Carol I of Romania

{{Short description|Monarch of Romania from 1866 to 1914}} {{Redirect|Carol I}} {{Infobox royalty | name = Carol I | image = Carol I of Romania edited.jpg | caption = Carol I, {{Circa|1905–14}} | reign = 15 March 1881 – 10 October 1914 | coronation = 10 May 1881 | predecessor = Monarchy established | successor = Ferdinand I | regent = ''Full list'' | reg-type = Prime ministers | succession = King of Romania | reign1 = 20 April 1866 – 14 March 1881 | predecessor1 = Alexandru Ioan Cuza | successor1 = ''Himself as King of Romania'' | regent1 = ''Full list'' | reg-type1 = Prime ministers | succession1 = Domn of Romania | spouse = {{marriage|Elisabeth of Wied|1869}} | issue = Princess Maria | full name = Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig | house = Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen | father = Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern | mother = Princess Josephine of Baden | birth_date = {{Birth date|1839|4|20|df=y}} | birth_place = Sigmaringen Castle, Sigmaringen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, German Confederation | death_date = {{Death date and age|1914|10|10|1839|4|20|df=y}} | death_place =Peleș Castle, Sinaia, Kingdom of Romania | burial_place = Curtea de Argeș, Romania | signature = Carol of Romania - signature.png | religion = Roman Catholic }}

'''Carol I''' or '''Charles I of Romania''' ({{langx|ro|Carol I}}; {{IPA|ro|ˈkarol ɨnˈtɨj|lang|Ro - Carol I.ogg}}, born '''Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen'''; 20 April 1839 – {{OldStyleDate|10 October|1914|27 September}}), nicknamed '''the King of Independence''' ({{langx|ro|Regele Independenței}}; {{IPA|ro|ˈre.d͡ʒe.le in.de.penˈden.t͡sɨj|lang|Ro - Regele Independentei.ogg}}); <ref>{{cite web | last1=Tănase | first1=Elena | title=10 Mai. Cine a fost Carol I, de ce este Regele Independenței și de ce a fost cenzurat de comuniști | work=Europa Liberă România | url=https://romania.europalibera.org/a/31239666.html }}</ref> was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince (''Domnitor'') from 1866 to 1881, and as King from 1881 to 1914. He was elected Prince of the Romanian United Principalities on 20 April 1866 after the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup d'état. In May 1877, Romania was proclaimed an independent and sovereign nation. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire (1878) in the Russo-Turkish War secured Romanian independence, and he was proclaimed King on {{OldStyleDate|26 March|1881|14 March}}. He was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a socialist republic in 1947.

During his reign, Carol I personally led Romanian troops during the Russo-Turkish War and assumed command of the Russo-Romanian army during the siege of Plevna. The country achieved internationally recognized independence via the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 and acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria in 1913. In 1883 the king entered a top-secret military alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, despite popular demands against Hungary. When World War I broke out he was unable to activate the alliance. Romania remained neutral and in 1916 joined the Allies.<ref>{{Citation |title=Romania in World War I |date=2026-01-28 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romania_in_World_War_I&oldid=1335305723 |access-date=2026-02-09 |language=en}}</ref>

Domestic political life was organized around the rival Liberal and Conservative parties. During Carol's reign, Romania's industry and infrastructure were much improved, however this process also resulted in major scandals, including the ''Strousberg Affair'' which personally implicated Carol. Overall, the country still had an agrarian-focused economy and the situation of the peasantry failed to improve, leading to a major revolt in 1907, bloodily suppressed by the authorities.

He married Princess Elisabeth of Wied on 15 November 1869. They only had one daughter, Maria, who died at the age of four. Carol never produced a male heir, leaving his elder brother Leopold next in line to the throne. In October 1880 Leopold renounced his right of succession in favour of his son William, who in turn surrendered his claim six years later in favour of his younger brother, the future King Ferdinand.

==Early life== left|thumb|upright|Prince Karl of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, aged 6 The future King Carol was born on 20 April 1839 in the town of Sigmaringen in southern Germany as Prince Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&q=Karl+hohenzollern+incognito&pg=PA754|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|last=Frucht|first=Richard|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2005|isbn=9781576078006|volume=3|location=Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford|pages=754|language=en}}</ref> Born into the Catholic socalled Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern, he was the second son of Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and his wife, Princess Josephine of Baden.<ref name=BLGSO>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Krista |last=Zach |title=Karl I. (Carol I.) |url=https://www.biolex.ios-regensburg.de/BioLexViewview.php?ID=1102 |encyclopedia=Biographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte Südosteuropas |volume=2 |pages=367-369 |location=Munich |publisher=Oldenbourg Verlag |year=1976 |isbn=3-486-47871-0 |language=de }}</ref> His family was therefore related to the royal family of Prussia, but his family was also related to the Bonaparte family, the French imperial family. His maternal grandmother, Stéphanie de Beauharnais, was a Beauharnais, Empress Joséphine's niece-in-law and Napoléon I's adoptive daughter, whereas his paternal grandmother, Marie Antoinette Murat, was a Murat, Joachim Murat's niece, and the family thus enjoyed very good relations with Emperor Napoleon III of France.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://www.familiaregala.ro/istorie/regele-carol-i|title=Regele Carol I|website=Familia Regala|language=ro-RO|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref>

Prince Karl's father, Prince Karl Anton, would later serve as Minister President of Prussia from 1858 to 1862, a period in Prussian history characterized by a moderate liberal reform policy.

thumb|upright|Prince Karl of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen {{circa}} 1860. After finishing his elementary studies, Prince Karl entered the Cadet School in Münster. In 1857 he was attending the courses of the Artillery School in Berlin.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=https://editiadedimineata.ro/regele-carol-asa-cum-l-au-descris-cativa-dintre-cei-care-l-au-cunoscut/|title=Regele Carol I, așa cum l-au descris câțiva dintre cei care l-au cunoscut|last=Kaliani|first=Mira|date=19 April 2018|work=Ediția de Dimineață|access-date=15 March 2019|archive-date=10 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610212008/https://editiadedimineata.ro/regele-carol-asa-cum-l-au-descris-cativa-dintre-cei-care-l-au-cunoscut/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Up to 1866, when he accepted the crown of Romania, he was a Prussian officer.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=POAwBwAAQBAJ&q=carol+I+romania+Prussian+officer&pg=PA118|title=A Dictionary of World History|last1=Kerr|first1=Anne|last2=Wright|first2=Edmund|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=9780199685691|edition=Third|location=Oxford and New York|pages=118|language=en|orig-year=2000}}</ref> He took part in the Second Schleswig War, including the assault of the Fredericia citadel and Dybbøl, an experience which would be very useful to him later in the Russo-Turkish war.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ&q=Karl+Eitel+Friedrich+Zephyrinus+Ludwig+of+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen&pg=PA350|title=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection|last=Buenviaje|first=Dino E.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2014|isbn=9781851099658|editor-last=Tucker|editor-first=Spencer C.|location=Santa Barbara, Ca, Denver, CO and Oxford|pages=350–351|language=en|chapter=Carol I, King of Romania}}</ref>

Although he was described as quite frail and not very tall, Prince Karl was reported to be the perfect soldier, healthy and disciplined, and also a very good politician with liberal ideas. He was familiar with several European languages.<ref name=":10" />

== Election to the Romanian throne == === Search for a prince === [[File:Alexandru Ioan Cuza colorizat.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Prince Charles's predecessor as Domnitor of the United Principalities, Alexandru Ioan Cuza.]] The former Domnitor (ruling prince) of united Romania, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, had been expelled from the country by the leading noblemen, leaving Romania in political chaos. Cuza's double election seven years earlier, both in Wallachia and in Moldavia, had been the basis on which the Romanian Principalities' unification was recognized by the European powers. With him gone, the country was in danger of disintegration, as the Ottoman Empire and other powers initially accepted the unification only on the condition that it would end with his reign.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lu_nCwAAQBAJ&q=alexandru+ioan+cuza+unification&pg=PA116|title=Orthodox Christianity and Nationalism in Nineteenth-century Southeastern Europe|last=Leuștean|first=Lucian|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780823256068|location=New York|pages=116|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqJoDwAAQBAJ&q=alexandru+ioan+cuza+unification&pg=PA193|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610215710/https://books.google.com/books?id=vqJoDwAAQBAJ&q=alexandru+ioan+cuza+unification&pg=PA193|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 10, 2021|title=Nineteenth-Century Europe|last=Rapport|first=Michael|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|year=2005|isbn=9780230204768|location=Basingstoke, New York|pages=193–194|language=en}}</ref>

