers to the language of early canonical texts translated from other languages, especially [[Sanskrit]]. It is one of the handful of '[[Modern language|living]]' [[classical languages]] along with [[Arabic]], [[Ge'ez]], and [[New Persian]], though it meaningfully differs from [[Modern Lhasa Tibetan grammar|Modern Standard Tibetan]].

== History == There are four recognised stages of Tibetan: Archaic, [[Old Tibetan|Old]], Classical, Medieval and [[Lhasa Tibetan|Modern]]. Old Tibetan was used from the seventh century to translate mostly [[Sanskrit]] texts from the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhist]] canon, though standardization in {{CE|816}} during the reign of King [[Sadnalegs]] gave rise to the form of the language known as Classical Tibetan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Hodge |first=Stephen |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Classical_Tibetan/kJHGOQAACAAJ?hl=en |title=An Introduction to Classical Tibetan |date=2003–2015 |publisher=Orchid Press |isbn=978-974-8304-58-8 |pages= |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Tournadre|2003|p=479}} Some medieval writers strayed from this written standard by using more colloquial phrases and words, compound words, and omitting case particles. This process continued to create the current differences between Modern Literary Tibetan and Classical Tibetan.<ref name=":0" />

The [[grammar]] varies greatly depending on period and geographic origin of the author.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beyer |first=Stephan V. |title=The Classical Tibetan Language |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=9780585086903 |pages=62–80}}</ref>

== Phonology == The [[phonology]] implied by Classical Tibetan [[orthography]] is very similar to the phonology of Old Tibetan.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}} The following information is based on Hodge's description of Classical Tibetan.<ref name=":0" />

=== Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Consonant phonemes ! colspan="2" | ![[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan="2" |[[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] ![[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] |- ! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |{{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|མ}}}} | colspan="2" |{{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n~'}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ན~འ}}}}{{Efn-lr|' ⟨འ⟩ is usually silent, but may be pronounced [n] when occurring as a prefix.}} |{{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angbr|ng}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ང}}}} |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]}} |{{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|པ}}}} | colspan="2" |{{IPA link|t}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཏ}}}} |{{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཀ}}}} |- !{{small|[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]}} |{{IPA link|pʰ}} {{angbr|ph}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཕ}}}} | colspan="2" |{{IPA link|tʰ}} {{angbr|th}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཐ}}}} |{{IPA link|kʰ}} {{angbr|kh}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཁ}}}} |- !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} |{{IPA link|b}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|བ}}}} | colspan="2" |{{IPA link|d}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ད}}}} |{{IPA link|ɡ}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ག}}}} |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]}} | rowspan="7" | |{{IPA link|ts}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཙ}}}} |{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} {{angbr|c}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཅ}}}} | rowspan="3" | |- !{{small|[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]}} |{{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{angbr|tsh}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཚ}}}} |{{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}} {{angbr|ch}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཆ}}}} |- !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} |{{IPA link|dz}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཛ}}}} |{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} {{angbr|j}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཇ}}}} |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]}} | colspan="2" |{{IPA link|ɬ}} {{angbr|lh}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ལྷ}}}} |{{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|h}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཧ}}}} |- !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]}} {{small|[[Tone (linguistics)|high tone]]}} |{{IPA link|˥s}} {{angbr|s}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ས}}}} |{{IPA link|˥ʃ}} {{angbr|sh}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཤ}}}} | rowspan="4" | |- !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]}} {{small|[[Tone (linguistics)|low tone]]}} |{{IPA link|˩s}} {{angbr|z}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཟ}}}} |{{IPA link|˩ʃ}} {{angbr|zh}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཞ}}}} |- ![[Trill consonant|Trill]] !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | colspan="2" |{{IPA link|r}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ར}}}} |- ![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] !{{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} |{{IPA link|w}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཝ}}}} | colspan="1" |{{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ལ}}}} |{{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}} {{angbr|{{bo-textonly|ཡ}}}} |} {{Notelist-lr}} Prefixes are usually silent with the exception of db- when preceding a, e, or o, where it is realized as [w]. The suffixes -g and -b are devoiced to /k/ and /p/, and the suffixes -d and -s are silent.

