Corynebacterium

{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}} {{Automatic taxobox | image = Corynebacterium ulcerans 01.jpg | image_alt = "Corynebacterium ulcerans" colonies on a blood agar plate | image_caption = ''Corynebacterium ulcerans'' colonies on a blood agar plate | taxon = Corynebacterium | parent_authority = Lehmann and Neumann 1907 (Approved Lists 1980)<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Lehmann KB, Neumann R | title = Lehmann's Medizin, Handatlanten X. Atlas und Grundriss der Bakteriologie und Lehrbuch der speziellen bakteriologischen Diagnostik | trans-title = Lehmann's Medicine, Handbook X. Atlas and outline of bacteriology and textbook of special bacteriological diagnostics | edition = 4th | publisher = J. F. Lehmann | location = Munchen | year = 1907}}</ref> | authority = Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Lehmann KB, Neumann R | title = Atlas und Grundriss der Bakteriologie und Lehrbuch der speziellen bakteriologischen Diagnostik | trans-title = Atlas and outline of bacteriology and textbook of special bacteriological diagnostics | edition = 1st | publisher = J.F. Lehmann | location = München | year = 1896}}</ref> | type_species = ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' | type_species_authority = (Kruse 1886) Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980) | synonyms = * ''Bacterionema'' Gilmour ''et al''. 1961 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''Caseobacter'' Crombach 1978 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''Turicella'' Funke ''et al''. 1994 | synonyms_ref = | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }}

'''''Corynebacterium''''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɔː|ˈ|r|aɪ|n|ə|b|æ|k|ˌ|t|ɪər|i|ə|m|,_|-|ˈ|r|ɪ|n|-}}) is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria and most are aerobic. They are bacilli (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more specifically, club-shaped, which inspired the genus name (''coryneform'' means "club-shaped").

They are widely distributed in nature in the microbiota of animals (including the human microbiota) and are mostly innocuous, most commonly existing in commensal relationships with their hosts.<ref name="caspium">{{cite journal |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02950-0 |pmid=15143043 |title=''Corynebacterium caspium'' sp. nov., from a Caspian seal (Phoca caspica) |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=925–8 |year=2004 |last1=Collins |first1=M. D. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some, such as ''C. glutamicum'', are commercially and industrially useful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poetsch|first=A.|title=Proteomics of corynebacteria: From biotechnology workhorses to pathogens|journal=Proteomics|volume=11|issue=15|pages=3244–3255|doi=10.1002/pmic.201000786|pmid=21674800|year=2011|s2cid=44274690}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Burkovski A. |title=Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology |publisher=Caister Academic Press |year=2008 |url=http://www.horizonpress.com/cory |isbn=978-1-904455-30-1}}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref><ref name="JGAM_1957">{{Cite journal |author=Kinoshita, Shukuo; Udaka, Shigezo; Shimono, Masakazu |date=1957 |title=Studies on the amino acid fermentation. Part 1. Production of L-glutamic acid by various microorganisms |journal=The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=193–205 |doi=10.2323/jgam.3.193 |doi-access=free |pmid=15965888}}</ref><ref name="Nature_1972">{{Cite journal |author=Kinoshita, Shukuo|date=1972-11-24 |title=Amino-acid Producnon by the Fermentation Process |journal=Nature |volume=240 |issue= 5378|page=211 |doi=10.1038/240211a0 |doi-access=free |pmid= 4569416}}</ref> Others can cause human disease, including, most notably, diphtheria, which is caused by ''C. diphtheriae''. Like various species of microbiota (including their relatives in the genera ''Arcanobacterium'' and ''Trueperella''), they are usually not pathogenic, but can occasionally capitalize opportunistically on atypical access to tissues (via wounds) or weakened host defenses.

== Taxonomy == The genus ''Corynebacterium'' was created by Lehmann and Neumann in 1896 as a taxonomic group to contain the bacterial rods responsible for causing diphtheria. The genus was defined according to morphological characteristics. Based on studies of 16S rRNA, they have been grouped into the subdivision of Gram-positive Eubacteria with high G:C content, with close phylogenetic relationships to ''Arthrobacter'', ''Mycobacterium'', ''Nocardia'', and ''Streptomyces''.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=2439888 |pmc=373105 |year=1987 |last1=Woese |first1=C. R. |title=Bacterial evolution |journal=Microbiological Reviews |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=221–71 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.51.2.221-271.1987 }} </ref>

The term comes from Greek κορύνη, ''{{lang|grc|korýnē}}'' 'club, mace, staff, knobby plant bud or shoot'<ref>{{LSJ|koru/nh|κορύνη|ref}}.</ref> and βακτήριον, ''{{lang|grc|baktḗrion}}'' 'little rod'.<ref>{{LSJ|bakth/rion|βακτήριον}}, {{LSJ|bakthri/a|βακτηρία|shortref}}.</ref> The term "diphtheroids" is used to represent corynebacteria that are nonpathogenic; for example, ''C. diphtheriae'' would be excluded.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} The term diphtheroid comes from Greek διφθέρα, ''{{lang|grc|diphthérā}}'' 'prepared hide, leather'.<ref>{{LSJ|difqe/ra|διφθέρα|shortref}}.</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|diphtheria}}</ref>