As Romanian politicians searched for a successor, Karl was not their first choice. The authors of the anti-Cuza coup first approached Philip of Flanders, brother of king Leopold II of Belgium, hoping that he would bring the institutions of his country to the Lower Danube and turn the newly unified country into a "Belgium of the East".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKkegAiLtzMC&q=Philip+of+Flanders+romania&pg=PA19|title=Romania|last=Hitchins|first=Keith|author-link=Keith Hitchins|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1994|isbn=9780198221265|series=The Oxford History of Modern Europe|location=Oxford and New York|pages=19|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/locale/constanta/povestea-regelui-ratat-romania-printul-filip-propus-carol-i-conduca-principatele-romane-1_56e98b165ab6550cb8e9fd40/index.html|title=Povestea regelui "ratat" de România. Cine este prinţul Filip, propus înainte de Carol I să conducă Principatele Române|last=Ionescu|first=Sinziana|date=17 March 2016|work=Adevărul|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref> Wary of France's oppositions, Philip, who also turned down the throne of Greece a few years earlier, refused.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tztaCwAAQBAJ&q=Philip+of+Flanders+romania&pg=PA29|title=Orthodoxy and the Cold War: Religion and Political Power in Romania, 1947–65|last=Leustean|first=Lucian N.|publisher=Springer|year=2009|isbn=9780230594944|location=Basingstoke and New York|pages=29|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ion C. Bratianu 01.png|thumb|upright|The Romanian politician Ion C. Brătianu]] Soon after, Napoleon III suggested Karl, who was the brother in law of Philip. Napoleon's recommendation weighed heavily with Romanian politicians of the time, since Romania was strongly influenced by French culture. Napoleon was a strong supporter of Romanian independence, hoping to consolidate French influence on the Black Sea.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHEwXryHPfIC&q=Napoleon+III+carol+I+romania&pg=PT18|title=Inside the Mechanisms of Romanian Modernization: The Transformation of Public Sphere Between Media and Political System|last=Grancea|first=Florin|publisher=BookSurge|year=2006|isbn=9781419639692|location=Charleston, SC|pages=24|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TeISBwAAQBAJ&q=Napoleon+III+carol+I+romania&pg=PT53|title=Carmen Sylva. Uimitoarea regina Elisabeta a Romaniei|last=Badea-Paun|first=Gabriel|publisher=Humanitas|year=2014|isbn=9789735047856|location=Bucharest|language=ro}}</ref> Another factor was Karl's blood relation to the ruling Prussian family. Ion Constantin Brătianu, one of the major political figures of 19th-century Romania, was the politician sent to negotiate with Karl and his family the possibility of installing him on the Romanian throne.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVgrDwAAQBAJ&q=Karl+hohenzollern+ion+bratianu&pg=PT11|title=Ionel Brătianu: Romania|last=Hitchins|first=Keith|publisher=Haus Publishing|year=2011|isbn=9781907822186|series=Makers of the Modern World: The Peace Conferences of 1919–23 and their Aftermath|location=London|language=en}}</ref>

=== ''En route'' to Romania === [[File:Stamp 1933 Turnu Severin 1 leu.jpg|thumb|left|On {{OldStyleDate|May 20|1866|May 8}}, Karl entered Drobeta-Turnu Severin|alt=]]

Due to the political conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Empire, Karl travelled incognito by railroad from Düsseldorf to Baziaș, through Switzerland. He received there a Swiss passport from a Swiss public clerk, friend of his family, under the name of Karl Hettingen.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9QJAQAAIAAJ&q=Karl+Hettingen|title=The Danube: The Dramatic History of the Great River and the People Touched by Its Flow|last=Lessner|first=Erwin Christian|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1973|isbn=9780837164403|location=Garden City, New York|pages=451|language=en|orig-year=1961}}</ref> From Baziaș he travelled by boat to Turnu Severin, since there was no railroad to Romania. As he crossed the border onto Romanian soil, he was met by Brătianu, who bowed before him and asked Karl to join him in his carriage.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rnEDAAAQBAJ&q=carol+I+turnu+severin&pg=PT46|title=Regele Carol I al României|last=Lindenberg|first=Paul|publisher=Humanitas SA|year=2016|isbn=9789735053369|location=Bucharest|language=ro|chapter=IV: Călătoria spre România și sosirea la București}}</ref> He was formally elected Domnitor on 20 April.

[[File:Entering of Carol I in Bucharest, 10 May 1866.jpg|thumb|Karl's ceremonial entry into Bucharest on {{OldStyleDate|May 22|1866|May 10}}.]] On 10 May 1866 (22 May 1866 N.S.), Karl entered the capital of Bucharest. The news of his arrival had been transmitted by telegraph and he was welcomed by a huge crowd eager to see the new ruler. In Băneasa he was given the keys to the capital city. It was a rainy day after a long period of drought, which was taken to be a good omen by locals.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tI3AAAAIAAJ&q=Karl+Hettingen&pg=PA317|title=A History of the Roumanians: From Roman Times to the Completion of Unity|last=Seton-Watson|first=Robert William|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1934|location=Cambridge|pages=317|language=en}}</ref> As he was crowned, Karl swore this oath: "I swear to guard the laws of Romania, to maintain the rights of its People and the integrity of its territory." He took this oath in French, as he did not yet speak Romanian.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/locale/ploiesti/cinci-lucruri-putin-stiute-despre-regele-carol-i-dadea-suveranul-doar-deget-supusilor-care-i-intindeau-mana-1_5705191a5ab6550cb8af133a/index.html|title=Cinci lucruri puţin ştiute despre regele Carol I. De ce le dădea suveranul doar un deget supuşilor care-i întindeau mâna|last=Mihai|first=Dana|date=7 April 2016|work=Adevărul|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref> In fact, it is said that, before his nomination as Domnitor, he had never heard of Romania.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvfrNwAACAAJ|title=The Balkans: From the End of Byzantium to the Present Day|first=Mark|last=Mazower|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|pages=1–176|year=2002|orig-year=2000|isbn=9781842125441}}</ref> However, he endeared himself to his adopted country by adopting the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol. He learned to speak Romanian not long after that.<ref name=":13" />

==Early reign==

=== The Constitution of 1866 === thumb|Romania and its surroundings about 1866.

On 29 June{{snd}}two months after Carol's arrival{{snd}}the Romanian parliament adopted the 1866 Constitution of Romania, one of the most modern constitutions of its time. Carol signed it into law two days later. Modeled closely on the Constitution of Belgium, it guaranteed private propriety, freedom of speech, total freedom of the press, it abolished the death penalty during peace time, and established separation of powers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hriscu|first=Marius|date=January 2010|title=The Romanian Constitution of 1866. Modernism and European Spirit|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227452699|journal=Petre Andrei University Year-Book (Social Work, Sociology, Psychology)|location=Iași, Romania|volume=1|issue=5|pages=346–354}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Despite the otherwise liberal nature of the act, the constitution barred non-Christians from becoming citizens, a measure which heavily affected the country's Jewish population<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.revistatimpul.ro/view-article/3284|title=Semnificația și importanța istorică a Constituției române de la 1866|last=Damean|first=Liviu|date=28 June 2016|work=Timpul|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-date=17 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217080718/http://www.revistatimpul.ro/view-article/3284|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cdep.ro/pls/legis/legis_pck.htp_act_text?idt=37755|title=Full Text of the Romanian Constitution of 1866|date=1 June 1866|website=www.cdep.ro|language=ro|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref>