=== Vowels === {| class="wikitable" |+Vowel phonemes ! !Front !Back |- |High |{{IPA link|ɪ}} {{angbr|i}} <big>ི</big> |{{IPA link|u}} <big>ུ</big> |- |Mid |{{IPA link|e}} <big>ེ</big> |{{IPA link|o}} <big>ོ</big> |- |Low | |{{IPA link|ɑ}} {{angbr|a}} - |} /ɑ/, /u/, and /o/ are raised to [ɛ], u [y], o [ø~œ] before the suffixes -d /∅/, -s /∅/, -n /n/, and -l /l/. All vowels are lengthened before the -gs /∅/ suffix.<ref name=":0" />

== Nouns ==

===Structure of the noun phrase=== Nominalizing suffixes — {{Transliteration|xct|pa}} or {{Transliteration|xct|ba}} and {{Transliteration|xct|ma}} — are required by the [[noun]] or [[adjective]] that is to be singled out; * {{Transliteration|xct|po}} or {{Transliteration|xct|bo}} ([[Grammatical gender|masculine]]) and {{Transliteration|xct|mo}} ([[Grammatical gender|feminine]]) are used for distinction of gender.

The [[plural]] is denoted, when required, by adding the morpheme {{Transliteration|xct|-rnams}}; when the collective nature of the plurality is stressed the morpheme {{Transliteration|xct|-dag}} is instead used. These two morphemes combine readily (e.g. {{Transliteration|xct|rnams-dag}} {{gloss|a group with several members}}, and {{Transliteration|xct|dag-rnams}} {{gloss|several groups}}).{{sfn|Hahn|2003}}

===Cases=== The classical written language has ten [[Grammatical case|case]]s, listed below, though scholars differ in their analyses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=Nathan W. |date=2 January 2012 |title=Tibetan-las, -nas and -bas |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/clao/41/1/article-pv_1.xml |access-date=2025-11-03 |website=brill.com}}</ref> Traditional Tibetan grammarians do not distinguish case markers in this manner, but rather distribute these case morphemes (excluding {{lang|xct-Latn|-dang}} and {{lang|xct-Latn|-bas}}) into the eight cases of [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]. {{lang|xct-Latn|-la}}, {{lang|xct-Latn|-na}} and {{lang|xct-Latn|-tu etc.}} are traditionally grouped as the {{lang|xct-Latn|la don}} particles, as {{lang|xct-Latn|-las}} and {{lang|xct-Latn|-nas}} are as {{lang|xct-Latn|’byung khungs}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Nathan W. |title=New Studies in the Old Tibetan Documents: Philology, History and Religion |publisher=Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies |year=2011 |pages=3–38 |language=en |chapter=The allative, locative, and terminative cases (la-don) in the Old Tibetan Annals |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260197473_The_allative_locative_and_terminative_cases_la-don_in_the_Old_Tibetan_Annals}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Comparison of case analyses !Particles !Traditional !Delancey (2003) !Tournadre (2010) !Hill (2011) !Hodge (2015)<ref name=":0" /> |- !-∅ unmarked morphologically |[[Nominative case|nominative]], [[Vocative case|vocative]] |zero marking | colspan="2" |[[Absolutive case|absolutive]] | - |- !{{lang|xct|-ཀྱི་}} {{lang|xct|-kyi}}, {{lang|xct|-གྱི}}་ {{lang|xct-Latn|-gyi}}, {{lang|xct|-གི}}་ {{lang|xct-Latn|-gi}}, {{lang|xct|-འི་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-'i}}, {{lang|xct|-ཡི་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-yi}} | colspan="5" |[[Genitive case|genitive]] |- !{{lang|xct|-ཀྱིས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-kyis}}, {{lang|xct|གྱིས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-gyis}}, {{lang|xct|-གིས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-gis}}, {{lang|xct|-ས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-s}}, {{lang|xct|-ཡིས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-yis}} |[[Instrumental case|instrumental]] |[[Ergative case|ergative]]/[[Instrumental case|instrumental]] | colspan="2" |[[Agentive case|agentive]] |[[Instrumental case|instrumental]] |- !{{lang|xct|-ལ་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-la}} | rowspan="3" |{{lang|xct-Latn|la-don-gyi sgra}} (morphemes with the same meaning as la) |[[Locative case|locative]]/[[Allative case|allative]] |[[Dative case|dative]] |[[Allative case|allative]] |[[Oblique case|oblique]] ([[Locative case|locative]]/[[Allative case|allative]]) |- !{{lang|xct|-ན་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-na}} |[[Locative case|locative]]/[[Illative case|illative]] | colspan="3" |[[Locative case|locative]] |- !{{lang|xct|-ཏུ་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-tu}}, {{lang|xct|-དུ་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-du}}, {{lang|xct|-ར་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-r}}, {{lang|xct|-རུ་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-ru}}, {{lang|xct|-སུ་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-su}} |[[Terminative case|terminative]] |purposive |[[Terminative case|terminative]] |general subordination |- !{{lang|xct|-ལས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-las}} | rowspan="2" |{{lang|xct-Latn|’byung khungs}} (source) | colspan="4" |[[Ablative case|ablative]] |- !{{lang|xct|-ནས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-nas}} | colspan="3" |[[Elative case|elative]] |[[Prolative case|prolative]] |- !{{lang|xct|-དང་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-dang}} | - | - | colspan="2" |[[Associative case|associative]] |[[Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctive]] |- !{{lang|xct|-བས་}} {{lang|xct-Latn|-bas}} | - | - | colspan="2" |[[Comparative case|comparative]] | - |} Case markers are affixed to entire noun phrases, not to individual words (i.e. {{linktext|Gruppenflexion}}).