==Genomics== Comparative analysis of corynebacterial genomes has led to the identification of several conserved signature indels (CSIs) that are unique to the genus. Two examples of CSIs are a two-amino-acid insertion in a conserved region of the enzyme phosphoribose diphosphate:decaprenyl-phosphate phosphoribosyltransferase and a three-amino-acid insertion in acetate kinase, both of which are found only in ''Corynebacterium'' species. Both of these indels serve as molecular markers for species of the genus ''Corynebacterium''. Additionally, 16 conserved signature proteins, which are uniquely found in ''Corynebacterium'' species, have been identified. Three of these have homologs found in the genus ''Dietzia'', which is believed to be the closest related genus to ''Corynebacterium''. In phylogenetic trees based on concatenated protein sequences or 16S rRNA, the genus ''Corynebacterium'' forms a distinct clade, within which is a distinct subclade, cluster I. The cluster is made up of the species ''C. diphtheriae, C. pseudotuberculosis, C. ulcerans, C. aurimucosum, C. glutamicum,'' and ''C. efficiens''. This cluster is distinguished by several conserved signature indels, such as a two-amino-acid insertion in LepA and a seven- or eight-amino-acid insertions in RpoC. Also, 21 conserved signature proteins are found only in members of cluster I. Another cluster has been proposed, consisting of ''C. jeikeium'' and ''C. urealyticum'', which is supported by the presence of 19 distinct conserved signature proteins which are unique to these two species.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1128/MMBR.05011-11 |pmid=22390973 |pmc=3294427 |title=Phylogenetic Framework and Molecular Signatures for the Main Clades of the Phylum Actinobacteria |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=66–112 |year=2012 |last1=Gao |first1=B. |last2=Gupta |first2=R. S. }}</ref> Corynebacteria have a high G+C content ranging from 46-74 mol%.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |first1=K.A. |last1=Bernard |first2=G. |last2=Funke |chapter=Genus I. Corynebacterium |editor1-first=M. |editor1-last=Goodfellow |editor2-first=P. |editor2-last=Kampfer |editor3-first=H.J. |editor3-last=Busse |editor4-first=M.E. |editor4-last=Trujillo |editor5-first=K. |editor5-last=Suzuki |editor6-first=W. |editor6-last=Ludwig |editor7-first=W.B. |editor7-last=Whitman |title=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology |edition=2nd |publisher=Springer |year=2012 |page=245 }}</ref>

== Characteristics == The principal features of the genus ''Corynebacterium'' were described by Collins and Cummins, for Coryn Taylor in 1986.<ref name=collins>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=M. D. |last2=Cummins |first2=C. S. |year=1986 |chapter=Genus Corynebacterium Lehmann and Neumann 1896, 350AL |title=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology |volume=2 |pages=1266–76 |editor1-first=P. H. A. |editor1-last=Sneath |editor2-first=N. S. |editor2-last=Mair |editor3-first=M. E. |editor3-last=Sharpe |editor4-first=J. G. |editor4-last=Holt |location=Baltimore |publisher=Williams & Wilkins }}</ref> They are gram-positive, catalase-positive, non-spore-forming, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria that are straight or slightly curved.<ref name=glaucum>{{cite journal |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02394-0 |pmid=12807190 |title=''Corynebacterium glaucum'' sp. nov |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=705–9 |year=2003 |last1=Yassin |first1=A. F. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Metachromatic granules are usually present representing stored phosphate regions. Their size falls between 2 and 6 μm in length and 0.5 μm in diameter. The bacteria group together in a characteristic way, which has been described as the form of a "V", "palisades", or "Chinese characters". They may also appear elliptical. They are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, chemoorganotrophs. They are pleomorphic through their lifecycles, they occur in various lengths, and they frequently have thickenings at either end, depending on the surrounding conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.1977.tb00689.x |pmid=406255 |title=The Cell Wall Composition and Distribution of Free Mycolic Acids in Named Strains of Coryneform Bacteria and in Isolates from Various Natural Sources |journal=Journal of Applied Bacteriology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=229–52 |year=1977 |last1=Keddie |first1=R. M. |last2=Cure |first2=G. L. }}</ref>

Some corynebacteria are lipophilic (such as CDC coryneform groups F-1 and G, ''C. accolens'', ''C. afermentans'' subsp. ''lipophilum'', ''C. bovis'',<ref name=cmr/> ''C. jeikeium'', ''C. macginleyi'', ''C. uropygiale'',<ref name="Braun"/> and ''C. urealyticum''), but medically relevant corynebacteria are typically not.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bernard |first=Kathryn |date=2012 |title=The Genus Corynebacterium and Other Medically Relevant Coryneform-Like Bacteria |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=3152–3158 |doi=10.1128/JCM.00796-12 |issn=0095-1137 |pmc=3457441 |pmid=22837327}}</ref> The nonlipophilic bacteria may be classified as fermentative (such as ''C. amycolatum''; ''C. argentoratense'', members of the ''C. diphtheriae'' group, ''C. glucuronolyticum'', ''C. glutamicum'', ''C. matruchotii'', ''C. minutissimum'', ''C. striatum'', and ''C. xerosis'') or nonfermentative (such as ''C. afermentans'' subsp. ''afermentans'', ''C. auris'', ''C. pseudodiphtheriticum'', and ''C. propinquum'').<ref name=cmr>{{cite journal |pmid=8993861 |pmc=172946 |year=1997 |last1=Funke |first1=G |title=Clinical microbiology of coryneform bacteria |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=125–59 |last2=von Graevenitz |first2=A |last3=Clarridge Je |first3=3rd |last4=Bernard |first4=K. A. |doi=10.1128/CMR.10.1.125 }}</ref>

