Spectacled caiman

{{Short description|Species of crocodilian native to the Neotropics}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}} {{Speciesbox | fossil_range = Pleistocene - Present, {{fossilrange|2.58|0|ref=<ref name="Rio2021">{{cite journal |last1=Rio |first1=Jonathan P. |last2=Mannion |first2=Philip D. |date=6 September 2021 |title=Phylogenetic analysis of a new morphological dataset elucidates the evolutionary history of Crocodylia and resolves the long-standing gharial problem |journal=PeerJ |volume=9 |article-number=e12094 |doi=10.7717/peerj.12094 |pmid=34567843 |pmc=8428266 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021PeerJ...912094R }}</ref>}} | name = Spectacled caiman | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Balaguera-Reina, S.A. |author2=Velasco, A. |date=2019 |title=''Caiman crocodilus'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T46584A3009688 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T46584A3009688.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | status2 = CITES_A2 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref> | image = Caiman crocodilus llanos.JPG | image_caption = ''C. c. crocodilus'', in Llanos, Venezuela | display_parents = 3 | taxon = Caiman crocodilus | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | range_map = The_range_of_the_spectacled_caiman.png | range_map_caption = Native range (black) | synonyms = {{Collapsible list| * ''Jacaretinga crocodilus'' Linnaeus, 1758 * ''Lacerta crocodilus'' Linnaeus, 1758 * ''Caiman sclerops'' Schneider, 1801 * ''Crocodilus sclerops'' Schneider, 1801 * ''Caiman yacare'' Daudin, 1802 * ''Crocodilus caiman'' Daudin, 1802 * ''Jacare hirticollis'' Gray, 1867 * ''?Caiman venezuelensis'' Fortier & Rincón, 2013<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Giovanne M. Cidade |author2=Daniel Fortier |author3=Ascanio Daniel Rincón |author4=Annie Schmaltz Hsiou |year=2019 |title=Taxonomic review of two fossil crocodylians from the Cenozoic of South America and its implications for the crocodylian fauna of the continent |journal=Zootaxa |volume=4656 |issue=3 |pages=475–486 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4656.3.5 |pmid=31716812 |s2cid=202012442 }}</ref> }} | synonyms_ref = <ref name="cites1">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus crocodilus |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/20217 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330204450/https://cites.org/eng/node/20217 }}</ref> }}

The '''spectacled caiman''' ('''''Caiman crocodilus'''''), also known as the '''white caiman''',<ref name="resource">{{cite book |last1=Franzen |first1=Margaret Anne |title=Huaorani resource use in the Ecuadorian Amazon |publisher=University of California, Davis |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBA3R4U31YMC |access-date=3 April 2019|year=2005 }}</ref> '''common caiman''',<ref name="itis">{{cite web |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Caiman crocodilus |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=174370#null |website=Integrated Taxonomic Information System |access-date=28 March 2019}}</ref> and '''speckled caiman''',<ref name="tropical">{{cite book |last1=Del Claro |first1=Kleber |last2=Oliveira |first2=Paulo S. |last3=Rico-Gray |first3=Victor |title=Tropical Biology and Conservation Management |date=May 11, 2009 |publisher=EOLSS Publications |isbn=978-1-84826-281-2 |pages=273–274 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5h7bCwAAQBAJ |access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref> is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of {{cvt|1.4|–|2.5|m}} and a weight of {{cvt|7|–|40|kg}}, with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, small mammals, amphibians and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of Latin America, and has been introduced to the United States, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

==Taxonomy== The spectacled caiman was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, originally as ''Lacerta crocodilus''.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It has since been redescribed several times, including as ''Caiman sclerops'' by Schneider in 1801.<ref name="cites1"/> Although ''Caiman crocodilus'' is now the scientific name of the species, some scientists still prefer using ''sclerops'', as having ''crocodilus'' as the scientific name for a caiman may cause confusion.<ref name="digimorph">{{cite web |last1=Triche |first1=Nina |title=Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman) |url=http://digimorph.org/specimens/Caiman_crocodilus/ |website=Digimorph |access-date=3 April 2019 |date=28 May 2003}}</ref>