===Pronouns=== There are personal, demonstrative, interrogative and reflexive [[pronoun]]s, as well as an [[indefinite article]], which is plainly related to the numeral for "one."{{sfn|Waddell|de Lacouperie|1911|p=919}}

====Personal pronouns==== As an example of the pronominal system of classical Tibetan, the {{Transliteration|xct|Milarepa rnam thar}}, exhibits the following personal pronouns.{{sfn|Hill|2007}}

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- | First person || {{lang|xct|ང་}} {{Transliteration|xct|nga}} || ངེད་ {{Transliteration|xct|nged}} |- | First + Second || || {{lang|xct|རང་རེ་}} {{Transliteration|xct|rang-re}} |- | Second person || {{lang|xct|ཁྱོད་}} {{Transliteration|xct|khyod}} || {{lang|xct|ཁྱེད་}} {{Transliteration|xct|khyed}} |- | Third person || {{lang|xct|ཁོ་}} {{Transliteration|xct|kho}} || {{lang|xct|ཁོང་}} {{Transliteration|xct|khong}} |}

The plural ({{lang|xct|ཁྱེད་}} {{Transliteration|xct|khyed}}) can be used as a [[T–V distinction|polite singular]].{{sfn|Hill|2007}}

==Verbs== [[Verb]]s do not inflect for person or number. Morphologically there are up to four separate stem forms, which the Tibetan grammarians, influenced by Sanskrit grammatical terminology, call the "present" ({{Transliteration|xct|lta-da}}), "past" ({{Transliteration|xct|'das-pa}}), "future" ({{Transliteration|xct|ma-'ongs-pa}}), and "imperative" ({{Transliteration|xct|skul-tshigs}}), although the precise semantics of these stems is still controversial. The so-called future stem is not a true future, but conveys the sense of necessity or obligation.