While some ''Corynebacterium'' species possess teichoic acid in their cell walls, the plant pathogenic species do not.<ref name=":0" />The cellular envelope of ''Corynebacterium'' has esterified short-chain alpha-branched and beta-hydroxy fatty acids that are covalently bound to the peptidoglycan wall, forming a mycolyl-peptidoglycan complex. This contributes to the stress resistance and pathogenicity of ''Corynebacterium''.<ref name=":1" /> Most phytopathogenic ''Corynebacterium'' cause infections upon injury or wounding of the plant and can cause systemic infections as well.<ref name=":0" /> ''C. fascians is'' found in perennials and can cause leaf and bulb distortion, bud deformity, and proliferation wilt. ''C. flaccumfaciens ssp. Flaccumfaciens'' in field beans can cause wilting, ''C. flaccumfaciens ssp.'' '' Betae'' in beets can cause silvering of the leaves and wilting, ''C. ilicis'' in American holly can cause branch blight, and ''C. iranicum'' in wheat can cause yellow slime of the leaves, inflorescences, and leaf spots. ''C. michiganense ssp. Michiganense'' in tomato peppers causes wilting and fruit spots, ''C. michiganense ssp. Insidiosum'' in alfalfa causes wilting and stunting, and ''C. tritici'' in wheat causes yellow slime of leaves and inflorescences.<ref name=":0" /> Some ''Corynebacterium'' species are considered zoonotic agents which can be transmitted to humans by contact with diseased animals.<ref name=":2" />

=== Cell wall === The cell wall is distinctive, with a predominance of mesodiaminopimelic acid in the murein wall<ref name=caspium /><ref name=glaucum /> and many repetitions of arabinogalactan, as well as corynemycolic acid (a mycolic acid with 22 to 26 carbon atoms), bound by disaccharide bonds called L-Rha''p''-(1 → 4)--D-GlcNAc-phosphate. These form a complex commonly seen in ''Corynebacterium'' species: the mycolyl-AG–peptidoglican (mAGP).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/glycob/cwl066 |pmid=17088267 |title=Topology and mutational analysis of the single Emb arabinofuranosyltransferase of Corynebacterium glutamicum as a model of Emb proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis |journal=Glycobiology |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=210–9 |year=2006 |last1=Seidel |first1=M. |last2=Alderwick |first2=L. J. |last3=Sahm |first3=H. |last4=Besra |first4=G. S. |last5=Eggeling |first5=L. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Unlike most corynebacteria, ''Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii'' does not contain mycolic acids.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1099/00207713-48-4-1449 |pmid=9828448 |title=Note: ''Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii'' sp. nov., a novel corynebacterium that does not contain mycolic acids |journal=International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=1449–54 |year=1998 |last1=Collins |first1=M. D. |last2=Falsen |first2=E. |last3=Akervall |first3=E. |last4=Sjoden |first4=B. |last5=Alvarez |first5=A. |display-authors=3|doi-access=free }}</ref> 4. The cellular envelope of Corynebacterium has esterified short-chain alpha-branched and beta-hydroxy fatty acids that are covalently bound to the peptidoglycan wall, forming a mycolyl-peptidoglycan complex. This contributes to the stress resistance and pathogenicity of Corynebacterium.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Brooks I. |last2=Markantonis |first2=John E. |date=2025-10-08 |editor-last=Humphries |editor-first=Romney M. |title=An underestimated pathogen: Corynebacterium species |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |language=en |volume=63 |issue=10 |article-number=e01552-24 |doi=10.1128/jcm.01552-24 |issn=0095-1137 |pmc=12506004 |pmid=40833082}}</ref> The ''Corynebacteria'' that are pathogenic to plants lack teichoic acid in their cell walls<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE PLANT PATHOGENIC CORYNEBACTERIA |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1641&context=plantpathpapers |access-date=2026-01-05 |website=digitalcommons.unl.edu}}</ref>. ''Corynebacterium'' is Gram-positive and teichoic acid is found in the cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Vidaver |first=A K |date=October 1982 |title=The Plant Pathogenic Corynebacteria |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.mi.36.100182.002431 |journal=Annual Review of Microbiology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=495–517 |doi=10.1146/annurev.mi.36.100182.002431 |pmid=6756296 |issn=0066-4227|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Culture === Corynebacteria grow slowly, even on enriched media. In nutritional requirements, all need biotin to grow. Some strains also need thiamine and PABA.<ref name=collins /> Some of the ''Corynebacterium'' species with sequenced genomes have between 2.5 and 3.0 million base pairs. The bacteria grow in Loeffler's medium, blood agar, and trypticase soy agar (TSA). They form small, grayish colonies with a granular appearance, mostly translucent, but with opaque centers, convex, with continuous borders.<ref name=glaucum /> The color tends to be yellowish-white in Loeffler's medium. In TSA, they can form grey colonies with black centers and dentated borders that either resemble flowers (''C. gravis''), continuous borders (''C. mitis''), or a mix between the two forms (''C. intermedium'').{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