This constitution allowed the development and modernization of the Romanian state. In a daring move, the Constitution chose to ignore the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, which paved the way towards ''de jure'' independence.<ref name=":2" /> Article 82 made the throne a hereditary office of Carol's descendants "on the male line through the right of first-born, perpetually excluding women and their descendants."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sz8K3N3hrOEC&q=alexandru+ioan+cuza+1866&pg=PA9|title=Politică şi viaţă cotidiană în România: în secolul al XX-lea şi începutul celui de-al XXI-lea|last=Scurtu|first=Ioan|publisher=Editura Mica Valahie|year=2011|isbn=9786068304342|location=București|pages=10|language=ro}}</ref> It also required that Carol's descendants be "raised in the Eastern Orthodox Religion."<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/locale/constanta/principesa-margareta-succesoare-tronul-britanic-viitorul-monarhiei-romane-retragerea-regelui-mihai-1_56d83b405ab6550cb873624f/index.html|title=Principesa Margareta, succesoare şi la tronul britanic. Viitorul monarhiei române după retragerea Regelui Mihai|last=Ionescu|first=Sinziana|date=3 March 2016|work=Adevărul|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref> Although Carol was vested with executive power, he was not politically responsible for exercising it. His acts were only valid if they were countersigned by a minister, who then became responsible for the act in question. Nevertheless, he commanded great moral authority as a symbol of the nation and its unity.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283719977|title=Carol I și monarhia constituțională. Interpretări istorice|last=Docea|first=Vasile|publisher=Presa Universitară Română|year=2001|isbn=9738063760|location=Timișoara, Romania|pages=96–121|language=ro|doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.2160.0080}}</ref>

=== Franco-Prussian War and the Republic of Ploiești === [[File:CuzaGhimpele1872.PNG|thumb|Anti-dynasty cartoon, published in ''Ghimpele'', 1872. Left panel: Alexandru Ioan Cuza betrayed by Ion Brătianu; right panel: Carol I, supported by Otto von Bismarck and Brătianu, feeding off German influence and economic privilege]] While Romania did not take part in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the conflict nonetheless affected the early reign of Carol I. Since he was a German prince ruling a historically Francophile country, there was a strong feeling of distrust towards Carol during the time, who was not yet seen as Romanian.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dr7Yz98twWQC&q=carol+I+romania+franco-prussian&pg=PA77|title=The Road to Romanian Independence|last=Kellogg|first=Frederick|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=1995|isbn=9781557530653|location=West Lafayette, IN|pages=77|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McArthur Kallestrup|first=Shona|date=May 2005|title='A Sort of Tropical Balmoral': King Carol and cultural transplant in Castle Peleș|url=https://risweb.st-andrews.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutput/a-sort-of-tropical-balmoral-king-carol-and-cultural-transplant-in-castle-pele(ec6b2438-8b5e-4eb2-a189-b54169011289).html|journal=Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related Arts|volume=5|issue=2}}</ref> Several attempts to force the prince to abdicate took place around this time, usually led by the republicans and radical liberals led by Ion C. Brătianu and C. A. Rosetti.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9UqCgAAQBAJ&q=Carol+I+romania+razboiul+franco-prusac&pg=PT34|title=Trei ani in Romania (1870–1873)|last=Ozanne|first=James William|publisher=Humanitas|year=2015|isbn=9789735049232|location=Bucharest|language=ro|orig-year=1878}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/locale/focsani/ce-fost-republica-ploiesti-farsa-istorica-rasul-l-a-inspirat-caragiale-scrie-dale-carnavalului-1_55e4104cf5eaafab2c18852e/index.html|title=Ce a fost 'Republica de la Ploiești'. Farsa istorică de tot râsul l-a inspirat pe Caragiale să scrie "D'ale carnavalului"|last=Borcea|first=Ștefan|date=1 September 2015|work=Adevărul|access-date=15 March 2019}}</ref> Carol's alliance with the Conservatives which effectively blocked the Liberals out of government did little to quell Liberal animosity towards the prince.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YbDDDAAAQBAJ&q=republic+of+ploiesti+1870&pg=PT13|title='Republica de la Ploiești' și începuturile parlamentarismului în România|last=Marton|first=Silvia|publisher=Humanitas|year=2016|isbn=9789735053345|series=Societate & civilizație|location=Bucharest|language=ro}}</ref>

The most well known such incident took place on 8 August 1870, when radical liberals in the city of Ploiești started a revolt and attempted coup by arresting the chief of police and the county Prefect, occupying several official buildings and proclaiming the so-called Republic of Ploiești. The revolt lasted less than 24 hours and lead to the arrest of many Liberal leaders.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />

Future republican projects were rare, especially since Brătianu became prime minister in 1876 and helped Liberals hold power until 1889, becoming loyal supporters of King Carol.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dup4BgAAQBAJ&q=alexandru+ioan+cuza+1866&pg=PA373|title=National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements: Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770–1945|last1=Trencsenyi|first1=Balazs|last2=Kopecek|first2=Michal|publisher=Central European University Press|year=2006|isbn=9789637326608|volume=II: National Romanticism – The Formation of National Movements|location=Budapest & New York|pages=373|language=en}}</ref>

== War of independence (1877–1878) == === Background === [[File:Siege of Plevna MKL Bd. 13 1890 (128904668).jpg|thumb|Map of the Siege of Plevna from the 4th edition of the Meyers Konversationslexikon]]

Between 1875 and 1877 anti-Ottoman revolts took place in several Balkan countries, most notably Bulgaria, where the April Uprisings of 1876 were brutally suppressed by irregular bashi-bazouks. The international outrage at the Bulgarian massacre – particularly on the part of Russia, who saw itself as a protector of Orthodox Christians in general and Bulgarians in particular – triggered several diplomatic efforts over the next year. After the failure of these diplomatic attempts, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877, launching the Russo-Turkish War, which is known in Romanian historiography as the War of Independence.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9HFZwEACAAJ&q=russo-turkish+war+1877|title=War and Diplomacy: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin|last=Sluglett|first=Peter|publisher=University of Utah Press|year=2011|isbn=9781607811503|location=Salt Lake City, UT|language=en}}</ref>

At the behest of then foreign minister Mihail Kogălniceanu and against the advice of his Crown Council, Carol decided to permit Russian troops to pass through its territory on the way to Bulgaria. This resulted in Turkish bombardments of Romanian towns on the Danube. At this point, Romania was de facto independent, being "bound to the Ottoman Empire only by the payment of tribute (which had dropped to 1% of the country's budget) and a number of largely formal prerogatives in matters of foreign policy."<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHTN-TQkd3cC&q=independence+10+may+1877+romania&pg=PA91|title=Romania: Borderland of Europe|last=Boia|first=Lucian|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|isbn=9781861891037|location=London|pages=90–92|language=en}}</ref>

=== Romanian participation === thumb|Romanian troops returning to Bucharest after the war, 8 October 1878

On May 10, 1877, Romania declared its independence, ending the legal fiction of Ottoman suzerainty that had existed since 1861. The declaration was put forward and voted on by the Parliament and promulgated by Prince Carol.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mna4bFqyPw4C&q=independence+10+may+1877+romania&pg=PA110|title=Heroes and Victims: Remembering War in Twentieth-Century Romania|last=Bucur|first=Maria|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780253003911|location=Bloomington|page=110|language=en}}</ref> While Russia was happy to be given travelling rights inside Romanian territory, it vehemently opposed Romania actively entering the war, as this would have given them a place at the negotiation table after the war. However, after the Russian advance was halted outside the Bulgarian town of Pleven, they requested the Romanian army's urgent intervention. Carol obtained the command of the combined Russian and Romanian forces that were surrounding Pleven and following heavy fighting and a prolonged siege, Osman Nuri Pasha surrendered the town on 28 November 1877. This victory sent ripples within Romanian society, elevating Carol's name among the pantheon of national heroes.<ref name=":15" />