===Classification=== The spectacled caiman is one of three extant (living) species of the genus ''Caiman'', the other two being the Yacare caiman (''Caiman yacare'') and the Broad-snouted caiman (''Caiman latirostris''). There are also several extinct fossil species in the genus ''Caiman'', possibly up to eight species. The spectacled caiman is a member of the caiman subfamily Caimaninae, and is one of six living species of caiman. It is most closely related to the yacare caiman, as shown in the cladogram below, based on molecular DNA-based phylogenetic studies:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bittencourt |first1=Pedro Senna |last2=Campos |first2=Zilca |last3=Muniz |first3=Fabio de Lima |last4=Marioni |first4=Boris |last5=Souza |first5=Bruno Campos |last6=Da Silveira |first6=Ronis |last7=de Thoisy |first7=Benoit |last8=Hrbek |first8=Tomas |last9=Farias |first9=Izeni Pires |date=22 March 2019 |title=Evidence of cryptic lineages within a small South American crocodilian: the Schneider's dwarf caiman ''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' (Alligatoridae: Caimaninae) |journal=PeerJ |volume=7 |article-number=e6580 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6580 |pmid=30931177 |pmc=6433001 |doi-access=free }}</ref> {{clade |label1=Alligatoridae |1={{clade |label1=Caimaninae |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Paleosuchus palpebrosus'' Cuvier's dwarf caiman |2=''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' Schneider's dwarf caiman }} |label2=Jacarea |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Caiman crocodilus'' '''Spectacled caiman''' |2=''Caiman yacare'' Yacare caiman }} |2=''Caiman latirostris'' Broad-snouted caiman }} |2=''Melanosuchus niger'' Black caiman }} }} |label2=Alligatorinae |2={{clade |1=''Alligator sinensis'' Chinese alligator |2=''Alligator mississippiensis'' American alligator }} }} }}

===Subspecies=== The spectacled caiman has four recognized subspecies:<ref name="itis"/><ref name="specialist">{{cite book |last1=Velasco |first1=A. |last2=Ayarzagüena |first2=J. |editor1-last=Manolis |editor1-first=S. C. |editor2-last=Stevenson |editor2-first=C. |title=Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |date=2010 |publisher=Crocodile Specialist Group |pages=10–15 |edition=3 |chapter-url=https://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/03_C-3f25540b.pdf |access-date=5 April 2019 |chapter=Spectacled ''Caiman crocodilus''}}</ref> {{Clear}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !Image !Subspecies !Common name !Distribution |- | |''C. c. apaporiensis'' (Medem, 1955) |Rio Apaporis caiman |Endemic to Colombia and possibly the Venezuelan Llanos; once thought extinct but rediscovered |- | |''C. c. chiapasius'' (Bocourt, 1876) | |Mexico, Central America, and northern South America |- |frameless|200x200px |''C. c. crocodilus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |spectacled caiman |Various parts of South America, such as Venezuela, Trinidad, Tobago, Brazil, etc. |- |frameless|200x200px |''C. c. fuscus'' (Cope, 1868) |brown caiman |Nicaragua to Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. |} The yacare caiman (''Caiman yacare''), while previously thought to be a subspecies of ''C. crocodilus'', is now usually considered a separate species.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

The Rio Apaporis caiman was believed to have become extinct by 1981, when the last known specimen died in a zoo. However, a specimen was captured in an expedition by Colombian conservation biologist Sergio Balaguera-Reina in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rediscovery of 'Lost' Caiman Leads to New Crocodylian Mystery |url=https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=www.rewild.org |date=20 December 2019 }}</ref> Later, the subspecies was discovered again by wildlife biologist Forrest Galante for the television show ''Extinct or Alive'' in 2019 and identified by DNA sampling.<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 March 2020|title=In the bombast of the American TV host, colonial science lives on|url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/colombia-colonial-science-forrest-galante/|access-date=5 March 2020|website=TheWire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Fusco|first=Thom|date=19 December 2019|title=Nature Believe - extinct Rio Apaporis caiman rediscovered |publisher=Discovery Channel|url=https://www.discovery.com/nature/believed-extinct-rio-apaporis-caiman-rediscovered|access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lindsay renick|first=Mayer|date=12 December 2019|title=Rediscovery of lost caiman lead to new crocodilian mystery|work=rewild|url=https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref> Galante has advocated for the Rio Apaporis caiman to be considered a distinct species, while Balaguera-Reina maintains its official status as a subspecies.