== Habitat == ''Corynebacterium'' species occur commonly in nature in soil, water, plants, and food products.<ref name=caspium /><ref name=glaucum /> The non-diphtheroid ''Corynebacterium'' species can even be found in the mucosa and normal skin flora of humans and animals.<ref name=caspium /><ref name=glaucum /> Unusual habitats, such as the preen gland of birds, have been recently reported for ''Corynebacterium uropygiale''.<ref name="Braun">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.syapm.2015.12.001 |pmid=26776107 |title=''Corynebacterium uropygiale'' sp. nov., isolated from the preen gland of turkeys (''Meleagris gallopavo'') |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=88–92 |year=2016 |last1=Braun |first1=Markus Santhosh |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Stefan |last3=Danner |first3=Maria |last4=Rashid |first4=Harun-or |last5=Wink |first5=Michael }}</ref> Some species are known for their pathogenic effects in humans and other animals. Perhaps the most notable one is ''C. diphtheriae'', which acquires the capacity to produce diphtheria toxin only after interacting with a bacteriophage.<ref name=costa>{{cite journal |pmid=6270058 |pmc=216174 |year=1981 |last1=Costa |first1=J. J. |title=Restriction map of corynebacteriophages beta c and beta vir and physical localization of the diphtheria tox operon |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=124–30 |last2=Michel |first2=J. L. |last3=Rappuoli |first3=R |last4=Murphy |first4=J. R. |doi=10.1128/JB.148.1.124-130.1981 }}</ref><ref name=ViralZone /> Other pathogenic species in humans include: ''C. amycolatum'', ''C. striatum'', ''C. jeikeium'', ''C. urealyticum'', and ''C. xerosis'';<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0213-005X(01)72578-5 |pmid=11333587 |title=Bacteriemias significativas por Corynebacterium amycolatum: Un patógeno emergente |trans-title=Significant bacteremias by Corynebacterium amycolatum: an emergent pathogen |language=es |journal=Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=103–6 |year=2001 |last1=Oteo |first1=Jesús |last2=Aracil |first2=Belén |last3=Ignacio Alós |first3=Juan |last4=Luis Gómez-Garcés |first4=Jose |s2cid=72540272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0732-8893(97)00193-4 |pmid=9488824 |title=Prospective Study of Catalase-positive Coryneform Organisms in Clinical Specimens: Identification, Clinical Relevance, and Antibiotic Susceptibility |journal=Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=7–15 |year=1998 |last1=Lagrou |first1=K |last2=Verhaegen |first2=J |last3=Janssens |first3=M |last4=Wauters |first4=G |last5=Verbist |first5=L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.7547/87507315-85-6-338 |pmid=7602508 |title=Osteomyelitis caused by Corynebacterium jeikeium |journal=Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=338–9 |year=1995 |last1=Boc |first1=SF |last2=Martone |first2=JD }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1128/aac.23.3.506 |pmid=6847177 |pmc=184682 |title=R Plasmids in Corynebacterium xerosis Strains |journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=506–8 |year=1983 |last1=Kono |first1=M. |last2=Sasatsu |first2=M. |last3=Aoki |first3=T. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1983.tb00305.x |title=Deoxyribonucleic acid base composition of ''Corynebacterium'' diphtheriaeand other corynebacteria with cell wall type IV |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=16 |issue=2–3 |pages=291–5 |year=1983 |last1=Pitcher |first1=D.G. |doi-access=free }}</ref> all of these are important as pathogens in immunosuppressed patients. Pathogenic species in other animals include ''C. bovis'' and ''C. renale''.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=8720950 |year=1996 |last1=Hirsbrunner |first1=G |title=Nephrektomie nach chronischer, unilateraler, eitriger Pyelonephritis beim Rind |trans-title=Nephrectomy for chronic, unilateral suppurative pyleonephritis in cattle |language=de |journal=Tierarztliche Praxis |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=17–21 |last2=Lang |first2=J |last3=Nicolet |first3=J |last4=Steiner |first4=A }}</ref> This genus has been found to be part of the human salivary microbiome.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Preliminary analysis of salivary microbiome and their potential roles in oral lichen planus|first1=Kun|last1=Wang|first2=Wenxin|last2=Lu|first3=Qichao|last3=Tu|first4=Yichen|last4=Ge|first5=Jinzhi|last5=He|first6=Yu|last6=Zhou|first7=Yaping|last7=Gou|first8=Joy D Van|last8=Nostrand|first9=Yujia|last9=Qin|first10=Jiyao|last10=Li|first11=Jizhong|last11=Zhou|first12=Yan|last12=Li|first13=Liying|last13=Xiao|first14=Xuedong|last14=Zhou|display-authors=3|date=10 March 2016|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|issue=1|article-number=22943|doi=10.1038/srep22943|pmid=26961389|pmc=4785528|bibcode=2016NatSR...622943W}}</ref>

==Role in disease== {{Main|Diphtheria}} The most notable human infection is diphtheria, caused by ''C. diphtheriae''. It is an acute, contagious infection characterized by pseudomembranes of dead epithelial cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, and fibrin that form around the tonsils and back of the throat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/spanish/ency/article/001608.htm| title=Difteria: MedlinePlus enciclopedia médica|website=www.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> In developed countries, it is an uncommon illness that tends to occur in unvaccinated individuals, especially school-aged children, elderly, neutropenic or immunocompromised patients, and those with prosthetic devices such as prosthetic heart valves, shunts, or catheters. It is more common in developing countries<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S0034-89101980000400005 |pmid=7268290 |title= Difteria: Situação imunitária de uma população infantil urbana de São Paulo, SP, Brasil |trans-title=Diphtheria. Immunity in an infant population in the City of S. Paulo, SP, Brazil |language=pt |journal=Revista de Saúde Pública |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=462–8 |year= 1980 |last1=Iizuka |first1=Hideyo |last2=Furuta |first2=Joana Akiko |last3=Oliveira |first3=Edison P. Tavares de |doi-access=free }}</ref> It can occasionally infect wounds, the vulva, the conjunctiva, and the middle ear. It can be spread within a hospital.<ref name=jk>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0022172400065347 |pmid=3023480 |pmc=2083551 |title=Plasmids in group JK coryneform bacteria isolated in a single hospital |journal=Journal of Hygiene |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=255–63 |year=2009 |last1=Kerry-Williams |first1= S. M. |last2=Noble |first2=W. C. }}</ref> The virulent and toxigenic strains produce an exotoxin formed by two polypeptide chains, which is itself produced when a bacterium is transformed by a gene from the β prophage.<ref name=costa /><ref name=ViralZone>SIB: [https://viralzone.expasy.org/3967 Viral exotoxin]. Expasy: ViralZone. Accessed 2 Feb 2021</ref>

