{{Short description|Extinct Celtic language of Iberia}} {{Infobox language |name=Celtiberian |altname=Northeastern Hispano-Celtic |states=Iberian Peninsula |ethnicity = Celtiberians | extinct = 2nd century AD (attested since 2nd century BC) |ref = <ref>{{cite book |author1=Bernd Vath |author2=Sabine Ziegler |year=2017 |editor1=Jared Klein |editor2=Brian Joseph |editor3=Matthias Fritz |title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |chapter=The documentation of Celtic |pages=1168–1188 |doi=10.1515/9783110523874-022}}</ref> |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=Celtic |fam3=Continental Celtic |fam4=Hispano-Celtic |script=Celtiberian script |iso3=xce |linglist=xce |glotto=celt1247 |glottorefname=Celtiberian |map=Mapa llengües paleohispàniques-ang.jpg |mapcaption={{Legend|cyan|Celtiberian in the context of the Paleohispanic languages}} }}

'''Celtiberian''' or '''Northeastern Hispano-Celtic''' is an extinct Indo-European language of the Celtic branch spoken by the Celtiberians in an area of the Iberian Peninsula between the headwaters of the Douro, Tagus, Júcar, and Turia rivers and the Ebro river. The language is directly attested in nearly 200 inscriptions and 300 smaller records, dated from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, mainly in Celtiberian script, but also in the Latin alphabet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lloris |first1=Francisco Beltrán |last2=Cólera |first2=Carlos Jordán |last3=Ariño |first3=Borja Díaz |last4=Cornago |first4=Ignacio Simón |date=December 2021 |title=The Novallas bronze tablet: An inscription in the Celtiberian language and the Latin alphabet from Spain |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/novallas-bronze-tablet-an-inscription-in-the-celtiberian-language-and-the-latin-alphabet-from-spain/780074C0BFB10B6ADA1D308E30344449 |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=713–733 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000635 |issn=1047-7594|hdl=10481/72593 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The longest extant Celtiberian inscriptions are those on the Botorrita plaques, three bronze plaques from Botorrita near Zaragoza dating to the early 1st century BC, labeled Botorrita I, III, and IV (Botorrita II is in Latin). Shorter and more fragmentary is the Novallas bronze tablet.<ref>Francisco Beltrán Lloris, Carlos Jordán Cólera, Borja Díaz Ariño1, and Ignacio Simón Cornago. Journal of Roman Archaeology 34 (2021), 713–733 doi:10.1017/S1047759421000635</ref>

==Classifiation== According to the P/Q Celtic hypothesis, and like its Iberian relative Gallaecian, Celtiberian is classified as a Q Celtic language, putting it in the same category as Goidelic and not P-Celtic like Gaulish or Brittonic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mallory |first=J.&nbsp;P. |year=1989 |title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-05052-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma/page/106 106] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma/page/106 }}</ref>

According to the Insular/Continental Celtic hypothesis, Celtiberian and Gaulish are sometimes grouped together as Continental Celtic languages, but this grouping is paraphyletic: no evidence suggests that the two shared any common innovation separately from Insular Celtic. According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' stated: "Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early."<ref>Ranko Matasovic 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Leiden: Brill, 2009, p. 13 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt</ref>

Celtiberian has a fully inflected relative pronoun ''ios'' (as does, for instance, Ancient Greek), an ancient feature that was not preserved by the other Celtic languages, and the particles '''{{lang|xce|-kue}}''' 'and' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷe}} (cf. Latin {{lang|la|-que}}, Attic Greek {{lang|grc|τε}} {{tlit|grc|te}}), '''{{lang|xce|nekue}}''' 'nor' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|ne-kʷe}} (cf. Latin {{lang|la|neque}}), '''{{lang|xce|ekue}}''' 'also, as well' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₂et(i)-kʷe}} (cf. Lat. {{lang|la|atque}}, Gaulish {{lang|xtg|ate}}, OIr. {{lang|sga|aith}} 'again'), and ''ve'' "or" (cf. Latin enclitic {{lang|la|-ve}}, Attic Greek {{lang|grc|ἤ}} ''ē'' < Proto-Greek ''*ē-we''). As in Welsh, there is an ''s''-subjunctive; ''e.g.'', {{lang|xce|gabiseti}} "he shall take" (Old Irish {{lang|sga|gabid}}), {{lang|xce|robiseti}}, {{lang|xce|auseti}}. Compare Umbrian ''ferest'' "he/she/it shall make" or Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|δείξῃ}} {{lang|grc-Latn|deiksēi}} (aorist subj.) / {{lang|grc|δείξει}} {{lang|grc-Latn|deiksei}} (future ind.) "(that) he/she/it shall show".

== History == During the first half of 1st millenia BC, Q-Celtic speaking people invaded Iberian Peninsula, populated by Iberians, potentially related to them Basques, Tartessians and pre-Celtic Indo-European speaking peoples.<ref>Stifter, David (2012) [https://rootsofeurope.ku.dk/kalender/arkiv_2012/celtic_spring/Keltiberisch_1_WS_2010.pdf Old Celtic Languages] (PDF)</ref> As early as 3d century BC, Celtiberians adapted and developed Celtiberian script; it was based on the Northeastern Iberian variant, influenced by Greek and Phoenician alphabets, that was used for writing in Iberian and Basque languages.

The last texts in Celtiberian (like Peñalba de Villastar) were written in the late 1st century AD, influenced by Latin. Soon after, the written records disappear and the language is believed to have gone extinct before or around 200 AD.<ref>{{Citation |last=Simkin |first=Oliver |title=Language contact in the pre-Roman and Roman Iberian peninsula: Direct and indirect evidence |date=2012 |work=Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds |pages=77–105 |editor-last=Mullen |editor-first=Alex |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/multilingualism-in-the-graecoroman-worlds/language-contact-in-the-preroman-and-roman-iberian-peninsula/BADFA5961681534BF2323649BC171183 |access-date=2026-03-31 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01386-5 |editor2-last=James |editor2-first=Patrick}}</ref>

==Phonology== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2020}}

Celtiberian shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages, such as:<ref>{{cite book|last=Koch |first=John |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABL-CIO |year=2005 |pages=1465–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=loss+of+p+in+celtiberian&pg=PA1465 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |access-date=June 10, 2011}}</ref>