==Distribution== [[File:071228 crocodiles.JPG|thumb|Spectacled caimans in Monterrico, Guatemala]] [[File:Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, Estacion Biologica Hato El Frio 2 Munoz, Apure, Venezuela imported from iNaturalist photo 540563497.jpg|thumb|''C. c. crocodilus'' in Apure, Venezuela]] The spectacled caiman has the largest range of any caiman,<ref name="digimorph" /> spanning from 17 different countries<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Balaguera-Reina |first1=Sergio A. |last2=Bonilla-Liberato |first2=Edison D. |last3=Daykin |first3=Bryna L. |last4=Mazzotti |first4=Frank J. |date=2026-04-06 |title=The invasive spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Florida, United States: invasion timeline, insights, and implications for Everglades restoration |journal=Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science |language=English |volume=4 |article-number=1778412 |doi=10.3389/famrs.2026.1778412 |doi-access=free |issn=2813-6780}}</ref> and of any New World crocodilian.<ref name="specialist" /> It is found in various countries throughout the Americas. It lives in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, and may also be extant in Belize and Bolivia.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> In Brazil, the species lives in the rivers Amazon, Araguaia, Araguari, Itapicuru, Rio Negro, Paranaíba, Solimões, Tapajós, Tocantins, and Xingu.<ref name="tropical" />

=== As an introduced species === It has been introduced to Isla de la Juventud in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida in the United States.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> In Florida, it is sometimes misidentified as the American alligator (''Alligator mississippiensis'').<ref name="brit" /> Invasive populations have become established in South Florida, with isolated records further north in the state.<ref name="usgs" /> Genetic study indicates two separate introduction events into Florida.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parks |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Godfrey |first2=Sidney T. |last3=Gross |first3=Brandon A. |last4=Balaguera-Reina |first4=Sergio A. |last5=Smith |first5=Nicholas G. |last6=Mazzotti |first6=Frank J. |last7=Densmore |first7=Llewellyn D. |title=Not one but two: examining the genetic origin and characterization of the non-native spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Florida |journal=Biological Invasions |date=1 March 2024 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=779–795 |doi=10.1007/s10530-023-03207-z |language=en |issn=1573-1464|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024BiInv..26..779P }}</ref>

== Habitat == thumb|''C. c. fuscus'', in Colombia It is intolerant to cold climates, so its range is unlikely to expand to further north than Florida.<ref name="florida">{{cite web |title=Caiman |url=https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/wildlife/american-crocodile/caiman/ |website=Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> Although, the species is a habitat generalist.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Balaguera-Reina |first1=Sergio A. |last2=Bonilla-Liberato |first2=Edison D. |last3=Daykin |first3=Bryna L. |last4=Mazzotti |first4=Frank J. |date=2026-04-06 |title=The invasive spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Florida, United States: invasion timeline, insights, and implications for Everglades restoration |journal=Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science |language=English |volume=4 |article-number=1778412 |doi=10.3389/famrs.2026.1778412 |doi-access=free |issn=2813-6780}}</ref>It usually lives in forests, inland bodies of fresh water (such as wetlands and rivers), grasslands, shrublands, and savannas, but is very adaptable.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It prefers habitats with calm water containing floating vegetation, usually flooding and drying seasonally. It is most common in low-lying areas, but has been found at elevations of up to {{cvt|800|m}}.<ref name="latin" /> It is able to live in human-inhabited areas.<ref name="aza" />