The Romanian army, under Carol, continued to fight in the war, most notably the battles of Smârdan and Vidin.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BaTmWqY7d9YC&q=plevna+smardan+vidin&pg=PT166|title=Metodologia cercetarii etnopsihologice|last=Gârlan|first=Mictat A.|publisher=Editura Lumen|year=2011|isbn=9789731662671|location=Iași, Romania|pages=166|language=ro}}</ref> By early 1878, the Turks were losing the war and on the third of March they signed the Treaty of San Stefano, which recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdnZAwAAQBAJ&q=treaty+of+san+stefano|title=War in the East: A Military History of the Russo-Turkish War 1877–78|last=Barry|first=Quintin|publisher=Helion and Company|year=2012|isbn=9781907677113|location=Havertown|pages=430|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3nEDAAAQBAJ&q=romania|title=The Roots and Consequences of 20th-Century Warfare: Conflicts that Shaped the Modern World: Conflicts That Shaped the Modern World|last=Tucker|first=Spencer C.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2016|isbn=9781610698023|location=Santa Barbara, CA; Denver, CO and Oxford|pages=31|language=en}}</ref>

=== Aftermath === [[File:1878PRINCIPAT.png|thumb|Romania and its surroundings in 1878, after the Treaty of Berlin and the international recognition of Romania's independence.]] After the war, the Treaty of Berlin recognized Romania as an independent country on 13 July 1878. In addition, Romania was granted the former Ottoman territory of Northern Dobruja, an immensely valuable territorial gain that gave Romania possession of the mouth of the Danube and access to the Black Sea.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FH3AwAAQBAJ&q=alexandru+ioan+cuza+1866&pg=PA406|title=Sources of State Practice in International Law|edition=2nd rev.|last=Neacșu|first=Dana|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|year=2014|isbn=9789004272224|editor-last=Gaebler|editor-first=Ralph|location=Leiden & Boston|pages=406|language=en|chapter=Romania|editor-last2=Shea|editor-first2=Alison}}</ref> From 1878, Carol held the title of Royal Highness (''Alteță Regală'').

The war had also made possible the appearance of the Principality of Bulgaria. This young state began a search for a new prince, and Carol I was among the candidates, although he was not elected.<ref name="union">{{cite journal|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=266056|title=Ideas of federation and personal union with regard to Bulgaria and Romania|first=Blagovest|last=Nyagulov|journal=Bulgarian Historical Review|issue=3–4|pages=36–61|year=2012|issn=0204-8906}}</ref> On 15 March 1881, the constitution was amended to proclaim Romania a kingdom. Carol became the first King of Romania, while the heir-apparent or heir-presumptive would be called Prince Royal. On 10 May, Carol was crowned king. The 1866 Constitution was retained, with the word "prince" replaced by the word "king".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oneț|first=Valentina|date=December 2012|title=O litografie document istoric: Actul de încoronare a Regelui Carol I – Actul proclamării Regatului României (10/22 Mai 1881) (II)|url=https://www.bvau.ro/docs/axislibri/AxisLibri17.pdf|journal=Axis Libri|publisher=V.A. Urechia County Library Galați|volume=17|pages=4–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://stiri.tvr.ro/10-mai-sosirea-lui-carol-independenta-si-regatul_44257.html#view|title=10 mai. Sosirea lui Carol, Independenţa şi Regatul|last=Teică|first=Liliana|date=10 May 2014|work=Romanian Television|access-date=25 March 2019}}</ref>

The Steel Crown that was used in the coronation of Carol was forged from steel of a melted Ottoman cannon that was captured by the Romanian Army at the Pleven.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FebRAAAAMAAJ&q=steel+crown+carol|title=Contemporary Europe Since 1870|last=Hayes|first=Carlton Joseph Huntley|publisher=Macmillan|year=1958|location=New York|pages=178|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0qRpAtIGwQC&q=steel+crown+carol+I|title=Civilization Past and Present: A Survey of the History of Man, His Governmental, Economic, Social, Religious, Intellectual, and Esthetic Activities, From the Earliest Times to the Present, in Europe, in Asia, and in the Americas|last=Wallbank|first=Thomas Walter|publisher=Scott, Foresman|year=1949|location=Chicago|pages=207|language=en}}</ref> Since 2016 it is depicted on the Romanian coat of arms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hălălău|first=Florin|date=6 October 2016|title='Revenirea Coroanei de Oţel în stema de stat a României este un fapt cultural': Interviu cu Silviu Andrieș–Tabac|url=https://www.observatorcultural.ro/articol/revenirea-coroanei-de-otel-stema-de-stat-romaniei-este-un-fapt-cultural/|journal=Observator Cultural|volume=843}}</ref>

==King of Romania== [[File:5 lei Carol I - 1881.png|thumb|300px|Silver coin: 5 lei of the Romanian United Principalities, portrait of Prince Carol, 1881<ref>Year: 1880–1881; Weight: 25 gram; Composition: Silver 90%; Diameter: 37 mm; Amount of coins minted: 2,200,000 coin – https://en.numista.com/catalogue/pieces5742.html</ref>]] [[File:Podul Regele Carol I.jpg|thumb|The Anghel Saligny Bridge (known as King Carol I Bridge during the monarchy) crossing the Danube.]] King Carol was a cold man who was always focused on the prestige of the dynasty he had founded. His wife, Elizabeth, claimed he 'wore the crown in his sleep'.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://a1.ro/news/social/104-ani-de-la-moartea-lui-carol-i-trei-lucruri-mai-putin-stiute-despre-acesta-id808716.html|title=104 ani de la moartea Regelui Carol I. Trei lucruri mai puțin știute despre "regele care își purta coroana și în somn"|date=10 October 2018|work=Antena 1|access-date=25 March 2019}}</ref> He was very meticulous and he tried to impose his style upon everyone that surrounded him. Though he was devoted to his job as Romania's ruler, he never forgot his German roots. In 48 years of rule—the longest in Romanian history—he helped Romania gain its independence, raised its prestige, helped redress its economy and established a dynasty. In the Carpathian mountains, he built Peleș Castle in German style, which is considered one of Europe's most beautiful castles and is still one of Romania's most visited landmarks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LY8NCkSfySoC&q=pele%C8%99+castle+romania+sinaia&pg=PA1|title=Popularizing National Pasts: 1800 to the Present|last1=Berger|first1=Stefan|last2=Lorenz|first2=Chris|last3=Melman|first3=Billie|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=9781136592881|editor-last=Berger|editor-first=Stefan|location=New York and London|pages=1|language=en|chapter=Introduction: Peleș Castle|editor-last2=Melman|editor-first2=Billie|editor-last3=Lorenz|editor-first3=Chris}}</ref> After the Russo-Turkish War, Romania gained Northern Dobruja and Carol ordered Romanian engineer Anghel Saligny (a competitor and friend of Gustave Eiffel) to build the first contemporary permanent bridge over the Danube, between Fetești and Cernavodă, linking the newly acquired province to the rest of the country.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AMvHBAAAQBAJ&q=Anghel+Saligny+bridge&pg=PA13|title=The Eight International Conference "Bridges in Danube Basin": New Trends in Bridge Engineering and Efficient Solutions for Large and Medium Span Bridges|last1=Ivanyi|first1=Miklos|last2=Băncilă|first2=Radu|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2014|isbn=9783658037147|editor-last=Petzek|editor-first=Edward|location=Wiesbaden, Germany|pages=13|language=en|chapter=Twenty Years Devoted to International Conferences on Bridges Across Danube|editor-last2=Băncilă|editor-first2=Radu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFZ9FnIgx0AC&q=Anghel+Saligny+bridge&pg=PA592|title=Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures: Proceedings of the 6th International Colloquium (SDSS'99)|last1=Fierbințeanu|first1=Virgil|last2=Teodorescu|first2=Dragoș|last3=Băncilă|first3=Radu|publisher=Elsevier|year=1999|isbn=9780080552927|editor-last=Dubină|editor-first=Dan|location=Amsterdam, Lausanne, New York, Oxford, Shannon, Singapore, Tokyo|pages=592|language=en|chapter=Seismic Behaviour of the Romanian Danube Bridges|editor-last2=Iványi|editor-first2=Miklós}}</ref> The bridge was, at that time, the longest in Europe and, although no longer in use, it is still intact as of 2023.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/locale/constanta/secretele-podului-cernavoda-opera-tanarului-inginer-anghel-saligny-episodul-luptelor-aeriene-horia-agarici-salvatorul-constantei-1_57d7dc565ab6550cb89f5393/index.html|title=Secretele podului de la Cernavodă, opera tânărului inginer Anghel Saligny. Episodul luptelor aeriene ale lui Horia Agarici, salvatorul Constanţei|last=Iancu|first=Mariana|date=14 September 2016|work=Adevărul|access-date=25 March 2019}}</ref>