===PIE consonants===

* PIE '''*bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ''' > '''b, d, g''': Loss of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspiration. **Celtib. and Gaulish [Gaul.] placename element '''{{lang|xce|-brigā}}''' 'hill, town, akro-polis' < *''bʰr̥ǵʰ-eh₂''. **'''{{lang|xce|nebintor}}''' 'they are watered' < *''nebʰ-i-nt-or.'' **'''{{lang|xce|dinbituz}}''' 'he must build' < *''dʰingʰ-bī-tōd''; '''{{lang|xce|ambi-dingounei}}''' 'to build around > to enclose' < *''h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-o-mn-ei''; cf. Latin [Lat.] {{lang|la|fingō}} 'to build, shape' < *''dʰingʰ-o'', Old Irish (OIr.) {{lang|sga|cunutgim}} 'erect, build up' < *''kom-ups-dʰingʰ-o''; '''{{lang|xce|ambi-diseti}}''' '(that someone) builds around > enclose' < *''h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti''. **'''{{lang|xce|gortika}}''' 'mandatory, required' < *''gʰor-ti-ka''; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|ex-horto}} 'exhort' < *''ex-gʰor-to''). However, since the meaning in Celtiberian cannot be determined with certainty, this root may be related to OIr. {{lang|sga|gort}} "field" (< PIE *''g<sup>h</sup>о̄rd<sup>h</sup>-s'', gen. *''g<sup>h</sup>rd<sup>h</sup>-os'' ‘enclosure, garden, pen') and its many IE cognates.<ref>Matasovic, R. '' Etymological Dictionary Of Proto-Celtic'' Brill, 2009, pp. 264-265</ref> **'''{{lang|xce|duatir}}''' 'daughter' < *''dʰugh₂tēr'', '''{{lang|xce|duateros}}''' 'grandson, son of the daughter<nowiki>''</nowiki>; cf. Common Celtic (ComCelt.) {{lang|cel-x-proto|duxtir}}. **'''{{lang|xce|bezom}}''' 'mine' < *''bʰedʰ-yo'' 'that which is pierced'. * PIE '''*kʷ''': Celtiberian preserved the PIE voiceless labiovelar ''kʷ'' (hence Q-Celtic), a development also observed in Archaic Irish and Latin. On the contrary, Brythonic and Gaulish (P-Celtic) changed ''kʷ'' to ''p'', a change also seen in some dialects of Ancient Greek and some Italic branches like P-Italic. ''E.g.'', '''-kue''' 'and' < *''kʷe'', Lat. ''-que'', Osco-Umbrian ''-pe'' 'and', ''neip'' 'and not, neither' < *''ne-kʷe''. * PIE '''*ḱw''' > '''ku''': '''{{lang|xce|ekuo}}''' ''horse'' (in the name ''Ekualakos'') < *''h₁eḱw-ālo''; cf. Middle Welsh (MW) {{lang|mwl|ebawl}} foal' < *''epālo'', Lat. {{lang|la|equus}} 'horse', OIr. {{lang|sga|ech}} 'horse' < *eko´- < *''h₁eḱwo-'', Old Breton (OBret) ''eb'' < *''epo-'' < *''h₁eḱwo-''. **'''{{lang|xce|kū}}''' 'dog' < *''kuu'' < *''kwōn'', in '''{{lang|xce|Virokū}}''', 'hound-man, male hound/wolf, werewolf'; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|Ferchú}}, Old Welsh (OW) ''Gurcí'' < ''*Virokū'' 'idem'.<ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves. "Francisco Villar, M.a Pilar Fernandez Álvarez, ed. Religión, lengua y cultura prerromanas de Hispania, Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2001 (Acta Salmanticensia, Estudios Filológicos, 283). = Actas del VIII Coloquio internacional sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica (11-14 mai 1999, Salamanque)". In: ''Etudes Celtiques'', vol. 35, 2003. p. 393. [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2242_t1_0386_0000_2]</ref> * PIE '''*gʷ''' > '''b''': '''bindis''' 'legal agent' < *''gʷiHm-diks''; cf. Lat. ''vindex'' 'defender'.<ref>De Bernardo, P. "La gramática celtibérica del bronce de Botorrita. Nuevos Resultados". In Palaeohispanica 9 (2009), pp. 683-699.</ref> **'''{{lang|xce|bovitos}}''' 'cow passage' < *''gʷow-(e)ito''; cf. OIr. ''bòthar'' 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)itro),<ref>Schmidt, K. H. "How to define celtiberian archaims?". in Palaeohispanica 10 (2010), pp. 479-487.</ref> '''boustom''' 'cowshed' < *''gʷow-sto''. * PIE '''*gʷʰ''' > '''gu''': '''{{lang|xce|guezonto}}''' < *''gʷʰedʰ-y-ont'' 'imploring, pleading'; cf. ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|guedyo}} 'ask, plead, pray', OIr. {{lang|sga|guidid}}, W. {{lang|cy|gweddi}}. * PIE '''*p''' > '''*φ''' > '''∅''': loss of PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|p}}, ''e.g.'' {{lang|cel-x-proto|ro-}} (Celtib., OIr., and OBret) vs. Lat. {{lang|la|pro-}} and Sanskrit [Skt. ]{{tlit|sa|IAST|pra-}}. '''{{lang|xce|ozas sues}}''' acc. pl. fem. 'six feet, unit of measure' (< *''φodians'' < *''pod-y-ans'' *''sweks''); **'''{{lang|xce|aila}}''' 'stone building' < *''pl̥-ya''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|ail}} 'boulder'. **'''{{lang|xce|vamos}}''' 'higher' < *''uφamos'' < *''up-m̥os.'' **'''{{lang|xce|vrantiom}}''' 'remainder, rest' < *''uper-n̥tiyo''; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|(s)uperans}}. **Toponym '''{{lang|xce|Litania}}''' (now Ledaña) 'broad place' < *''pl̥th<sub>2</sub>-ny-a''.

However, it is possible that, as in other Celtic languages, *''p'' before ''-l-'' was voiced to ''b'', if the spelling of the place name '''konbouto'' (Roman ''Conplutum'') represents /konblouto/.<ref name="Wodtko, D.S 2003, p. 8">Wodtko, D.S. "An outline of Celtiberian grammar." Freiburg 2003, p. 8</ref>

Final '''*-m''' is preserved in Celtiberian (and Lepontic), a further indication of these dialects' conservatism. It is generally fronted to ''-n'' in Gaulish (exceptional cases, for instance on the Larzac tablet, are probably due to influence from Latin): '''boustom''' "stable."<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p. 768 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