==Description== thumb|''C. c. fuscus'', in Panama The spectacled caiman is a small to medium-sized crocodilian. Females generally grow to no more than {{cvt|1.08|to|1.4|m}} (the lower size typical upon the onset of sexual maturity), but can rarely grow to nearly {{cvt|2|m}}. Adult males can regularly reach {{cvt|1.5|to|1.8|m}} while large mature ones grow to {{cvt|2.0|to|2.5|m}}, although relatively few get to the upper size.<ref name="brit">{{cite web |last1=Britton |first1=Adam |title=Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm |website=Crocodilian Species List |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The maximum reported size for the species is {{cvt|2.64|m}}.<ref name="field">{{cite book |last1=Conant |first1=Roger |author-link1=Roger Conant (herpetologist) |last2=Collins |first2=Joseph T. |author-link2=Joseph T. Collins |title=A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America |date=1998 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-395-90452-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0/page/144 144] |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0 |url-access=registration |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The body mass of most adults is between {{cvt|7|and|40|kg}}, with males typically being considerably heavier than females. Some males in the Llanos have been reported to grow to up to {{cvt|58|kg}}.<ref name="latin">{{cite book |last1=Ojasti |first1=Juhani |title=Wildlife Utilization in Latin America: Current Situation and Prospects for Sustainable Management |date=1996 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |isbn=978-92-5-103316-6 |pages=58–62 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1g2lKP9kd8YC |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref>

The upperside of the species is mostly brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has dark brown crossbands,<ref name="field"/> with a lighter underside. It has a greenish iris.<ref name="aza">{{cite web |title=Spectacled Caiman - Caiman crocodilus |url=https://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/caiman-crocodilus |website=World Association of Zoos and Aquariums |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031060714/https://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/caiman-crocodilus |archive-date=31 October 2013}}</ref> and wrinkled eyelids.<ref name="tropical"/> It changes color seasonally – during colder weather, the black pigment within its skin cells expands, making it appear darker.<ref name="ald">{{cite book |last1=Alderton |first1=David |title=Crocodiles & Alligators of the World |section=Common Caiman ''Caiman crocodilus.'' |date=1991 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-2297-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/crocodilesalliga00alde/page/131 131]–135 |edition=illustrated |url=https://archive.org/details/crocodilesalliga00alde |url-access=registration |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref>

The species has an enlarged 4th tooth, and the teeth in its lower jaw penetrate into a socket in its upper jaw. It has a long snout that tapers moderately, with an unexpanded tip.<ref name="northam">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Hobart M. |last2=Brodie |first2=Edmund D. |author-link1=Hobart Muir Smith |title=Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification |date=25 February 2014 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-4668-6481-8 |page=208 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwNlAgAAQBAJ |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> Several ridges begin in front of its eyes and travel to the tip of its snout.<ref name="aza" /> Its common name comes from a bony ridge between its eyes, which gives the appearance of a pair of spectacles.<ref name="lpzoo">{{cite web |title=Spectacled Caiman |url=https://www.lpzoo.org/animal/spectacled-caiman |website=Lincoln Park Zoo |access-date=1 April 2019 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009194116/https://www.lpzoo.org/animal/spectacled-caiman/ }}</ref><gallery mode="packed" heights="140"> File:Caiman crocodilus fuscus - Andrew J. Crawford - 441637416.jpeg|''C. c. fuscus'' head lateral view, in Colombia File:Caiman crocodilus fuscus - Andrew J. Crawford - 441637474.jpeg|''C. c. fuscus'' head dorsal view, in Colombia File:Spectacled caiman by Keven Law.jpg|Spectacled caiman head, with the ridge between the eyes visible, in captivity </gallery>