Some ''Corynebacterium'' species are considered zoonotic agents which can be transmitted to humans by contact with diseased animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bernard |first=Kathryn |date=October 2012 |title=The genus corynebacterium and other medically relevant coryneform-like bacteria |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=3152–3158 |doi=10.1128/JCM.00796-12 |issn=1098-660X |pmc=3457441 |pmid=22837327}}</ref> Several species cause disease in animals, most notably ''C. pseudotuberculosis'', which causes the disease caseous lymphadenitis, and some are also pathogenic in humans. Some attack healthy hosts, while others tend to attack the immunocompromised. Effects of infection include granulomatous lymphadenopathy, pneumonitis, pharyngitis, skin infections, and endocarditis. Corynebacterial endocarditis is seen most frequently in patients with intravascular devices.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0213-005X(04)73041-4 |title= Guías para el tratamiento de las infecciones relacionadas con catéteres intravasculares de corta permanencia en adultos: Conferencia de consenso SEIMC-SEMICYUC |trans-title=Guidelines for the treatment of infections related to short-stay intravascular catheters in adults: consensus conference SEIMC-SEMICYUC |language=es |journal=Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=92–7 |year=2004 |last1=León |first1=Cristóbal |last2=Ariza |first2=Javier |pmid= 14756991 }}</ref> Several species of ''Corynebacterium'' can cause trichomycosis axillaris.<ref>{{EMedicine|derm|601|Trichomycosis axillaris}}</ref> ''C. striatum'' may cause axillary odor.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1467-2494.2004.00255.x |pmid=18492161 |title=Isolation of a bacterial enzyme releasing axillary malodor and its use as a screening target for novel deodorant formulations1 |journal=International Journal of Cosmetic Science |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=115–22 | year=2005 |last1=Natsch |first1=A. |last2=Gfeller |first2=H. |last3=Gygax |first3=P. |last4=Schmid |first4=J. |s2cid=22554216 }}</ref> ''C. minutissimum'' causes erythrasma.

Most phytopathogenic ''Corynebacterium'' produce systemic infections in plants that are caused by injury or wounding of the plant and can cause systemic infections as well. ''C. fascians'' is found in perennials and can cause leaf and bulb distortion, bud deformity, and proliferation wilt. ''C. flaccumfaciens ssp. Flaccumfaciens'' in field beans can cause wilting, ''C. flaccumfaciens ssp.'' '' Betae'' in beets can cause silvering of the leaves and wilting, ''C. ilicis'' in American holly can cause branch blight, and ''C. iranicum'' in wheat can cause yellow slime of the leaves, inflorescences, and leaf spots. It is also known that ''C. michiganense ssp. Michiganense'' in tomato peppers causes wilting and fruit spots, ''C. michiganense ssp. Insidiosum'' in alfalfa causes wilting and stunting, and ''C. tritici'' in wheat causes yellow slime of leaves and inflorescences.<ref name=":0" />

==Industrial uses== Nonpathogenic species of ''Corynebacterium'' are used for important industrial applications, such as the production of amino acids<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Yamada |editor1-first=K. |editor2-last=Kinoshita |editor2-first=S. |editor3-last=Tsunoda |editor3-first=T. |editor4-last=Aida |editor4-first=K. |year=1972 |title=The Microbial Production of Amino Acids |publisher=Wiley |location=New York }}</ref> and nucleotides, bioconversion of steroids,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/bit.260220110 |pmid=7350926 |title=Steroid transformation at high substrate concentrations using immobilized ''Corynebacterium'' simplex cells |journal=Biotechnology and Bioengineering |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=119–36 |year=1980 |last1=Constantinides |first1=Alkis |s2cid=29703826 }}</ref> degradation of hydrocarbons,<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=422512 |pmc=218359 |year=1979 |last1=Cooper |first1=D. G. |title=Analysis of corynomycolic acids and other fatty acids produced by Corynebacterium lepus grown on kerosene |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=137 |issue=2 |pages=795–801 |last2=Zajic |first2=J. E. |last3=Gracey |first3=D. E. |doi=10.1128/JB.137.2.795-801.1979 }}</ref> cheese aging,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1985.tb01591.x |title=Phenylalanine and tyrosine catabolism in some cheese coryneform bacteria |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=201–5 |year=1985 |last1=Lee |first1=Chang-Won |last2=Lucas |first2=Serge |last3=Desmazeaud |first3=Michel J. |doi-access=free }}</ref> and production of enzymes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0134(20000401)39:1<68::AID-PROT7>3.0.CO;2-Y |pmid=10737928 |title=Molecular modeling of substrate binding in wild-type and mutant ''Corynebacteria'' 2,5-diketo-D-gluconate reductases |journal=Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=68–75 |year=2000 |last1=Khurana |first1=Sumit |last2=Sanli |first2=Gulsah |last3=Powers |first3=David B. |last4=Anderson |first4=Stephen |last5=Blaber |first5=Michael |display-authors=3|citeseerx=10.1.1.661.3412 |s2cid=24526523 }}</ref> Some species produce metabolites similar to antibiotics: bacteriocins of the corynecin-linocin type,<ref name=jk /><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1984.tb01451.x |title=Plasmid-associated bacteriocin production in a JK-type coryneform bacterium |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=25 |issue=2–3 |pages=179–82 |year=1984 |last1=Kerry-Williams |first1=S.M. |last2=Noble |first2=W.C. |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1271/bbb1961.36.2223 |title=Production of Antibacterial Compounds Analogous to Chloramphenicol by a n-Paraffin-grown Bacterium |journal=Agricultural and Biological Chemistry |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=2223–8 |year=1972 |last1=Suzuki |first1=Takeo |last2=Honda |first2=Haruo |last3=Katsumata |first3=Ryoichi |doi-access=free }}</ref> antitumor agents,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S0065-230X(08)60090-1 |pmid=343523 |chapter=Antitumor Activity of Corynebacterium Parvum |volume=26 |pages=257–306 |year=1978 |last1=Milas |first1=Luka |last2=Scott |first2=Martin T. |isbn=978-0-12-809878-3 |editor1-first=Marvella E. |editor1-last=Ford |editor2-first=Dennis K. |editor2-last=Watson |series=Advances in Cancer Research | title = Cancer Disparities | edition = 1st}}</ref> etc. One of the most studied species is ''C. glutamicum'', whose name refers to its capacity to produce glutamic acid in aerobic conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2323/jgam.13.279 |title=Taxonomical Studies on Glutamic Acid-Producing Bacteria |journal=The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=279–301 |year=1967 |last1=Abe |first1=Shigeo |last2=Takayama |first2=KEN-Ichiro |last3=Kinoshita |first3=Shukuo |doi-access=free }}</ref>