===Consonant clusters===

* PIE '''*mn''' > '''un''': as in Lepontic, Brythonic, and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. '''{{lang|xce|Kouneso}}''' 'neighbour' < *''kom-ness-o'' < *''kom-nedʰ-to''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|comnessam}} 'neighbour' < *''kom-nedʰ-t-m̥o''. * PIE '''*pn''' > '''un''': '''{{lang|xce|Klounia}}''' < *''kleun-y-a'' < *''kleup-ni'' 'meadow'; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|clúain}} 'meadow' < *''klouni''). However, in Latin, *''pn'' > ''mn'': {{lang|la|damnum}} 'damage' < *''dHp-no''. *PIE '''*pl > bl''' as in other Celtic languages, suggested by the placename '''konbouto''' (Roman ''Conplutum'') if that represents /konblouto/.<ref name="Wodtko, D.S 2003, p. 8"/> * PIE '''*nm''' > '''lm''': Only in Celtiberian: '''{{lang|xce|melmu}}''' < *''men-mōn'' 'intelligence', '''{{lang|xce|Melmanzos}}''' 'gifted with mind' < *''men-mn̥-tyo''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|menme}} 'mind' < *''men-mn̥''. Also occurs in modern Spanish: {{lang|es|alma}} 'soul' < *''anma'' < Lat. {{lang|la|anima}}, Asturian ''galmu'' 'step' < Celt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|kang-mu}}. * PIE '''*ps''' > '''*ss / s''': '''{{lang|xce|usabituz}}''' 'he must excavate (lit. up/over-dig)' < *''ups-ad-bʰiH-tōd'', '''{{lang|xce|Useizu}}''' * < *''useziu'' < *''ups-ed-yō'' 'highest'. The Latin ethnic name {{lang|la|contestani}} (Celtib. ''contesikum'') recalls the proper name '''{{lang|xce|Komteso}}''' 'warm-hearted, friendly' < *''kom-tep-so'', cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|tess}} 'warm' > *''tep-so''. In Latin epigraphy, this sound is transcribed with gemination: '''{{lang|xce|Usseiticum}}''' 'of the Usseitici' < *''Usseito'' < *''upse-tyo''. However, in Gaulish and Brythonic, ''*ps'' > ''*x''; cf. Gaul. ''Uxama'', MW ''uchel'', 'one six'. * PIE '''*pt''' > '''*tt / t''': '''{{lang|xce|setantu}}''' 'seventh' < *''septm<sub>o</sub>-to''. However, in Gaulish and Insular Celtic, ''*pt'' > ''x'': ''sextameto'' 'seventh', O.Ir. {{lang|sga|sechtmad}} (< *''septm<sub>o</sub>-e-to''). * PIE '''*gs''' > '''*ks''' > '''*ss / s''': '''sues''' 'six' < *''sweks''. **'''{{lang|xce|Desobriga}}''' 'south/right-hand city' (Celts oriented themselves looking east) < *''dekso-*bʰr̥ǵʰa''; **'''{{lang|xce|Nertobris}}''' 'strong town' < *''h₂ner-to-*bʰr̥ǵʰs''. **'''es-''' 'out of, not' < *''eks'' < *''h₁eǵʰs''; cf. Lat. ''ex-'', ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|exs-}}, OIr. {{lang|sga|ess-}}. In Latin epigraphy, this sound is transcribed with gemination: '''{{lang|xce|Suessatium}}''' < *''sweks''- 'sixth city'; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|Sextantium}}.<ref>De Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia 2009 "El nombre -¿céltico?- de la Pintia vaccea". BSAA Arqueología Nº. 75, (243-256).</ref> **'''{{lang|xce|Dessicae}}''' < *''deks-ika''. However, in Gaulish, ''*ks'' > ''*x'': ''Dexivates''. * PIE '''*gt''' > '''*kt''' > '''*tt / t''': '''{{lang|xce|ditas}}''' 'constructions, buildings' < *''dʰigʰ-tas'' (= Lat. {{lang|la|fictas}}). **'''{{lang|xce|loutu}}''' 'load' < *''louttu'' < *''louktu'' < *''leugʰ-tu'', **'''{{lang|xce|litom}}''' 'it is permitted', '''{{lang|xce|ne-litom}}''' 'it is not permitted' < *''l(e)ik-to''; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|licitum}} < *''lik-e-to''. However, in Common Celtic, ''*kt'' > ''*xt'': ''luxtu'' < *''louktu'' < *''leugʰ-tu''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|lucht}}. **'''{{lang|xce|Retugenos}}''' 'right-born, lawful' < *''h₃reg-tō-genos'', Gaul. ''Rextugenos''. In Latin epigraphy, this sound is transcribed with gemination: '''{{lang|xce|Britto}}''' 'noble' < *''brikto'' < *''bʰr̥ǵʰ-to''. **'''{{lang|xce|Bruttius}}''' 'fruitful' < *''bruktio'' < *''bʰruHǵ-t-y-o''; cf. Latin {{lang|la|Fructuosus}} 'profitable'. * PIE '''*st''' > '''*st''': as opposed to Gaulish, Irish and Welsh, where the change was ''*st'' > ''ss''. This preservation of the PIE cluster ''*st'' is another indication of the phonological conservatism of Celtiberian. '''{{lang|xce|Gustunos}}''' 'excellent' < *'''{{lang|xce|gustu}}''' 'excellence' < *''gus-tu''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|gussu}} 'excellence', {{lang|sga|Fergus}} < *''viro-gussu'', Gaul. ''gussu'' (Lezoux Plate, line 7).

===Vowels===

* PIE '''*e, *h₁e''' > '''e''': ** '''{{lang|xce|Togoitei eni}}''' 'in Togotis' < *''h₁en-i;'' cf. Lat. ''in'', OIr. {{lang|sga|in}} 'into, in'. ** '''{{lang|xce|somei eni touzei}}''' 'inside this territory'. ** '''es-''' 'out of, not' < *''eks'' < *''h₁eǵʰs;'' cf. Lat. ''ex-'', ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|exs-}}, OIr. {{lang|sga|ess-}}. ** '''{{lang|xce|esankios}}''' 'not enclosed, open', lit. 'unfenced' < *''h₁eǵʰs-*h₂enk-yos.'' ** '''{{lang|xce|treba}}''' 'settlement, town'; '''{{lang|xce|Kontrebia}}''' 'conventus, capital' < *''kom-treb-ya;'' cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|treb}}, W. ''tref'' 'settlement'. ** '''{{lang|xce|ekuo}}''' ''horse'' < *''h₁ekw-os'', '''{{lang|xce|ekualo}}''' 'horseman'. * PIE '''*h₂e''' > '''a''': ** '''{{lang|xce|ankios}}''' 'fenced, enclosed' < *''h₂enk-yos.'' ** '''{{lang|xce|Ablu}}''' 'strong' < *''h₂ep-lō'' 'strength'. ** '''{{lang|xce|augu}}''' 'valid, firm' < *''h₂ewg-u'', adj. 'strong, firm, valid'. * PIE '''*o, *Ho''' > '''o''': ** '''{{lang|xce|olzui}}''' (dat.sing.) 'for the last' < *''olzo'' 'last' < *''h₂ol-tyo'', cf. Lat. {{lang|la|ultimus}} < *''h₂ol-t-m̥o'', OIr. {{lang|sga|ollam}} 'master poet' < *''oltamo'' < *''h₂ol-t-m̥''). ** '''{{lang|xce|okris}}''' 'mountain' < *''h₂ok-r-i''; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|ocris}} 'mountain', OIr. {{lang|sga|ochair}} 'edge' < *''h₂ok-r-i''. ** '''{{lang|xce|monima}}''' 'memory' < *''monī-mā'' < *''mon-eye-mā''. * PIE '''*eh₁''' > '''ē''' > '''ī'''?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₃rēg'-s}} meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian ''-reiKis'', Gaulish ''-rix'', British ''rix'', Old Irish {{lang|sga|rí}}, Old Welsh, Old Breton ''ri'' meaning "king". In any case, the maintenance of PIE ē = ē is well attested in '''{{lang|xce|dekez}}''' 'he did' < *''deked'' < *''dʰeh₁k-et'', identical to Latin ''fecit''. * PIE '''*eh₂''' > '''ā''': ** '''{{lang|xce|dāunei}}''' 'to burn' < *''deh₂u-nei''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|dóud, dód}} 'burn' < *''deh₂u-to-''. ** '''{{lang|xce|silabur sāzom}}''' 'enough money, a considerable amount of money' < *''sātio'' < *''seh₂t-yo'', ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|sāti}} 'sufficiency', cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|sáith}}. ** '''kār''' 'friendship' < *''keh₂r''; cf. Lat. ''cārus'' 'dear' < *''keh₂r-os'', Ir. {{lang|sga|cara}} 'friend', W. ''caru'' 'love' < *''kh₂r-os''. * PIE '''*eh₃, *oH''' > '''a/u''': Celt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|ū}} in final syllables, {{lang|cel-x-proto|ā}} in non-final syllables; ''e.g.'': * '''{{lang|xce|datuz}}''' 'he must give' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|dh₃-tōd}}. * '''{{lang|xce|dama}}''' 'sentence' < *''dʰoh₁m-eh₂'' 'put, dispose'; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|dán}} 'gift, skill, poem', Germanic dōma < *''dʰoh₁m-o'' 'verdict, sentence'. * PIE '''*Hw-''' > '''w-''': '''uta''' 'conj. and, prep. besides' < *''h₂w-ta'', 'or, and'; cf. Umb. ''ute'' 'or', Lat. ''aut'' 'or' < *''h₂ew-ti''. * PIE '''ey''' remains '''ey''' in Celtiberian and Lepontic, especially in root syllables ('''teiuo-''' < *''dēywo-'' 'god', '''ueido-''' probably 'witness' < ''*weyd-'' 'see'). In other Celtic languages, it becomes ''ē'' (another indication of Celtiberian conservatism, unless these spellings indicate a high /e/ rather than an actual diphthong). In final syllables, there is some variation in the spelling, with some datives preserving the diphthong:'''{{lang|xce|Togoitei eni}}''' 'in Togotis', '''{{lang|xce|somei eni touzei}}''' 'inside of this territory'; and others, not: '''GENTE''' (K.11.1) with NSg. '''kentis/gentis''' (K.1.3), '''STENIONTE''' (K.11.1).<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p753. Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref><ref name="Wodtko, D.S. 2003, p. 7">Wodtko, D.S. ''An outline of Celtiberian grammar'' Freiburg 2003, p. 7</ref>