The king's personal authority in military and foreign policy issues was unquestioned. In 1883 he entered into a crucial alliance with the Central Powers, which he personally arranged without discussion in Parliament or with anyone outside a handful of insiders. Upon its renewal in 1892, he had to inform his prime minister and foreign minister, but Parliament and the public at large did not even know about its existence until the beginning of World War I.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h6cwDwAAQBAJ&q=king+carol+I+crowned++1881&pg=PA244|title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century|last=Berend|first=Ivan T.|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003|isbn=9780520245259|location=Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA and London|pages=244|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csgfBgAAQBAJ&q=king+carol+central+powers&pg=PA31|title=The Troubled Alliance: German-Austrian Relations, 1914--1917|last=Silberstein|first=Gerard E.|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|year=1970|isbn=9780813164618|location=Lexington, Kentucky|pages=31|language=en}}</ref>

On 22 June 1884, the Parliament voted in favour of granting Carol and his successors a large royal estate, making the king the biggest landowner in the country.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R63ACQAAQBAJ&q=romanian+independence+1877+carol&pg=PA796|title=World Monarchies and Dynasties|last=Middleton|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9781317451587|location=Abingdon and New York|pages=796|language=en}}</ref>

His reign established constitutional monarchy and saw the early days of democracy in Romania, despite the fact that elections of that era are largely seen as being controlled. Although the framers of the Constitution intended to vest most of the power in Parliament, the King exercised considerable influence on the electoral process. He would essentially alternate power between the two parties, installing the opposition whenever he felt the ruling party of the day had run its course. The new government would organize elections which they would invariably win.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHEwXryHPfIC&q=romanian+independence+1877+carol&pg=PT18|title=Inside the Mechanisms of Romanian Modernization: The Transformation of Public Sphere Between Media and Political System|last=Grancea|first=Florin|publisher=Florin Grancea|year=2006|isbn=9781419639692|location=Scotts Valley, CA|pages=25|language=en}}</ref> This resulted in a situation where Parliament reflected the will of the government, not vice versa as is the case in a true parliamentary democracy.

Between 1886 and 1887, there was a new proposal to make Carol I the ruler of Bulgaria. He was strongly supported by Stefan Stambolov, regent of the country after the abdication of the Bulgarian prince Alexander of Battenberg. Stambolov's intention was to establish a personal union between Bulgaria and Romania. Carol I was interested in the offer, but had to reject it under Russian pressure.<ref name="union" />

==Last years and the looming World War I ==

thumb|upright|King Carol I at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1913 Romania intervened in the Second Balkan War and invaded Bulgaria. The approach of Romanian troops towards Sofia determined the Bulgarians to negotiate an armistice which resulted in the Treaty of Bucharest, which gained Romania the territory of Southern Dobruja, expanding the territory obtained by the country under King Carol and confirming Romania's dominant role in the region.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wy3TBAAAQBAJ&q=romania+second+balkan+war&pg=PA241|title=War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia|last=Hall|first=Richard C.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2014|isbn=9781610690317|location=Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford|pages=241|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIbtG7w_rSUC&q=romania+second+balkan+war|title=The Balkan Wars in the Eyes of the Warring Parties: Perceptions and Interpretations|last=Despot|first=Igor|publisher=iUniverse|year=2012|isbn=9781475947038|location=Bloomington, IN|pages=149–155|language=en}}</ref>

The long rule of Carol helped the quick development of the Romanian state. Towards the end of his reign and the start of World War I, Carol wanted to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers; however, Romanian public opinion was overwhelmingly Francophile and sided with the Triple Entente. Carol had signed a secret treaty in 1883 which had linked Romania with the Triple Alliance. Although the treaty was to be activated only if Russia attacked one of the signatories, Carol was convinced that the honourable thing to do was to enter the war supporting the German Empire and his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm II.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwcWDFZWuJgC&q=Carol+romania+war+secret&pg=PA102 |title=Brief Romanian Military History |author-first=Călin |author-last=Hentea |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2007 |access-date=2014-03-02 |page=102 |isbn=9780810858206}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjZHLXRKjtEC&q=Carol+romania+war+secret&pg=PA208 |title=A Companion to World War I |author-first=Jean-Jacques|author-last=Becker |chapter=Chapter Fourteen: War Aims and Neutrality |editor-first=John |editor-last=Horne |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2012 |access-date=2014-03-02 |page=208 |isbn=9781405123860}}</ref>

On {{OldStyleDate|3 August|1914|21 July}}, an emergency meeting was held with the Crown Council, where Carol told them about the secret treaty and shared his opinion with them. However, most of the Crown Council members strongly disagreed, opting for neutrality, with prime-minister Brătianu being a particularly strong voice for preserving the peace obtained by the Treaty of Bucharest.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8aFhQ0tQUxEC&q=king+carol+romania+1914+war&pg=PA176|title=Decisions for War, 1914–1917|last=Hall|first=Richard C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780521545303|editor-last=Hamilton|editor-first=Richard F.|location=Cambridge and New York|pages=401|language=en|chapter=Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece|editor-last2=Herwig|editor-first2=Holger H.}}</ref>

King Carol died on {{OldStyleDate|10 October|1914|27 September}}. The new king, Ferdinand (under the influence of his wife, Marie of Edinburgh, a British princess), was more willing to listen to public opinion and brought Romania into the war on the side of the Allies in 1916.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csMetRFKXmgC&q=death+of+king+carol&pg=PT131|title=Dracula is Dead: How Romanians Survived Communism, Ended It, and Emerged Since 1989 as the New Italy|last1=Kast|first1=Sheilah|last2=Rosapepe|first2=Jim|publisher=Bancroft Press|year=2009|isbn=9781890862657|location=Baltimore, MD|pages=119|language=en}}</ref>

==Life and family== thumb|upright|''Domnitor'' Carol with his wife and their only daughter (1873) When he was elected prince of Romania, Carol was unmarried. In 1869, the prince started a trip around Europe and mainly Germany, to find a bride. During this trip he met and married Princess Elizabeth of Wied at Neuwied on 15 November 1869. Their marriage was strange, with Carol being a cold and calculating man while Elizabeth was a notorious dreamer who published literature under the name of Carmen Sylva.<ref name=":16" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imisBwAAQBAJ&q=carmen+sylva+queen+elizabeth+romania&pg=PA332|title=Women and Gender in Central and Eastern Europe, Russia, and Eurasia: A Comprehensive Bibliography Volume I: Southeastern and East Central Europe (Edited by Irina Livezeanu with June Pachuta Farris) Volume II: Russia, the Non-Russian Peoples of the Russian|last1=Zirin|first1=Mary|last2=Livezeanu|first2=Irina|last3=Worobec|first3=Christine D.|last4=Farris|first4=June Pachuta|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9781317451976|location=New York and London|pages=332|language=en}}</ref> They had one child, Princess Maria, born in 1870, who died 9 April (N.S.) 1874.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iEQOAQAAMAAJ&q=Elisabeth+of+Wied|title=Women in World History|last1=Commire|first1=Anne|last2=Klezmer|first2=Deborah|publisher=Yorkin Publications|year=2000|isbn=9780787640644|volume=5: EAD-FUR|location=Waterford, CT|pages=169|language=en}}</ref> She had no prospect of inheriting her father's throne; as mentioned above, the Constitution limited succession to the male line. This led to the further estrangement of the royal couple, Elizabeth never completely recovering from the trauma of losing her only child.<ref name=":16" />