The majority of Tibetan verbs fall into one of two categories, those that express implicitly or explicitly the involvement of an agent, marked in a sentence by the instrumental particle ({{Transliteration|xct|kyis}}, etc.) and those that express an action that does not involve an agent. Tibetan grammarians refer to these categories as {{Transliteration|xct|tha-dad-pa}} and {{Transliteration|xct|tha-mi-dad-pa}} respectively. Although these two categories often seem to overlap with the English{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} grammatical concepts of transitive and intransitive, most modern writers on Tibetan grammar have adopted the terms "voluntary" and "involuntary", based on native Tibetan descriptions.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}<!--Involuntary is very different from intransitive, and which of these is the case should be clear from the texts, not from "native linguistics".--> Most involuntary verbs lack an imperative stem.

===Inflection=== Many verbs exhibit stem ablaut among the four stem forms, thus {{Transliteration|xct|a}} or {{Transliteration|xct|e}} in the present tends to become {{Transliteration|xct|o}} in the imperative {{Transliteration|xct|byed}}, {{Transliteration|xct|byas}}, {{Transliteration|xct|bya}}, {{Transliteration|xct|byos}} ('to do'), an {{Transliteration|xct|e}} in the present changes to {{Transliteration|xct|a}} in the past and future ({{Transliteration|xct|len}}, {{Transliteration|xct|blangs}}, {{Transliteration|xct|blang}}, {{Transliteration|xct|longs}} 'to take'); in some verbs a present in {{Transliteration|xct|i}} changes to {{Transliteration|xct|u}} in the other stems ({{Transliteration|xct|'dzin}}, {{Transliteration|xct|bzung}}, {{Transliteration|xct|gzung}}, {{Transliteration|xct|zung}} 'to take'). Additionally, the stems of verbs are also distinguished by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes, thus {{Transliteration|xct|sgrub}} (present), {{Transliteration|xct|bsgrubs}} (past), {{Transliteration|xct|bsgrub}} (future), '{{Transliteration|xct|sgrubs}} (imperative). Though the final {{Transliteration|xct|-s}} suffix, when used, is quite regular for the past and imperative, the specific prefixes to be used with any given verb are less predictable; while there is a clear pattern of {{Transliteration|xct|b-}} for a past stem and {{Transliteration|xct|g-}} for a future stem, this usage is not consistent.{{sfn|Hill|2010}}

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Meaning !! present !! past !! future !! imperative |- | do || {{lang|xct|བྱེད་}} {{Transliteration|xct|byed}} || {{lang|xct|བྱས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|byas}} || {{lang|xct|བྱ་}} {{Transliteration|xct|bya}} || {{lang|xct|བྱོས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|byos}} |- | take || {{lang|xct|ལེན་}} {{Transliteration|xct|len}} || {{lang|xct|བླངས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|blangs}} || {{lang|xct|བླང་}} {{Transliteration|xct|blang}} || {{lang|xct|ལོངས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|longs}} |- | take || {{lang|xct|འཛིན་}} {{Transliteration|xct|'dzin}} || {{lang|xct|བཟུངས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|bzungs}} || {{lang|xct|གཟུང་}} {{Transliteration|xct|gzung}} || {{lang|xct|ཟུངས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|zungs}} |- | accomplish || {{lang|xct|སྒྲུབ་}} {{Transliteration|xct|sgrub}} || {{lang|xct|བསྒྲུབས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|bsgrubs}} || {{lang|xct|བསྒྲུབ་}} {{Transliteration|xct|bsgrub}} || {{lang|xct|སྒྲུབས་}} {{Transliteration|xct|sgrubs}} |}

Only a limited number of verbs are capable of four changes; some cannot assume more than three, some two, and many only one. This relative deficiency is made up by the addition of auxiliaries or suffixes both in the classical language and in the modern dialects.{{sfn|Waddell|de_Lacouperie|1911|p=920}}

===Negation=== Verbs are negated by two prepositional particles: {{Transliteration|xct|mi}} and {{Transliteration|xct|ma}}. {{Transliteration|xct|Mi}} is used with present and future stems. The particle {{Transliteration|xct|ma}} is used with the past stem; prohibitions do not employ the imperative stem, rather the present stem is negated with {{Transliteration|xct|ma}}. There is also a negative stative verb {{Transliteration|xct|med}} {{gloss|there is not, there does not exist}}, the counterpart to the stative verb {{Transliteration|xct|yod}} {{gloss|there is, there exists}}.