===Syllabic resonants and laryngeals===

* PIE '''*n̥''' > '''an''' / '''*m̥''' > '''am''': ** '''{{lang|xce|arganto}}''' 'silver' < *''h₂r̥gn̥to''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|argat}}, OW ''argant'', Lat. {{lang|la|argentum}}. ** '''{{lang|xce|kamanom}}''' 'path, way' *''kanmano'' < *''kn̥gs-mn̥-o''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|céimm}}, OW ''cemmein'' 'step'. ** '''{{lang|xce|decameta}}''' 'tithe' < *''dekm̥-et-a''; cf. Gaul. ''decametos'', OIr. {{lang|sga|dechmad}} 'tenth'. ** '''dekam''' 'ten' (cf. Lat. {{lang|la|decem}}, ComCelt. ''dekam'', OIr. {{lang|sga|deich}} < *''dekm̥.'' ** '''{{lang|xce|novantutas}}''' 'the nine tribes' > '''{{lang|xce|novan}}''' 'nine' < *''h₁newn̥''; cf. Lat. ''novem'', ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|novan}}, OW ''nauou''. ** '''ās''' 'we, us' < *''ans'' < *''n̥s'', OIr. {{lang|sga|sinni}} < {{lang|cel-x-proto|sisni, *snisni}} 'we, us', cf. German {{lang|de|uns}} < {{lang|ine-x-proto|n̥s}}. ** '''{{lang|xce|trikanta}}''' < *''tri-kn̥g-ta'', lit. 'three horns, three boundaries' > 'civil parish, shire' (modern Spanish Tres Cantos). * PIE '''*CHC > CaC''' (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal), as in Common Celtic and Italic (SCHRIJVER 1991: 415, McCONE 1996: 51 and SCHUMACHER 2004: 135): ** '''{{lang|xce|datuz}}''' < *''dh₃-tōd'', '''{{lang|xce|dakot}}''' 'they put' < *''dʰh₁k-ont'', ** '''{{lang|xce|matus}}''' 'propitious days' < *''mh₂-tu''; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|mānus}} 'good' < *''meh₂-no'', OIr. {{lang|sga|maith}} 'good' < *''mh₂-ti''. * PIE '''*CCH''' > '''CaC''' (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): '''{{lang|xce|Magilo}}''' 'prince' < *''mgh₂-i-lo''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|mál}} 'prince' < *''mgh₂-lo''. * PIE '''*r̥R''' > '''arR''' and '''*l̥R''' > '''alR''' (R = resonant): '''{{lang|xce|arznā}}''' 'part, share' < ''*φarsna'' < *''parsna'' < *''pr̥s-nh₂''; ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|φrasna}} < *''prasna'' < *''pr̥s-nh₂''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|ernáil}} 'part, share'. * PIE '''*r̥P''' > '''riP''' and '''*l̥P''' > '''liP''' (P = plosive): ** '''{{lang|xce|briganti}}''' PiRiKanTi < *''bʰr̥ǵʰ-n̥ti'' 'high, elevated ones'. ** '''{{lang|xce|silabur konsklitom}}''' 'silver coined' < *''kom-skl̥-to'' 'to cut'. * PIE '''*Cr̥HV''' > '''CarV''' and '''*Cl̥HV''' > '''CalV''': ** '''sailo''' 'dung, slurry' *''salyo'' < *''sl̥H-yo''; cf. Lat. {{lang|la|saliva}} < *''sl̥H-iwa'', OIr. {{lang|sga|sal}} 'dirt' < *''sl̥H-a''. ** '''{{lang|xce|aila}}''' 'stone building' < *''pl̥-ya''; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|ail}} 'boulder'. ** '''are-''' 'first, before'; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|ar}} 'for', Gaul. ''are'' 'in front of', < *''pr̥h₂i'' and Lat. ''prae-'' 'before' < *''preh₂i''. * PIE '''*HR̥C''' > '''aRC''' (H = any laringeal, R̥ any syllabic resonant, C = any consonant, as in Common Celtic (JOSEPH 1982: 51 and ZAIR 2012: 37): '''{{lang|xce|arganto}}''' 'silver' < *''h₂r̥gn̥to'', not **''riganto''.

=== Exclusive developments === Affrication of the PIE groups -''*dy-'', -''*dʰy-''. -''*ty''- > ''z''/''th'' (/θ/) between vowels and of ''-*d'', -''*dʰ'' > ''z''/''th'' (/θ/) at the ends of words:

* '''adiza''' 'duty' < *''adittia'' < *''h₂ed-d(e)ik-t-ya.'' * '''{{lang|xce|Useizu}}''' 'highest' < *''ups-ed-yō''. * '''{{lang|xce|touzu}}''' 'territory' < *''teut-yō''. * '''rouzu''' 'red' < *''reudʰy-ō''. * '''olzo''' 'last' < *''h₂ol-tyo''. * '''ozas''' 'feet' < *''pod-y-ans''. * '''datuz''' < *''dh₃-tōd''; '''{{lang|xce|louzu}}''' 'free' (in: LOUZOKUM, ''MLH'' IV, K.1.1.) < *''h₁leudʰy-ō''; cf. Oscan ''loufir'' 'free man', Russian ''ljúdi'' 'men, people'.