[[Image:King Carol I of Romania with his nephew and great nephew.jpg|thumb|upright|King Carol I of Romania with his nephew (Ferdinand) and grand-nephew (Carol). Circa 1905. |alt=]] After the proclamation of the Kingdom (1881), the succession was a very important matter of state. Since Carol's brother, Leopold (in 1880), and his oldest son, William (in 1886), declined their rights, the second son of Leopold, Ferdinand, was named prince of Romania and heir-presumptive to the throne, in 1886.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TogXVHTlxG4C&q=king+ferdinand+romania&pg=PA666|title=World War I: A Student Encyclopedia|last=Hall|first=Richard C.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2005|isbn=9781851098798|editor-last=Tucker|editor-first=Spencer|location=Santa Barbara, CA, Denver, CO and Oxford|pages=666–667|language=en|chapter=Ferdinand I, King of Romania (1865–1927)|editor-last2=Roberts|editor-first2=Priscilla Mary}}</ref>

Towards the end of Carol's life Carol and Elizabeth finally found a way to understand each other and were reported to have become good friends.<ref name=":16" />

Carol died on {{OldStyleDate|10 October|1914|27 September}}, at the age of 75 years old.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Carol I {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/romanian-history-biographies/carol-i |access-date=2022-03-05 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

== Legacy == Carol I is seen as a towering figure of national history in contemporary Romania. He is often depicted in history books as a historical leader on par with Decebalus, Stephen the Great, Michael the Brave or Alexandru Ioan Cuza.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RM6MRPWXxQYC&q=Carol+I+romania&pg=PA201|title=History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness|last=Boia|first=Lucian|publisher=Central European University Press|year=2001|isbn=9789639116979|location=Budapest|pages=200–201|language=en|orig-year=1997}}</ref> This view emerged during the second half of his reign, with the founding of the constitutional monarchy and the victory in the War of Independence making Carol a legendary personage in his own lifetime, according to historian Lucian Boia:<blockquote>His long reign (of forty-eight years, one more than Stephen the Great) allowed the myth to come to fruition even within his lifetime. The image of the sovereign, mediocre at first, took on a powerful brilliance in the last years of the century. An educational poster of around 1900 presents "the four pillars of the Romanian people", along with other heroes of Wallachian history. The four are Trajan and Decebalus, Cuza and Carol I. Even Michael the Brave becomes a secondary figure by comparison. Carol appears organically rooted in Romanian history; he represents a new beginning, of course, but a beginning based on much older foundations.<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>thumb|Fountain in the palace of the Romanian King, Carol I of Romania, in Sinaia. 1907

During the Communist era, Carol became a target of scorn for Romanian historians, as were all other figures associated with the monarchy. He was often described as a money-hungry foreign prince who was placed on the throne by Western capitalists in order to tighten their control over the Romanian state, no more than a simple pawn of the Kaiser, who needed someone that blindly followed his orders to rule over the lower Danube. Additionally, he was depicted as an enemy of the peasantry, who tried to steal their lands and rape young peasant girls. He was usually indicated as the sole source of outrage during the 1907 Peasant Revolt.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Adevărata istorie a unei monarhii. Familia Hohenzollern|last=Gârneaţă|first=Alexandru|publisher=Editura Cartea Românească|year=1960|location=Bucharest|pages=93}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Jefuirea poporului român de către monarhie|last1=Anescu|first1=V.|last2=Popa|first2=M.|publisher=Editura Militară a Ministerului Forţelor Armate ale R.P.R.|year=1958|location=Bucharest|pages=48}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/carol-i-la-judecata-istoricilor-comunisti|title=Carol I, la judecata istoricilor comunişti|last=Lupșor|first=Andreea|date=4 July 2017|work=Historia|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref> Starting with the second half of the 1970s, Carol's image was rehabilitated to some extent by Romanian historians, who distanced themselves from the more propagandistic views of the last three decades. While more mainstream publications, such as school text books, continued the anti-monarchy line, some academics began describing his reign as a period of national progress and acknowledged his role in preserving the young Union.<ref name=":7" />

Following the collapse of Communism in 1989, the monarchy was fully rehabilitated in the public eyes. Carol is now thought of as a figure of national unity who is seen as the founder of the modern Romanian state and one of the most revered individuals in the country's history.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/lupta-pentru-modernizarea-romaniei-cazul-carol-i|title=Lupta pentru modernizarea României. Cazul "Carol I"|last=Crăciun|first=Andrei|date=26 June 2017|work=Historia|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/cum-si-l-amintesc-romanii-pe-carol-i|title=Cum și-l amintesc românii pe Carol I|last=Lupșor|first=Andreea|work=Historia|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref> During the 100 Greatest Romanians show broadcast by the national television in 2006, Carol I was voted the second greatest Romanian who has ever lived, after only Stephen the Great.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mariromani.ro/primapagina.php|title=Mari Români|date=2006|website=mariromani.ro|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516031810/http://www.mariromani.ro/primapagina.php|archive-date=16 May 2007|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref>

The Carol I National Defence University and Central University Library in Bucharest, and the Carol I National College in Craiova are named in his honour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnc.ro/istoric.php|title=Colegiul National "Carol I"|website=www.cnc.ro|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=2018-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520055123/http://www.cnc.ro/istoric.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unap.ro/index.php/ro/|title=UNAp – ACASA|website=www.unap.ro|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bcub.ro/|title=Biblioteca Centrala Universitara "Carol I"|website=www.bcub.ro|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref>

The Order of Carol I was established in 1906 and was until 1947 the highest honour bestowed by the Romanian Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.medals.org.uk/romania/kingdom-romania/kingdom-romania003.htm|title=ODM of Romania: Order of Carol I|website=www.medals.org.uk|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref> In 2005 it was reintroduced by the Romanian royal family as a dynastic order.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://familiaregala.ro/ordine-si-decoratii/ordinul-carol-i|title=Ordinul Carol I|website=Familia Regala|language=ro-RO|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref>

==Arms and honours== {{See also|Coat of arms of Romania}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;" |- | 185px | 185px | 150px |- |Coat of Arms of Carol I <br/>as Principe Domnitor |Coat of Arms of Carol I as King |Standard of Carol I as King |}

;National orders and decorations * {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}: ** Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania ** Founder of the Medal of Faithful Service, ''9 April 1878'' ** Founder of the Order of the Crown of Romania, ''14 March 1881''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marksmedals.com/romanian_medals_files/order_of_the_crown.html|title=Order of the Crown of Romania "Ordinul Coroana Romaniei" 1881–1947|last=Piersall|first=Mark|website=The Piersall Collection of Orders, Decorations, and Medals From Around The World|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601050804/http://www.marksmedals.com/about_us.html|archive-date=2013-06-01|url-status=dead|access-date=2017-12-16}}</ref> ** Founder of the Order of Carol I, ''10 May 1906''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://familiaregala.ro/ordine-si-decoratii/ordinul-carol-i |title=Ordinul Carol I |website=Familia Regală a României |location=Bucharest |language=ro |trans-title=Order of Carol I |access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> * {{flagicon image|Flag of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Sigmaringen.png}} House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen: Cross of Honour of the Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, 1st Class with Swords<ref name = "HofUndStaat">''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb__34OAAAAYAAJ/page/n39 Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Preußen]'' (1908), Genealogy p. 6</ref>