L-Lysine production is specific to ''C. glutamicum'' in which core metabolic enzymes are manipulated through genetic engineering to drive metabolic flux towards the production of NADPH from the pentose phosphate pathway, and L-4-aspartyl phosphate, the commitment step to the synthesis of L-lysine, lysC, {{chem name|dapA}}, {{chem name|dapC}}, and {{chem name|dapF}}. These enzymes are up-regulated in industry through genetic engineering to ensure adequate amounts of lysine precursors are produced to increase metabolic flux. Unwanted side reactions such as threonine and asparagine production can occur if a buildup of intermediates occurs, so scientists have developed mutant strains of'' C. glutamicum'' through PCR engineering and chemical knockouts to ensure production of side-reaction enzymes are limited. Many genetic manipulations conducted in industry are by traditional cross-over methods or inhibition of transcriptional activators.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kjeldsen |first1=Kjeld Raunkjær |year=2009 |title=Optimization of an industrial L-lysine producing Corynebacterium glutamicum strain |type=PhD Thesis |publisher=Technical University of Denmark |oclc=826400572 }}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref>

Expression of functionally active human epidermal growth factor has been brought about in ''C. glutamicum'',<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1472-765X.2005.01802.x |pmid=16411922 |title=Secretion of human epidermal growth factor by Corynebacterium glutamicum |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=66–70 |year=2006 |last1=Date |first1=M. |last2=Itaya |first2=H. |last3=Matsui |first3=H. |last4=Kikuchi |first4=Y. |s2cid=20867427 |doi-access=free }}</ref> thus demonstrating a potential for industrial-scale production of human proteins. Expressed proteins can be targeted for secretion through either the general secretory pathway or the twin-arginine translocation pathway.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00253-007-0934-8 |pmid=17453196 |title=Comparative analysis of twin-arginine (Tat)-dependent protein secretion of a heterologous model protein (GFP) in three different Gram-positive bacteria |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=633–42 |year=2007 |last1=Meissner |first1=Daniel |last2=Vollstedt |first2=Angela |last3=Van Dijl |first3=Jan Maarten |last4=Freudl |first4=Roland |s2cid=6238466 }}</ref>

Unlike gram-negative bacteria, the gram-positive ''Corynebacterium'' species lack lipopolysaccharides that function as antigenic endotoxins in humans.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