That this is one of only a very few phonological developments that distinguishes Celtiberian phonologically from Proto-Celtic is one reason Matasovic has deemed Celtiberian a very early independent branch of Proto-Celtic.<ref>Ranko Matasovic 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Leiden: Brill, 2009, p. 17 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt</ref> It is noteworthy that this weakening of most non-initial Proto-Celtic voiced dental stops (''d''s) seems to indicate that Celtiberian had taken the first step in what became more-widespread lenition of non-initial (and in some cases even initial) voiced consonants in later Celtic dialects.<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p.763 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

==Morphology==

===Noun and adjective cases===

* '''{{lang|xce|arznā}}''' 'part, share' < ''*parsna'' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|*pr̥s-nh₂}}. ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|φrasna}} < ''*parsna''. * '''{{lang|xce|veizos}}''' 'witness' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|*weidʰ-yo < *weidʰ-}} 'perceive, see' / {{lang|xce|vamos}} 'higher' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|*up-m̥os}}. * '''{{lang|xce|gentis}}''' 'son, descent' < ''*gen-ti''. ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|genos}} 'family'. * '''{{lang|xce|loutu}}''' 'load' < ''*louttu'' < *''louktu'' < ''*leugʰ-tu''. ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|luxtu}} < ''*louktu'' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|*leugʰ-tu}}; cf. OIr. {{lang|sga|lucht}}. * '''{{lang|xce|duater}}''' 'daughter' < {{lang|ine-x-proto|*dʰugh₂tēr}}. ComCelt. {{lang|cel-x-proto|duxtir}}.

{| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | Case ! colspan="5" | Singular ! rowspan="8" | &nbsp; ! colspan="5" | Plural |- ! ā-stem ! o-stem ! i-stem ! u-stem ! r-stem ! ā-stem ! o-stem ! i-stem ! u-stem ! r-stem |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Nominative | *arznā | veizos / *vamos (n. *-om) | gentis | *loutus | duater | *arznās / *arznī | *veizoi (n *-a) | *gentis | *loutoves | duateres |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Accusative | *arznām | *veizom | *gentim | *loutum | *duaterem | *arznās < -*ams | *veizus < *-ōs < -*oms | *gentīs < -*ims | *loutūs < -*ums | *duaterēs < -*ems |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Genitive | *arznās | *veizo | *gentes<ref>Gorrochategui, Joaquín 1991 "Descripción y posición lingiiistica del celtibérico" in "Memoriae L. Mitxelena magistri sacrum vol I (3-32)". Ed. Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea</ref> | ? | *duateros | *arznaum | *veizum < *weidʰ-y-ōm | gentizum < *-isōm | *loutoum < *-ewōm | ? |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Dative | *arznāi | veizūi < *weidʰ-y-ōi | gentei ~gente | *loutuei<ref>Beltrán Lloris, F. Jordán Cólera, C. Marco Simón, F. 2005 "Novedades epigráficas en Peñalba de Villastar (Teruel)". Palaeohispánica: Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua Nº. 5, 911-956: '' ENIOROSEI Dat. sg. de un tema en -i. LVGVEI, Dat. sg. de un tema en -u. ERECAIAS, Gen .sg. de un tema en -a, TIASO, Gen. sg. de un tema en -o''</ref> | ? | ? | *veizubos | ? | ? | ? |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Ablative | *arznaz<ref>Villar Liébana, F. 1996 "Fonética y Morfología Celtibéricas". La Hispania prerromana : actas del VI Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica (339-378): ''1) filiación expresada mediante genitivo y cuya desinencia es -as < (*-ās) y 2) origen que se expresa mediante ablativo, cuya desinencia es -az < (*-ād)''</ref> | *veizuz < *weidʰ-y-ōd / *vamuz < *up-m̥ōd | *gentiz | *loutuez | *duaterez < -*ed | ? | *veizubos | ? | ? | ? |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Locative | *arznai | *veizei | *gentei | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |} <ref>Wodtko, Dagmar S. "An outline of Celtiberian grammar" 2003</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://digilib.phil.muni.cz/handle/11222.digilib/114125|title=Gaulish language|last=Václav|first=Blažek|website=digilib.phil.muni.cz|access-date=2018-10-20|date=2013-07-04}}</ref>

An -''n''- stem can be seen in ''melmu'' nom. sg. < ''*-ōn'', ''melmunos'' gen. sg. (from Botorrita III, probably a name).

'''STENIONTE''' (a name) (K.11.1) is probably the dative of an -''nt''- stem.<ref name="Wodtko, D.S. 2003, p. 7"/>

It is notable that the genitive singular -''o''- stem ends in -''o'' in Celtiberian, unlike the rest of Celtic (and Latin), where this ending is -''ī'' <ref name="10.36707_palaeohispanica.v0i20.395">Francisco Beltrán Lloris and Carlos Jordán Cólera (2020) "Celtiberian" ''PALAEOHISPANICA: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua'' pp. 631-690. I.S.S.N. 1578-5386 {{doi|10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.395}}</ref><ref>Untermann, J. (1967). "Die Endung des Genitiv singularis der o-Stämme im Keltiberischen." In W. Meid (ed.), ''Beiträge zur Indogermanistik und Keltologie, Julius Pokorny zum 80. Geburtstag gewidmet,'' pp. 281-288. Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut der Universität Innsbruck.</ref>

There is also a potential vocative case, but it is very poorly attested, with only an ambiguous ''-e'' ending for ''o''-stem nouns cited in the literature.

===Demonstrative pronouns===

{| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | Case ! colspan="3" | Singular ! rowspan="7" | &nbsp; ! colspan="3" | Plural |- ! masculine ! feminine ! neuter ! masculine ! feminine ! neuter |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Nominative | *''so'': so viros 'this man' | *''sa'': sa duater 'this daughter' | *''soz'': soz bezom < *so-d *bʰedʰ-yom 'this mine'. | *''sos'' < *so-s ? | *''sas'' < *sa-s ? | *''soizos'' < so-syos < *so-sy-os ? |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Accusative | *''som'': 'to this' | *''sam'': 'to this' | *''sozom'' < *so-sy-om? | *''sus'' < *sōs < *so-ms | *''sās'' < *sa-ms | *''soizus'' < so-syōs < *so-sy-oms ?? |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Genitive | ? | ? | ? | ''soum'' < *so-ōm 'of these' | ''saum'' < *sa-ōm 'of these' | ''soizum'' < *so-sy-ōm 'of these' |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Dative | ''somui'' < *so-sm-ōi 'for this' | ''somai'' < *so-sm-ai 'for this' | ? | ? | ? | ? |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Locative | ''somei'' < *so-sm-ei 'from this' | ''samei'' < *sa-sm-ei 'from this' | ? | ? | ? | ? |} <ref>Jordán Cólera, Carlos "La forma verbal ''cabint'' del bronce celtibérico de Novallas". En Emerita, Revista de Lingüística y Filología Clásica LXXXII 2, 2014, pp. 327-343</ref>

===Relative pronoun===

Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun ''*yo''- can be found in the first Botorrita plaque: The form ''io-s'' in line 10 is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from PIE ''*yo-'' (Skt. ''ya-'', Greek ''hos''), which shows up in Old Irish only as the origin of leniting relative verb forms (the OIr endingless nominative form *''yo'' providing the intervocalic context for lenition) and the nasalizing relative forms (from the accusative *''yo-m'').<ref>Bate, D. "Deriving the Old Irish Clause" ''Journal of Historical Syntax'' volume 8, article 1, 1-48 (27), 2024</ref> Line 7 has the accusative singular '''''io-m''''' and the dative singular '''''io-mui''''' (<*''yo-sm-ōi''; cf. Skt. ''yasmai'') from the same root.<ref>Matasovic, R. ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic.'' Leiden: Brill. 2006. p. 436</ref><ref>Wodtko, D.S. An outline of Celtiberian grammar Freiburg 2003, p. 16</ref>