;Foreign orders and decorations<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/> {{columns-list|colwidth=25em| * {{flagicon|Anhalt}} Anhalt: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear, ''29 April 1865''<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Herzogtum Anhalt'' (1867) "Herzoglicher Haus-orden Albrecht des Bären" p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYEp3N5O48EC&pg=PA18 18]</ref> * {{Flag|Austrian Empire}}: ** Military Merit Cross, with War Decoration, ''1864'' ** Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold, ''1869''<ref name="aus">{{citation|chapter-url=http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=shb&datum=1913&size=45&page=386|chapter=Ritter-Orden|title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie|date=1913|access-date=8 June 2020|pages=44, 49, 61}}</ref> ** Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, ''1879''<ref name="aus" /> ** Knight of the Golden Fleece, ''1884''<ref name="aus" /> * {{flag|Baden}}:<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden'' (1873), "Großherzogliche Orden" [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1873955 pp. 60], [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1873969 74]</ref> ** Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, ''1869'' ** Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, ''1869'' * {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Bavaria}}: Knight of St. Hubert, ''1880''<ref>''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nTedipoxoGcC/page/n37 Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Bayern]'' (1906), "Königliche Orden" p. 7</ref> * {{flag|Belgium}}: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (military), ''28 September 1869''<ref>{{cite book|title=Almanach royal officiel de Belgique|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EaFCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA53|year=1870|publisher=Librairie polytechnique De Decq|page=53}}</ref> * {{flagcountry|Empire of Brazil}}: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross * {{flag|Brunswick}}: Grand Cross of the Order of Henry the Lion, ''1880''<ref>''Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Herzogtums Braunschweig für das Jahr 1897''. Braunschweig 1897. Meyer. p. 10</ref> * {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Bulgaria}}: ** Knight of Saints Cyril and Methodius, with Collar<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsimeon.bg/simvoli-i-ordeni/velikiyat-magistar-na-balgarskite-ord/orden-sv-sv-ravnoapostoli-kiril-i-met/|website=Official Site of King Simeon II|location=Sofia |language=bg |title=Knights of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> ** Order of Bravery, 1st Class<ref>{{cite web|title=Knights of the Order of Bravery|url=http://www.boiniznamena.com/?action=article&id=155|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203221313/http://www.boiniznamena.com/?action=article&id=155|url-status=usurped|archive-date=February 3, 2010|language=bg}}</ref> * {{flag|Denmark}}: Knight of the Elephant, ''10 May 1879''<ref>{{cite book|author=Jørgen Pedersen|title=Riddere af Elefantordenen, 1559–2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glw-AQAAIAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Syddansk Universitetsforlag|language=da|isbn=978-87-7674-434-2|page=468}}</ref> * {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, with Swords, ''1880''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00243753/Sachsen_Coburg_Gotha_166999342_1890_0057.tif?logicalDiv=jportal_jparticle_00484309 Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha]'' (1890), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 46</ref> * {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour * {{flagicon|Greece|royal}} Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer * {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Hawaii}}: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, ''15 June 1882''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://familiaregala.ro/stiri/articol/140-de-ani-de-relatii-diplomatice-romano-americane-o-perspectiva-regala |title=Familia Regala |access-date=2020-06-10 |archive-date=2020-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610205912/https://familiaregala.ro/stiri/articol/140-de-ani-de-relatii-diplomatice-romano-americane-o-perspectiva-regala |url-status=dead }}</ref> * {{flagicon|Grand Duchy of Hesse}} Hesse and by Rhine: ** Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, ''8 November 1869''<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Hessen'' (1879), "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen" [https://archive.org/details/hofundstaatshan00gergoog/page/n36 p. 12]</ref> ** Military Service Cross * {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}:<ref name="dell'interno1898">{{cite book|author=Italia : Ministero dell'interno|title=Calendario generale del Regno d'Italia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0dnhcmSJ6FcC&pg=PP5|year=1898|publisher=Unione tipografico-editrice|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dnhcmSJ6FcC&pg=PA54 54]}}</ref> ** Knight of the Annunciation, ''4 June 1878'' ** Grand Cross of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, ''4 June 1878'' * {{Flagicon image|Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg}} Mecklenburg: ** Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Crown in Ore ** Military Merit Cross, 1st Class (Schwerin) * {{flag|Monaco}}: Grand Cross of St. Charles * {{flagcountry|Principality of Montenegro}}: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I * {{flagicon|Nassau}} Nassau Ducal Family: Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau * {{flag|Netherlands}}: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion * {{flag|Oldenburg}}: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown and Collar * {{flag|Ottoman Empire}}: Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class * {{flagicon image|Early 20th Century Qajar Flag.svg}} Persian Empire: Order of the Lion and the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds * {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Portugal}}: ** Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders ** Grand Cross of the Royal Military Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ ** Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg}} Prussia:<ref>{{citation|title=Königlich Preussische Ordensliste|journal=Preussische Ordens-Liste|volume=1|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021|pages=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=16&skin=2021 8], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=23&skin=2021 15], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=30&skin=2021 22], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=1006&skin=2021 934]|language=German|location=Berlin|year=1886|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref> ** Knight's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, with Swords, ''1864''; Grand Commander's Cross, ''3 October 1867'' ** Grand Cross of the Red Eagle, ''4 October 1869'' ** Pour le Mérite (military), ''18 December 1877'' ** Knight of the Black Eagle, ''1 April 1880''; with Collar, ''1881'' * {{Flagcountry|Russian Empire|1858}}: ** Knight of St. George, 3rd Class, ''5 September 1877''<ref name="Award">{{cite web|url=http://militaire.vieux-grognard.net/karl-rumynskij-i-putanica-s-nagardami/|title=Carol I of Romania and the Award Confusion|language=ru|website=militaire.vieux-grognard.net|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=8 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008200106/http://militaire.vieux-grognard.net/karl-rumynskij-i-putanica-s-nagardami/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ** Knight of St. Andrew, with Swords, ''29 November 1877''<ref name="Award"/> ** Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky ** Knight of the White Eagle ** Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class ** Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class * {{flag|Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach}}: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, ''1880''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906150133/https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif |date=2020-09-06 }}'' (1885), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 16</ref> * {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Saxony}}: Knight of the Rue Crown, ''1880''<ref name="Sachsen1901">{{cite book|author=Sachsen|title=Staatshandbuch für den Königreich Sachsen: 1901|year=1901|publisher=Heinrich|chapter=Königlich Orden|page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030492006&view=1up&seq=44&skin=2021 4]|location=Dresden|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref> * {{flagicon image|Flag of Serbia (1835-1882).svg}} Principality of Serbia: ** Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo ** Grand Cross of the Star of Karađorđe * {{flagcountry|Restoration (Spain)}}: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, ''23 March 1880''<ref>{{citation|chapter=Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III|chapter-url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=149|language=es}}</ref> * {{flagicon|Sweden|1844}} {{flagicon|Norway|1844}} Sweden-Norway: ** Knight of the Seraphim, ''10 April 1879''<ref>{{citation|title=Sveriges Statskalender|year=1905|page=440|url=https://runeberg.org/statskal/1905/0464.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=2018-01-06|language=sv}}</ref> ** Grand Cross of St. Olav, ''3 June 1885''<ref>{{citation|title=Norges Statskalender|year=1890|page=356|url=https://runeberg.org/norkal/1890/0356.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=2018-01-06|language=no}}</ref> * {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: ** Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, ''30 June 1892''<ref name=p69>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) ''The Knights of England'', '''I''', London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n157/mode/2up p. 69]</ref> ** Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain * {{flag|Württemberg}}: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, ''1880''<ref>''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Pc5CAAAAYAAJ/page/n63 Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg]'' (1907), "Königliche Orden" p. 28</ref> }}

==Ancestry== {{Unreferenced section|date=April 2019}} {{ahnentafel |collapsed=yes |align=center |boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; |boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; |boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; |1= 1. '''Carol I of Romania''' |2= 2. Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern |3= 3. Princess Josephine of Baden |4= 4. Karl, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen |5= 5. Marie Antoinette Murat |6= 6. Charles, Grand Duke of Baden |7= 7. Stéphanie de Beauharnais |8= 8. Anton Aloys, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen |9= 9. Princess Amalie Zephyrine of Salm-Kyrburg |10= 10. Pierre Murat |11= 11. Louise d'Astorg |12= 12. Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden |13= 13. Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt |14= 14. Claude de Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud |15= 15. Adrienne de Lézay-Marnézia }}

==References== ===Citations=== {{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