==Species== ''Corynebacterium'' comprises the following species:<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Euzéby JP, Parte AC | url = https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/corynebacterium | title = ''Corynebacterium'' | access-date = June 21, 2022 | publisher = List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)}}</ref> {{div col|colwidth=250px}} * ''C. accolens'' Neubauer et al. 1991  * ''C. afermentans'' Riegel et al. 1993 * ''C. alimapuense'' Claverias et al. 2019 * "''C. alkanolyticum''" Lee and Reichenbach 2006 * ''C. ammoniagenes'' (Cooke and Keith 1927) Collins 1987 * ''C. amycolatum'' Collins et al. 1988 * ''C. anserum'' Liu et al. 2021 * ''C. appendicis'' Yassin et al. 2002  * ''C. aquatimens'' Aravena-Román et al. 2012 * ''C. aquilae'' Fernández-Garayzábal et al. 2003 * ''C. argentoratense'' Riegel et al. 1995 * "''C. asperum''" De Briel et al. 1992 * ''C. atrinae'' Kim et al. 2015 * ''C. atypicum'' Hall et al. 2003 * ''C. aurimucosum'' Yassin et al. 2002 * ''C. auris'' Funke et al. 1995 * ''C. auriscanis'' Collins et al. 2000   * ''C. belfantii'' Dazas et al. 2018  * ''C. beticola'' Abdou 1969 (Approved Lists 1980)  * "''C. bouchesdurhonense''" Ndongo et al. 2017 * "''C. bouchesdurhonense''" Lo et al. 2019 * ''C. bovis'' Bergey et al. 1923 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. callunae'' (Lee and Good 1963) Yamada and Komagata 1972 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. camporealensis'' Fernández-Garayzábal et al. 1998 * ''C. canis'' Funke et al. 2010 * ''C. capitovis'' Collins et al. 2001 * ''C. casei'' Brennan et al. 2001 * ''C. caspium'' Collins et al. 2004  * ''C. choanae'' Busse et al. 2019  * ''C. ciconiae'' Fernández-Garayzábal et al. 2004 * ''C. comes'' Schaffert et al. 2021 * ''C. confusum'' Funke et al. 1998 * ''C. coyleae'' Funke et al. 1997 * ''C. crudilactis'' Zimmermann et al. 2016  * ''C. cystitidis'' Yanagawa and Honda 1978 (Approved Lists 1980) * "''C. defluvii''" Yu et al. 2017 * "''C. dentalis''" Benabdelkader et al. 2020 * ''C. deserti'' Zhou et al. 2012 * ''C. diphtheriae'' (Kruse 1886) Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. doosanense'' Lee et al. 2009 * ''C. durum'' Riegel et al. 1997 * ''C. efficiens'' Fudou et al. 2002 * ''C. endometrii'' Ballas et al. 2020  * ''C. epidermidicanis'' Frischmann et al. 2012  * ''C. faecale'' Chen et al. 2016 * ''C. falsenii'' Sjödén et al. 1998  * ''C. felinum'' Collins et al. 2001  * ''C. flavescens'' Barksdale et al. 1979 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. fournieri'' corrig. Diop et al. 2018  * ''C. frankenforstense'' Wiertz et al. 2013 * ''C. freiburgense'' Funke et al. 2009 * ''C. freneyi'' Renaud et al. 2001  * ''C. gerontici'' Busse et al. 2019  * ''C. glaucum'' Yassin et al. 2003 * ''C. glucuronolyticum'' Funke et al. 1995 * ''C. glutamicum'' (Kinoshita et al. 1958) Abe et al. 1967 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. glyciniphilum'' (ex Kubota et al. 1972) Al-Dilaimi et al. 2015   * ''C. gottingense'' Atasayar et al. 2017  * ''C. guangdongense'' Li et al. 2016  * "''C. haemomassiliense''" Boxberger et al. 2020 * ''C. halotolerans'' Chen et al. 2004 * ''C. hansenii'' Renaud et al. 2007 * ''C. heidelbergense'' Braun et al. 2021 * ''C. hindlerae'' Bernard et al. 2021   * ''C. humireducens'' Wu et al. 2011  * "''C. ihumii''" Padmanabhan et al. 2014 * ''C. ilicis'' Mandel et al. 1961 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. imitans'' Funke et al. 1997 * "''C. incognitum''" Boxberger et al. 2021   * ''C. jeddahense'' Edouard et al. 2017 * ''C. jeikeium'' Jackman et al. 1988 * ''C. kalinowskii'' Schaffert et al. 2021 * "''C. kefirresidentii''" Blasche et al. 2017 * ''C. kroppenstedtii'' Collins et al. 1998 * ''C. kutscheri'' (Migula 1900) Bergey et al. 1925 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. lactis'' Wiertz et al. 2013 * "''C. lactofermentum''" Gubler et al. 1994  * ''C. jeikliangguodongiiium'' Zhu et al. 2020  * ''C. lipophiloflavum'' Funke et al. 1997  * ''C. lizhenjunii'' Zhou et al. 2021 * ''C. lowii'' Bernard et al. 2016 * ''C. lubricantis'' Kämpfer et al. 2009 * ''C. lujinxingii'' Zhang et al. 2021 * ''C. macginleyi'' Riegel et al. 1995 * ''C. marinum'' Du et al. 2010 * ''C. maris'' Ben-Dov et al. 2009 * ''C. massiliense'' Merhej et al. 2009 * ''C. mastitidis'' Fernandez-Garayzabal et al. 1997 * ''C. matruchotii'' (Mendel 1919) Collins 1983    * ''C. minutissimum'' (ex Sarkany et al. 1962) Collins and Jones 1983  * ''C. mucifaciens'' Funke et al. 1997 * ''C. mustelae'' Funke et al. 2010 * ''C. mycetoides'' (ex Castellani 1942) Collins 1983 * ''C. nasicanis'' Baumgardt et al. 2015  * "''C. neomassiliense''" Boxberger et al. 2020   * ''C. nuruki'' Shin et al. 2011 * ''C. occultum'' Schaffert et al. 2021 * ''C. oculi'' Bernard et al. 2016   * ''C. otitidis'' (Funke et al. 1994) Baek et al. 2018 * "''C. pacaense''" Bellali et al. 2019 * "''C. parakroppenstedtii''" Luo et al. 2022 * "''C. parvulum''" Nakamura et al. 1983  * ''C. pelargi'' Kämpfer et al. 2015  * ''C. phocae'' Pascual et al. 1998 * "''C. phoceense''" Cresci et al. 2016 * ''C. pilbarense'' Aravena-Roman et al. 2010 * ''C. pilosum'' Yanagawa and Honda 1978 (Approved Lists 1980)  * ''C. pollutisoli'' Negi et al. 2016 * ''C. propinquum'' Riegel et al. 1994 * "''C. provencense''" Ndongo et al. 2017 * "''C. provencense''" Lo et al. 2019 * ''C. pseudodiphtheriticum'' Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)  * "''C. pseudokroppenstedtii''" Luo et al. 2022 * ''C. pseudopelargi'' Busse et al. 2019 * ''C. pseudotuberculosis'' (Buchanan 1911) Eberson 1918 (Approved Lists 1980)  * ''C. pyruviciproducens'' Tong et al. 2010 * ''C. qintianiae'' Zhou et al. 2021  * ''C. renale'' (Migula 1900) Ernst 1906 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. resistens'' Otsuka et al. 2005 * ''C. riegelii'' Funke et al. 1998 * ''C. rouxii'' Badell et al. 2020  * ''C. sanguinis'' Jaén-Luchoro et al. 2020 * "''C. segmentosum''" Collins et al. 1998  * "''C. senegalense''" Ndiaye et al. 2019  * ''C. silvaticum'' Dangel et al. 2020  * ''C. simulans'' Wattiau et al. 2000 * ''C. singulare'' Riegel et al. 1997 * ''C. sphenisci'' Goyache et al. 2003 * ''C. spheniscorum'' Goyache et al. 2003 * ''C. sputi'' Yassin and Siering 2008 * ''C. stationis'' (ZoBell and Upham 1944) Bernard et al. 2010 * ''C. striatum'' (Chester 1901) Eberson 1918 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. suicordis'' Vela et al. 2003 * ''C. sundsvallense'' Collins et al. 1999 * ''C. suranareeae'' Nantapong