===Verbal endings=== The PIE third-person verbal ending system seems to be evident, though the exact meaning of many verbs remains unclear:

* primary singular active ''*'''-ti''''' in '''{{lang|xce|ambitise-ti}}''' (Botorrita I, A.5), '(that someone) builds around > encloses' from ''*h₂m̥b<sup>h</sup>i-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti''. * '''{{lang|xce|auzeti}}''', secondary ''*'''-t''''' > /θ/ written <z> in '''{{lang|xce|terbere-z}}''' (SP.02.08, B-4) and perhaps '''{{lang|xce|kombalke-z}}'''. * primary plural active ''*-'''nti''''' in '''{{lang|xce|ara-nti}}''' (Z.09.24, A-4) and '''{{lang|xce|zizonti}}''' 'they sow' (or perhaps 'they give', with assimilation of the initial to the medial <z>).<ref name="ffzg_EDPC-Addenda">Addenda et corrigenda to Ranko Matasović’s ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' (Brill, Leiden 2009) Zagreb, December 2011, p. 10. https://mudrac.ffzg.hr/~rmatasov/EDPC-Addenda%20et%20corrigenda.pdf</ref> * secondary ''*'''-nt''''' perhaps in '''{{lang|xce|atibio-n}}''' (Z.09.24, A-5). * middle voice ''*-'''nto''''' in '''{{lang|xce|auzanto}}''' (Z.09.03, 01) and perhaps '''{{lang|xce|esianto}}''' (SP.02.08 A-2).<ref name="Avdintvm">Jordán Cólera, Carlos. "''Avdintvm'', una nueva forma verbal en celtibérico y sus posibles relaciones paradigmáticas (auzeti, auzanto, auz, auzimei, auzares...)" Universidad Complutense de Madrid. ''Cuadernos de filología clásica. Estudios griegos e indoeuropeos'', 2015-05, Vol.25 (25), pp.11-23</ref>

A third-person imperative '''*-tо̄d''' > '''''-tuz''''' perhaps is seen in '''{{lang|xce|da-tuz}}''' 'he must give' (bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo), '''{{lang|xce|usabituz}}''', '''{{lang|xce|bize-tuz}}''' (Botorrita I A.5) and '''{{lang|xce|dinbituz}}''' 'he must build' < ''*dʰingʰ-bī-tōd''.

A possible third-person singular subjunctive '''''-a-ti''''' may be '''{{lang|xce|asekati}}''', and another in '''''-e-ti''''' may be seen in '''''auzeti''''' < *''aw-d<sup>h</sup>h<sub>1</sub>-e-ti'' 'he may bestow.'<ref name="Avdintvm" />

From the same root may come a truncated form of an athematic active third-person singular aorist, if '''''auz''''' is from *''auzaz'' < *''aw-d<sup>h</sup>h<sub>1</sub>''-''t''.<ref name="Avdintvm" />

Also from the same root, an example of the genitive plural of the present active participle ending ''-'''nt-om''''' may be found on the Novallas bronze tablet in '''''audintum''''' < ''*awd<sup>h</sup>eh<sub>1</sub>-nt-ōm.''<ref name="Avdintvm" />

Possible infinitive form '''-u-nei''', perhaps from *'''-mn-ei''', may be seen in '''{{lang|xce|ambi-tinko-unei}}''' (Botorrita I A.5) and '''{{lang|xce|ta-unei}}''' ‘to give’,<ref name="ffzg_EDPC-Addenda" /><ref name="10.36707_palaeohispanica.v0i20.395" /> a reduplicated infinitive form in '''''ti-za-unei''''' > *''d<sup>h</sup>i-d<sup>h</sup>h<sub>1</sub>-mn-ei'' "to place."<ref>Prosper, Blanca María. "Some Thoughts on the Gaulish Result of Common Celtic ''-mn-'' in Galatian" ''Celtic Studies'' 3. 2008. pp. 189-199, p. 190</ref> It is notable that no infinitive forms were preserved or developed in the insular Celtic languages.<ref name="Wodtko, D.S. 2003, p. 7"/>

==Syntax== Celtiberian syntax is considered to have the basic order subject–object–verb.<ref>2000. Fife J. 2000. Historical Aspects. In: The Celtic Languages. Ed. by Martin j. Ball. with James Fife. Routledge. P.74</ref> Another archaic IE feature is the use of the relative pronoun ''jos'' and the repetition of enclitised conjunctions such as ''k<sup>w</sup>e''.

==Sample texts==

=== First Botorrita plaque, side A === One of four bronze plaques found in Botorrita, this text was written in eastern Celtiberian script. The other side consists of a list of names. (K.01.01.A) {{lang|xce|italic=no| : trikantam : bergunetakam : togoitos-kue : sarnikio (:) kue : sua : kombalkez : nelitom : nekue [: to-ver-daunei : litom : nekue : daunei : litom : nekue : masnai : dizaunei : litom : soz : augu : aresta[lo] : damai : uta : oskues : stena : verzoniti : silabur : sleitom : konsklitom : gabizeti : kantom [:] sanklistara : otanaum : togoitei : eni : uta : oskuez : boustom-ve : korvinom-ve : makasiam-ve : ailam-ve : ambidiseti : kamanom : usabituz : ozas : sues : sailo : kusta : bizetuz : iom : asekati : [a]mbidingounei : stena : es : vertai : entara : tiris : matus : dinbituz : neito : trikantam : eni : oisatuz : iomui : listas : titas : zizonti : somui : iom : arznas : bionti : iom : kustaikos : arznas : kuati : ias : ozias : vertatosue : temeiue : robiseti : saum : dekametinas : datuz : somei : eni touzei : iste : ankios : iste : esankios : uze : areitena : sarnikiei : akainakubos : nebintor : togoitei : ios : vramtiom-ve : auzeti : aratim-ve : dekametam : datuz : iom : togoitos-kue : sarnikio-kue : aiuizas : kombalkores : aleites : iste : ires : ruzimuz : Ablu : ubokum }}

<gallery> Image:Botorrita 1.jpg|First Botorrita plaque (Zaragoza). Image:Zaragoza - Museo - Grafito 01.jpg|Another Botorrita plaque (Zaragoza). </gallery>

:'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|soz augu arestalo damai}}'''<ref name="Prosper2006">{{Cite journal |last=Prósper |first=Blanca María |year=2006 |title=SOZ AUKU ARESTALO TAMAI: La segunda línea del bronce de Botorrita y el anafórico celtibérico |journal=Palaeohispánica: Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua |publisher=Institución Fernando el Católico |issue=6 |pages=139–150 |url=https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/25/20/07prosper.pdf}}</ref> :all this (is) valid by order of the competent authority

::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|soz}}:''' all this (< ''*sod''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|augo}}:''' final, valid (< ''*h₂eug-os'' 'strong, valid', cf. Latin {{lang|la|augustus}} 'solemn'). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|arestalo}}:''' of the competent authority (gen. sing. {{lang|xce|arestalos}} < ''*pr̥Hi-steh₂-lo'' 'competent authority' < ''*pr̥Hi-sto'' 'what is first, authority'). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|damai}}:''' by order (instrumental fem. sing. < ''*dʰoh₁m-eh₂'' 'establish, dispose'). :(Translation: Prospér 2006)