===Bibliography=== {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book |first=Edda |last=Binder-Iijima |title=Die Institutionalisierung der rumänischen Monarchie unter Carol I. 1866–1881. |trans-title=The institutionalization of the Romanian monarchy under Carol I, 1866–1881 |series=Südosteuropäische Arbeiten |volume=118 |publisher=Oldenbourg Verlag |location=München |year=2003 |isbn=3-486-56819-1 |language=de }} * {{cite book |title=Die Hohenzollern in Rumänien 1866–1947. Eine monarchische Herrschaftsordnung im europäischen Kontext |trans-title=The Hohenzollerns in Romania 1866–1947: A monarchical system of rule in a European context |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |location=Köln |year=2010 |editor-first1=Edda |editor-last1=Binder-Iijima |editor-first2=Heinz-Dietrich |editor-last2=Löwe |editor-first3=Gerald |editor-last3=Volkmer |series=Studia Transsylvanica |volume=41 |isbn=978-3-412-20540-9 |language=de }} * {{cite book |editor-first1=Edda |editor-last1=Binder-Iijima |editor-first2=Silvia Irina |editor-last2=Zimmermann |title=Das erste Königspaar von Rumänien Carol I. und Elisabeta. Aspekte monarchischer Legitimation im Spiegel kulturpolitischer Symbolhandlungen |trans-title=The first royal couple of Romania, Carol I and Elizabeth: Aspects of monarchical legitimacy as reflected in cultural-political symbolic acts |series=Schriftenreihe der Forschungsstelle Carmen Sylva – Fürstlich-Wiedisches Archiv |volume=3 |location=Stuttgart |publisher=ibidem-Verlag |date=2015 |isbn=978-3-8382-0755-1 |language=de }} * {{cite book |last=Crǎciun |first=Boris |title=Regii și Reginele României : O istorie ilustrata a Casei Regale |trans-title=The Kings and Queens of Romania: An Illustrated History of the Royal House |year=1997 |publisher=Editura Porțile Orientului |location=Iași |isbn=973-97442-2-2 |language=ro }} * {{NDB|11|260|261|Karl I., Prinz von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen|Hillgruber, Andreas|119278219}} * {{cite book |last=Hitchins |first=Keith |author-link=Keith Hitchins |title=Rumania 1866-1947 |url=https://archive.org/details/rumania186619470000hitc |series=Oxford history of modern Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1994 |isbn=9780198221265 |language=en }} * {{cite book |first=Michael |last=Kroner |title=Die Hohenzollern als Könige von Rumänien : Lebensbilder von vier Monarchen 1866–2004 |trans-title=The Hohenzollerns as Kings of Romania: Biographies of four monarchs 1866–2004 |publisher=Johannis-Reeg-Verlag |location=Heilbronn |year=2004 |ISBN=978-3-937320-30-4 |language=de }} * {{cite book |author=Muzeul Naţional de Istorie a României |author-link=National History Museum of Romania |title=Familia regala. O istorie in imagini |trans-title=The Royal Family. A History in Images |publisher=Cetatea de Scaun |year=2009 |isbn=978-973-8966-97-0 |language=ro }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Krista |last=Zach |title=Karl I. (Carol I.) |url=https://www.biolex.ios-regensburg.de/BioLexViewview.php?ID=1102 |encyclopedia=Biographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte Südosteuropas |volume=2 |pages=367-369 |location=Munich |publisher=Oldenbourg Verlag |year=1976 |isbn=3-486-47871-0 |language=de }} * {{cite book |first=Silvia Irina |last=Zimmermann |title=Unterschiedliche Wege, dasselbe Ideal: Das Königsbild im Werk Carmen Sylvas und in Fotografien des Fürstlich Wiedischen Archivs |trans-title=Different paths, the same ideal: The image of the king in the work of Carmen Sylva and in photographs from the Princely Wied Archive |series=Schriftenreihe der Forschungsstelle Carmen Sylva – Fürstlich Wiedisches Archiv |volume=1 |location=Stuttgart |publisher=ibidem-Verlag |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-8382-0655-4 |language=de }} {{refend}}

==== Primary sources ==== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |editor-first=Sorin |editor-last=Cristescu |title=Die Briefe König Karls I. von Rumänien an seine Familie |year=2013 |publisher=Editura Paideia |location=Bucharest |volume=1: 1877–1888 |isbn=978-973-596-868-7 }} * {{cite book |editor-first=Sorin |editor-last=Cristescu |title=Die Briefe König Karls I. von Rumänien an seine Familie |year=2013 |publisher=Editura Paideia |location=Bucharest |volume=2: 1888–1895 |isbn=978-973-596-869-4 }} * {{cite book |editor-first=Sorin |editor-last=Cristescu |title=Die Briefe König Karls I. von Rumänien an seine Familie |year=2013 |publisher=Editura Paideia |location=Bucharest |volume=3: 1895–1912 |isbn=978-973-596-870-0 }} * {{cite book |editor-first=Silvia Irina |editor-last=Zimmermann |title=„In zärtlicher Liebe Deine Elisabeth“ – „Stets Dein treuer Carl“. Der Briefwechsel Elisabeths zu Wied (Carmen Sylva) mit ihrem Gemahl Carol I. von Rumänien aus dem Rumänischen Nationalarchiv in Bukarest 1869–1913 |year=2018 |publisher=ibidem-Verlag |series=Schriftenreihe der Forschungsstelle Carmen Sylva – Fürstlich Wiedisches Archiv |isbn=978-3-8382-1221-0 |volume=6 and 7 |language=de }} {{refend}}

==External links== {{Commons category|Carol I of Romania}} * [https://archive.org/details/reminiscencesofk00kremiala Online edition of Carol's 1899 book ''Reminiscences of the King of Roumania''] * Daniel Cain: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/carol_i_king_of_romania/ Carol I, King of Romania], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]. * {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Charles I. (Roumania)|display=Charles I., prince of Roumania |short=x}} * {{PM20|FID=pe/009188}} ==External links in romanian== *[https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/browse?rpp=60&sort_by=-1&type=subject&offset=3626&etal=-1&order=ASC Scrieri despre Carol I, rege al României (1839-1914) disponibile în Biblioteca Digitală a BCU Iași] *[https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/22218 Pagini loaiale despre Regele Carol de N. Iorga] *[https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/17407 Regele Carol I şi a doua sa capitală de N.A. Bogdan, 1916] *[https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/browse?type=author&value=Carol%2C+rege+al+Rom%C3%A2niei+%281839-1914%29 Colecții digitalizate BCU IAȘI] * [https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/49129 Fotografii hors-texte cu Regele Carol I al României] - [https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/discover colecții digitalizate BCU Iași] * ''[https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/61467 Testamentul Regelui Carol I al României]'', 1914 - [https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/ colecții digitalizate BCU Iași] * ''[https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/61592 Carol I Regele României. Cuvinte către poporul său la împlinirea unui veac de la naștere: 1839-1939]'', 1939 - [https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/ colecții digitalizate BCU Iași] {{s-start}} {{s-hou|House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen|20 April|1839|10 October|1914|House of Hohenzollern}} {{s-reg}} {{s-bef|before=Alexandru Ioan Cuza}} {{s-ttl|title=Domnitor of Romania|years=20 April 1866 – 15 March 1881}} {{s-aft|after=''Himself as King''}} {{s-break}} {{s-bef|before=''Himself as Domnitor''}} {{s-ttl|title=King of Romania|years=15 March 1881 – 10 October 1914}} {{s-aft|after=Ferdinand I}} {{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carol 01 Of Romania}} Category:1839 births Category:1914 deaths Category:People from Sigmaringen Category:Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Category:Kings of Romania Category:19th-century monarchs of Romania Category:20th-century kings of Romania Category:Romanian people of French descent Category:Romanian people of German descent Category:Romanian Roman Catholics Category:Roman Catholic monarchs Category:Field marshals of the German Empire Category:Field marshals of the Russian Empire Category:Romanian people of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) Category:Romanian people of the Second Balkan War Category:Honorary members of the Romanian Academy Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania Category:Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Romania) Category:Recipients of the Order of Bravery, 1st class Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary 2 2 Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Third Degree Category:Extra Knights Companion of the Garter Category:Burials at Curtea de Argeş Cathedral Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles Category:Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion Category:Children of prime ministers Category:Sons of princes regnant