===Honorifics=== As with nouns, Tibetan also has a complex system of honorific and polite verbal forms. Thus, many verbs for everyday actions have a completely different form to express the superior status, whether actual or out of courtesy, of the agent of the action, thus {{Transliteration|xct|lta}} {{gloss|see}}, hon. {{Transliteration|xct|gzigs}}; {{Transliteration|xct|byed}} {{gloss|do}}, hon. {{Transliteration|xct|mdzad}}. Where a specific honorific verb stem does not exist, the same effect is brought about by compounding a standard verbal stem with an appropriate general honorific stem such as {{Transliteration|xct|mdzad}}.

==See also== {{Portal|Asia|Languages}} * [[Standard Tibetan]]

==References== {{reflist}}

==Further reading== * {{Citation | last = Bialek | first = Joanna | title = A Textbook in Classical Tibetan | place = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2022 | url = https://www.routledge.com/A-Textbook-in-Classical-Tibetan/Bialek/p/book/9781032123561 | ISBN = 9781032123561 }} *{{EB1911 |wstitle=Tibet |display=Tibet § Language |volume=26 |pages=919–921 |first1=Lawrence Austine |last1=Waddell |author-link1=Laurence Waddell |first2=Albert Terrien |last2=de Lacouperie |author-link2=Albert Terrien de Lacouperie}} * {{cite book |last=Hahn |first=Michael |year=2003 |title=Schlüssel zum Lehrbuch der klassischen tibetischen Schriftsprache |location=Marburg |publisher=Indica et Tibetica Verlag}} *{{cite journal | last = Hill | first = Nathan W. | title = Personalpronomina in der Lebensbeschreibung des Mi la ras pa, Kapitel III | journal = Zentralasiatische Studien | pages = 277–287 | date = 2007 | volume = 36 | url = http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5609/ }} * {{Citation | last = Hill | first = Nathan W. | title = Lexicon of Tibetan Verb Stems as Reported by the Grammatical Tradition | place = Munich | publisher = Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften | series = Studia Tibetica | year = 2010 | chapter = Brief overview of Tibetan Verb Morphology | chapter-url = http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/11006/3/Hill_2010_verb_dictionary_excerpt.pdf | pages = xv–xxii }} *{{cite journal | last = Hill | first = Nathan W. | title = Tibetan -las, -nas, and -bas. | journal = Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–38 | date = 2012 | url = http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14122/ | doi =10.1163/1960602812X00014 }} * {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hodge |title=An Introduction to Classical Tibetan |edition=Revised |year=1993 |publisher=Aris & Phillips |place=Warminster |isbn=0856685488 |pages=vii }} * {{cite book |last=Schwieger |first=Peter |year=2006 |title=Handbuch zur Grammatik der klassischen tibetischen Schriftsprache |location=Halle |publisher=International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies}} * {{cite book |last=Tournadre |first=Nicolas |year=2003 |title=Manual of Standard Tibetan (MST) |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Snow Lion Publications}} * {{cite book |author=skal-bzhang 'gur-med |year=1992 |title=Le clair miroir : enseignement de la grammaire Tibetaine |translator-first=Heather |translator-last=Stoddard |translator-first2=Nicholas |translator-last2=Tournadre |location=Paris |publisher=Editions Prajna}}

==External links== {{wikibooks|Research on Tibetan Languages: A Bibliography}} {{wikibooks|A Textbook of Classical Tibetan}} *[http://backdoorbroadcasting.net/2014/03/tibetan-in-digital-communication/ Tibetan in Digital Communication] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324053216/http://backdoorbroadcasting.net/2014/03/tibetan-in-digital-communication/ |date=2014-03-24 }} *[https://tibetantranslations.com/ Translations of Tibetan texts, Tibetan language courses & publications by Erick Tsiknopoulos and the Trikāya Translation Committee.] {{Tibetan_language}} {{Tibet related articles}}

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