:'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|saum dekametinas datuz somei eni touzei iste ankios iste es-ankios}}'''<ref name="Jordan2004">{{Cite journal |last=Jordán Cólera |first=Carlos |year=2004 |title=Celtibérico |journal=Monografías de Filología Griega |publisher=Universidad de Zaragoza |publication-place=Zaragoza |volume=16 |issue=IV |isbn=84-96214-38-9}}</ref> : of these, he will give the tax inside of this territory, so be fenced as be unfenced

::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|saum}}:''' of these (< ''*sa-ōm''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|dekametinas}}:''' the tithes, the tax. ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|datuz}}:''' he will pay, will give. ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|eni}}:''' inside, in (< ''*h₁en-i''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|somei}}:''' of this (loc. sing. < ''*so-sm-ei'' 'from this'). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|touzei}}:''' territory (loc. sing. < *''touzom'' 'territory' < ''*tewt-yo''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|iste ankios}}:''' so (be) fenced. ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|iste es-ankios}}:''' as (be) unfenced.

:(Transcription: Jordán 2004)

:'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|togoitei ios vramtiom-ve auzeti aratim-ve dekametam datuz}}''' : In Togotis, he who draws water either for the green or for the farmland, the tithe (of their yield) he shall give

:(Translation: De Bernardo 2007)

=== Great inscription from Peñalba de Villastar === An inscription in the Latin alphabet in the Celtiberian sanctuary of Peñalba de Villastar, in the current municipality of Villastar, Teruel province. (K.03.03) Other translations, which differ dramatically from this and from each other, may be found in P. Sims-Williams' treatment of the Celtic languages in ''The Indo-European Languages''.<ref>Kapović, M. (editor) ''The Indo-European Languages'' Routledge: 2017. p. 360 https://archive.org/stream/MateKapoviTheIndoEuropeanLanguages/Mate%20Kapovi%C4%87%20The%20Indo-European%20Languages_djvu.txt</ref>

{{lang|xce|italic=no| :eni Orosei :uta Tigino tiatunei :erecaias to Luguei :araianom komeimu :eni Orosei Ekuoisui-kue :okris olokas togias sistat Luguei tiaso :togias }}

:{{lang|xce|italic=no|'''eni Orosei uta Tigino tiatunei erecaias to Luguei araianom comeimu'''}} :In Orosis and the surroundings of Tigino river, we dedicate the fields to Lugus.

::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|eni}}:''' in (< ''*h₁en-i''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Orosei}}:''' Orosis (loc. sing. ''*oros-ei''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|uta}}:''' and (conj. cop.). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Tigino}}:''' of Tigino (river) (gen. sing. ''*tigin-o''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|tiatunei}}:''' in the surroundings (loc. sing. ''*tiatoun-e''i < ''*to-yh₂eto-mn-ei''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|erecaias}}:''' the furrows > the land cultivated (acc. pl. fem. ''erekaiās'' < ''*perka-i-ans'' > English ''furrow''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|to Luguei}}:''' to Lugus. ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|araianom}}:''' properly, totally, (may be a verbal complement > ''*pare-yanom'', cfr. welsh {{lang|cy|iawn}}). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|comeimu}}:''' we dedicate (present 3 p.pl. ''komeimu < *komeimuz < *kom-ei-mos-i'').

:'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|eni Orosei Ekuoisui-kue okris olokas togias sistat Luguei}}''' : In Orosis and Equeiso the hills, the vegetable gardens [and] the houses are dedicated to Lugus.

::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Ekuoisui}}:''' in Ekuoisu (loc. sing.) '''''-kue:''''' and (< ''*-kʷe''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|okris}}:''' the hills (nom. pl. < ''*h₂ok-r-eyes''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|olokas}}:''' the vegetable gardens (nom. pl. ''olokas'' < *olkās < ''*polk-eh₂-s'' > English ''fallow''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|togias}}:''' (and) the roofs > houses (nom. pl. or gen. sg. ''togias'' < ''tog-ya-s'' > Old Irish {{lang|sga|tuige}} "cover, protection").<ref>Matasovic, R. ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Leiden: Brill. 2009. p. 376</ref> ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|sistat}}:''' are they (dedicated) (3 p.pl. < ''*sistan''t < ''*si-sth₂-nti''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Luguei}}:''' to Lug (dat. ''Lugue-i'').

:(Transcription: Meid 1994, Translation: Prósper 2002<ref name="Prosper2002"> Prósper, Blanca M. 2002: «La gran inscripción rupestre celtibérica de Peñalba de Villastar. Una nueva interpretación», Palaeohispanica 2, pp.&nbsp;213–226.</ref>)

=== Bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo === A bronze plaque found in Torrijo del Campo, Teruel province in 1996, using the eastern Celtiberian script.

{{lang|xce|italic=no| :kelaunikui :derkininei : es :kenim : dures : lau :ni : olzui : obakai :eskenim : dures :useizunos : gorzo :nei : lutorikum : ei :subos : adizai : ekue : kar :tinokum : ekue : lankikum :ekue : tirtokum : silabur :sazom : ibos : esatui }}

:'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Lutorikum eisubos adizai ekue Kartinokum ekue Lankikum ekue Tirtokum silabur sazom ibos esatui (datuz)}}''' : for those of the Lutorici included in the duty, and also of the Cartinoci, of the Lancici and of the Tritoci, must give enough money to settle the debt with them.

::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Lutorikum}}:''' of the Lutorici (gen. masc. pl.). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|eisubos}}:''' for those included (< ''*h<sub>1</sub>epi-s-o-bʰos''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|adizai}}:''' in the assignment, in the duty (loc. fem. sing. < ''*adittia'' < ''*ad-dik-tia''. Cfr. Latin ''addictio'' 'assignment'). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|ekue}}:''' and also (< ''*h₂et(i)kʷe''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Kartinokum}}:''' of the Cartinoci (gen. masc. pl.). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Lankikum}}:''' of the Lancici (gen. masc. pl.). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|Tirtokum}}:''' of the Tritoci (gen. masc. pl.). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|silabur}}:''' money. ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|sazom}}:''' enough (< ''*sātio'' < ''*seh₂t-yo''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|ibos}}:''' for them (dat.3 p.pl. ''ibus'' < ''*i-bʰos''). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|esatui}}:''' to settle the debt (< ''*essato'' < ''*eks-h₂eg-to''. Cfr. Latin ''ex-igo'' 'demand, require' & ''exactum'' 'identical, equivalent'). ::'''{{lang|xce|italic=no|datuz}}:''' must give (< ''*dh₃-tōd'').