et al. 2020 * ''C. tapiri'' Baumgardt et al. 2015 * ''C. terpenotabidum'' Takeuchi et al. 1999 * ''C. testudinoris'' Collins et al. 2001  * ''C. thomssenii'' Zimmermann et al. 1998 * ''C. timonense'' Merhej et al. 2009 * ''C. trachiae'' Kämpfer et al. 2015  * ''C. tuberculostearicum'' Feurer et al. 2004   * ''C. tuscaniense'' corrig. Riegel et al. 2006 * "''C. uberis''" Kittl et al. 2022 * ''C. ulcerans'' (ex Gilbert and Stewart 1927) Riegel et al. 1995 * ''C. ulceribovis'' Yassin 2009  * ''C. urealyticum'' Pitcher et al. 1992 * ''C. ureicelerivorans'' Yassin 2007 * "''C. urinapleomorphum''" Morand et al. 2017  * ''C. urinipleomorphum'' corrig. Niang et al. 2021 * ''C. urogenitale'' Ballas et al. 2020 * ''C. uropygiale'' Braun et al. 2016 * ''C. uterequi'' Hoyles et al. 2013  * ''C. variabile'' corrig. (Müller 1961) Collins 1987   * ''C. vitaeruminis'' corrig. (Bechdel et al. 1928) Lanéelle et al. 1980  * ''C. wankanglinii'' Zhang et al. 2021 * ''C. xerosis'' (Lehmann and Neumann 1896) Lehmann and Neumann 1899 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''C. yudongzhengii'' Zhu et al. 2020 * ''C. zhongnanshanii'' Zhang et al. 2021 {{div col end}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== {{Wikispecies|Corynebacterium}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Burkovski |editor1-first=Andreas | title = Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/cory | isbn = 978-1-904455-30-1}} * {{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8385-8529-0 }} * [http://www.coryneregnet.de Database of Corynebacterial Transcription Factors and Regulatory Networks] * Rollins, David M. University of Maryland: Pathogentic Microbiology: Corynebacterium [http://www.life.umd.edu/classroom/bsci424/PathogenDescriptions/Corynebacterium.htm] * {{cite journal | last1 = Khamis | first1 = A. | last2 = Raoult | first2 = D. | last3 = Scola | first3 = B. La | year = 2004 | title = rpoB gene sequencing for identification of Corynebacterium species | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 42 | issue = 9| pages = 3925–3931 | doi = 10.1128/jcm.42.9.3925-3931.2004 | pmid = 15364970 | pmc = 516356 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Poetsch | first1 = A. | last2 = Haußmann | first2 = U. | last3 = Burkovski | first3 = A. | year = 2011 | title = Proteomics of corynebacteria: From biotechnology workhorses to pathogens | journal = Proteomics | volume = 2011 | issue = 11| pages = 3244–3255 | doi = 10.1002/pmic.201000786 | pmid = 21674800 | s2cid = 44274690 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Goldenberger | first1 = D. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = Extended characterization of Corynebacterium pyruviciproducens based on clinical strains from Canada and Switzerland | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = 9| pages = 3180–3183 | doi = 10.1128/jcm.00792-14 | pmid = 24951802 | pmc = 4313134 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Hacker | first1 = E. | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Colonization of human epithelial cell lines by Corynebacterium ulcerans from human and animal sources. | journal = Microbiology | volume = 161 | issue = 8| pages = 1582–1591 | doi = 10.1099/mic.0.000121 | pmid = 26066797 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bernard | first1 = K. A. | last2 = Munro | first2 = C. | last3 = Wiebe | first3 = D. | last4 = Ongsanso | first4 = E. | year = 2002 | title = Characteristics of rare or recently described Corynebacterium species recovered from human clinical material in Canada | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 40 | issue = 11| pages = 4375–4381 | doi = 10.1128/jcm.40.11.4375-4381.2002 | pmid = 12409436 | pmc = 139690 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bittel | first1 = M. | last2 = Gastiger | first2 = S. | last3 = Amin | first3 = B. | last4 = Hofmann | first4 = J. | last5 = Burkovski | first5 = A. | year = 2018 | title = Surface and Extracellular Proteome of the Emerging Pathogen Corynebacterium ulcerans | journal = Proteomes | volume = 6 | issue = 2| page = 18 | doi = 10.3390/proteomes6020018 | pmid = 29673200 | pmc = 6027474 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Ventura | first1 = M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Genomics of Actinobacteria: Tracing the Evolutionary History of an Ancient Phylum | journal = Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | volume = 71 | issue = 3| pages = 495–548 | doi = 10.1128/mmbr.00005-07 | pmid = 17804669 | pmc = 2168647 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Hansmeier | first1 = N. | last2 = Chao | first2 = T. C. | last3 = Kalinowski | first3 = J. | last4 = Pühler | first4 = A. | last5 = Tauch |display-authors=3| first5 = A. | year = 2006 | title = Mapping and comprehensive analysis of the extracellular and cell surface proteome of the human pathogen Corynebacterium diphtheriae | journal = Proteomics | volume = 2006 | issue = 6| pages = 2465–2476 | doi = 10.1002/pmic.200500360 | pmid = 16544277 | s2cid = 22745961 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Riegel | first1 = P. | last2 = Ruimy | first2 = R. | last3 = Christen | first3 = R. | last4 = Monteil | first4 = H. | s2cid = 9243014 | year = 1996 | title = Species identities and antimicrobial susceptibilities of Corynebacteria isolated from various clinical sources | journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 8| pages = 657–662 | doi = 10.1007/bf01691153 | pmid = 8894575 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Carfora | first1 = V. | display-authors = etal | year = 2018 | title = Non-toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans sequence types 325 and 339 isolated from two dogs with ulcerative lesions in Italy. [Internet] | journal = Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | volume = 30 | issue = 3| pages = 447–450 | doi = 10.1177/1040638718764786 | pmid = 29528813 | pmc = 6505817 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Nishio | first1 = Y. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Evolutionary process of amino acid biosynthesis in Corynebacterium at the whole genome level. [Internet] | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 21 | issue = 9| pages = 1683–1691 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msh175 | pmid = 15163767 | doi-access = free }}

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Category:Bacteria genera Category:Corynebacterium Category:Gram-positive bacteria Category:Pathogenic bacteria