:(Transcription and Translation: Prósper 2015)

<gallery> Image:Zaragoza - Museo - Bronce epigráfico.jpg|Cortono plaque. Unknown origin. Image:Bronce luzaga.jpg|Luzaga's bronze (Guadalajara). Image:Tésera hospitalidad (Uxama).jpg|Uxama tessera (Osma, Soria). Image:Tessera Celtiberian (unknown).jpg|Fröhner tessera. Unknown origin. </gallery>

==See also== *Botorrita plaque *Celtiberian script *Continental Celtic languages *Gallaecian language *Hispano-Celtic languages *Iberian scripts *Luzaga's Bronze *Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula

==References== {{reflist}}

==Sources== {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last=Alberro |first=Manuel |title=The celticisation of the Iberian Peninsula, a process that could have had parallels in other European regions |journal=Études Celtiques |volume=35 |date=2003 |pages=7–24 |doi=10.3406/ecelt.2003.2149 |url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2149}} * Anderson, James M. "Preroman indo-european languages of the hispanic peninsula". In: ''Revue des Études Anciennes''. Tome 87, 1985, n°3-4. pp.&nbsp;319–326. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/rea.1985.4212]; [www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1985_num_87_3_4212] * Hoz, Javier de. "Lepontic, Celtiberian, Gaulish and the archaeological evidence". In: ''Etudes Celtiques''. vol. 29, 1992. Actes du IXe congrès international d'études celtiques. Paris, 7-12 juillet 1991. Deuxième partie : Linguistique, littératures. pp.&nbsp;223–240. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1992.2006 * Hoz, Javier de. (1996). ''The Botorrita first text. Its epigraphical background''; in: ''Die größeren altkeltischen Sprachdenkmäler.'' Akten des Kolloquiums Innsbruck 29. April - 3. Mai 1993, ed. W. Meid and P. Anreiter, 124&ndash;145, Innsbruck. * Jordán Cólera, Carlos: (2004). ''Celtibérico''. [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf]. University of Zaragoza, Spain. * Joseph, Lionel S. (1982): ''The Treatment of *CRH- and the Origin of CaRa- in Celtic''. Ériu n. 33 (31–57). Dublín. RIA. * Lejeune, Michel (1955) ''Celtiberica'' Acta Salmanticensia: Filosofia y Letras, vol. 7, #4. Salamanca. Universidad de Salamanca. * Lorrio, Alberto J. "Les Celtibères: archéologie et culture". In: ''Etudes Celtiques''. vol. 33, 1997. pp.&nbsp;7–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1997.2109 * Luján, Eugenio R. "Celtic and Celtiberian in the Iberian peninsula". In: E. Blasco et al. (eds.). ''Iberia e Sardegna''. Le Monnier Universitá. 2013. pp.&nbsp;97–112. {{ISBN|978-88-00-74449-2}} * Luján, Eugenio R.; Lorrio, Alberto J. "Un puñal celtibérico con inscripción procedente de Almaraz (Cáceres, España)". In: ''Etudes Celtiques'', vol. 43, 2017. pp.&nbsp;113–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2017.1096 * McCone, Kim.(1996): ''Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change'' Maynooth Studies in Celtic Linguistics 1. Maynooth. St. Patrick's College. * Meid, Wolfgang. (1994). ''Celtiberian Inscriptions'', Archaeolingua, edd. S. Bökönyi and W. Meid, Series Minor, 5, 12&ndash;13. Budapest. * Schrijver, Peter (1991): ''The reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European laryngeals in Latin''. Amsterdam. Ed. Rodopi. * Schumacher, Stefan (2004): ''Die keltischen Primärverben: ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon''. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft vol. 110. Universität Innsbruck. * Untermann, Jürgen. (1997): ''Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum. IV Die tartessischen, keltiberischen und lusitanischen Inschriften'', Wiesbaden. * Wodtko, D.S. An outline of Celtiberian grammar, Freiburg 2003 * Velaza, Javier (1999): ''Balance actual de la onomástica personal celtibérica'', ''Pueblos, lenguas y escrituras en la Hispania Prerromana'', pp.&nbsp;663–683. * Villar, Francisco (1995): ''Estudios de celtibérico y de toponimia prerromana'', Salamanca. * Zair, Nicholas. (2012): ''The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic''. Leiden. Ed. Brill.

==Further reading== ;Overview: * Beltrán Lloris, Francisco; Jordán Cólera, Carlos. "Celtibérico". In: ''Palaeohispanica: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua'' n. 20 (2020): pp.&nbsp;631–688. {{ISSN|1578-5386}} DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.395 * de Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia (2002). "[https://ifc.dpz.es/ojs/index.php/palaeohispanica/article/view/349 Centro Y áreas Laterales: Formación Del Celtibérico Sobre El Fondo Del Celta Peninsular Hispano]". In: ''Palaeohispanica. Revista Sobre Lenguas Y Culturas De La Hispania Antigua'', n.º 2 (diciembre), 89–132. https://doi.org/10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i2.349. * Blažek, Václav. "[http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/114002 Celtiberian]". In: ''Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity''. N, Řada klasická = Graeco-Latina Brunensia. 2007, vol. 56, iss. N. 12, pp. [5]-25. {{ISSN|1211-6335}}. * Jordán Cólera, Carlos (2007). "Celtiberian". ''e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies''. Vol. 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula. Article 17. pp.&nbsp;749–850. {{ISSN|1540-4889}} Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17

;Lexicon: * Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia de. "Celtic ‘son’, ‘daughter’, other descendants, and ''*sunus'' in Early Celtic". In: ''Indogermanische Forschungen'' 118, 2013 (2013): 259–298. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/indo.2013.118.2013.259 * Fernández, Esteban Ngomo. “A propósito de matrubos y los términos de parentesco en celtibérico”. In: ''Boletín del Archivo Epigráfico''. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. nº. 4 (2019): 5–15. {{ISSN|2603-9117}} * Fernández, Esteban Ngomo. "El color rojo en celtibérico: del IE ''*H1roudh-'' al celtibérico ''routaikina''". In: ''Boletín del Archivo Epigráfico''. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. nº. 6 (junio, 2020): 5–19. {{ISSN|2603-9117}} * Stifter, David (2006). "Contributions to Celtiberian Etymology II". In: ''Palaeohispanica: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua'', 6. pp.&nbsp;237–245. {{ISSN|1578-5386}}. * {{cite journal |last=Wodtko |first=Dagmar |date=2023 |title=Das Keltiberische Lexikon |trans-title=The Celtiberian lexicon |journal=Palaeohispanica. Revista Sobre Lenguas y Culturas de la Hispania Antigua |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=151–64 |language=DE |doi=10.36707/palaeohispanica.v23i0.531|doi-access=free }}

;Alphabet: * {{cite journal |last=Jordán Cólera |first=Carlos |title=La valeur du s diacrité dans les inscriptions celtibères en alphabet latin |journal=Études Celtiques |volume=41 |date=2015 |pages=75–94 |language=FR |doi=10.3406/ecelt.2015.2450 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2015_num_41_1_2450}} * Simón Cornago, Ignacio; Jordán Cólera, Carlos Benjamín. "The Celtiberian S. A New Sign in (Paleo)Hispanic Epigraphy". In: ''Tyche'' 33 (2018). pp.&nbsp;183–205. {{ISSN|1010-9161}}

{{refend}}

==External links== {{wiktionary category|type=Celtiberian|category=Celtiberian language}} {{commons category}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060208211958/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)] *[http://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Esempi&id=60&lang=en Celtic, Celtiberian - 2nd - 1st c. B.C. Examples of writing]

{{Celtic languages}} {{Celts}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Celtiberian Language}} Category:Continental Celtic languages Category:Paleohispanic languages Category:Extinct languages of Spain Category:Ancient languages