==Biology and behavior== The spectacled caiman can move rapidly when threatened, but is usually immobile, resting on shores or partly in water. In the rainy season, males become aggressive and territorial.<ref name="latin"/> Spectacled caiman have Müller glial cells in their eyes that contribute to excellent night vision.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Agte |first1=Silke |last2=Savvinov |first2=Alexey |last3=Karl |first3=Anett |last4=Zayas-Santiago |first4=Astrid |last5=Ulbricht |first5=Elke |last6=Makarov |first6=Vladimir I. |last7=Reichenbach |first7=Andreas |last8=Bringmann |first8=Andreas |last9=Skatchkov |first9=Serguei N. |title=Müller glial cells contribute to dim light vision in the spectacled caiman ( Caiman crocodilus fuscus ): Analysis of retinal light transmission |journal=Experimental Eye Research |date=August 2018 |volume=173 |pages=91–108 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2018.05.009 |pmid=29763583 |issn=0014-4835|pmc=9930533 }}</ref>

===Hunting and diet=== thumb|''C. c. crocodilus'' eating a fish, in Venezuela [[File:Krokodil frisst Piranha.JPG|thumb|''C. c. crocodilus'' eating a piranha, in Venezuela]] Usually hunting at night, the diet of the spectacled caiman varies seasonally.<ref name="latin"/> During the wet season, it primarily eats snails and freshwater crabs, while it mostly eats fish in the dry season. Smaller specimens tend to eat more insects and freshwater shrimp, while larger ones more frequently consume mammals and fish.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Caiman_crocodilus/|title=Caiman crocodilus (Common caiman, Spectacled caiman)|first=Kayla|last=Terry|website=Animaldiversity.org|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> Overall, the most common animals in this species' diet are crabs, other crustaceans, fish, mammals, snails and other molluscs.<ref name="diet">{{cite journal |last1=Thorbjarnarson |first1=John B. |author-link1=John Thorbjarnarson |title=Diet of the spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') in the central Venezuelan Llanos |journal=Herpetologica |date=March 1993 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=108–117 |publisher=Allen Press |jstor=3892691}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.reptilesofecuador.com/caiman_crocodilus.html | title=Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) }}</ref> Other animals that have been known to be a part of its diet include amphibians, arachnids, birds, myriapods, reptiles (lizards, snakes, and turtles), and small mammals.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Older animals are capable of taking larger, mammalian prey (e.g. wild pigs).<ref name=crocodilian>{{cite web | url=https://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm | title=Crocodilian Species - Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) | access-date=3 September 2022 | archive-date=9 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109035959/https://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm }}</ref> As conditions become drier, caimans can stop feeding, although cannibalism has been reported under such conditions as well.<ref name=crocodilian /> It has also been known to eat plant matter; in a study of this species in Puerto Rico, about 55% of adult specimens had plants in their diet, primarily grass and seeds. About 8% of adults and 6% of juveniles in the study had gastroliths in their stomach as well.<ref name="diet2">{{cite journal |last1=Bontemps |first1=Damien R. |last2=Cuevas |first2=Elvira |last3=Ortiz |first3=Eileen |last4=Wunderle |first4=Joseph M. |last5=Joglar |first5=Rafael L. |title=Diet of the non-native spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') in Puerto Rico |journal=Management of Biological Invasions |date=18 March 2016 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=287–296 |doi=10.3391/mbi.2016.7.3.08 |url=http://www.reabic.net/journals/mbi/2016/3/MBI_2016_Bontemps_etal.pdf |access-date=2 April 2019|doi-access=free }}</ref> Although the species has been suggested to control piranha populations, piranhas have not been found to be a normal diet component, unlike the yacare caiman. According to the Crocodilian Species List, it is probably a generalist species, being able to adapt to a variety of prey.<ref name="brit"/><ref name="ross">{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Charles A. |last2=Garnett |first2=Stephen |title=Crocodiles and Alligators |date=1989 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8160-2174-1 |pages=58–73 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaBnQgAACAAJ |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref>

===Communication=== The spectacled caiman uses nine different vocalizations and 13 visual displays to communicate with individuals of its species.<ref name="latin"/> Both adults and young produce calls for group cohesion. Males are known to communicate by moving their tail to a certain position, such as making it vertical or arched. Juveniles vocalize when in distress and adult females emit calls to warn young of threats.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

===Reproduction=== thumb|''C. c. fuscus'' babies{{Easy CSS image crop|Image=Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, Hato el Frio, Apure, Venezuela imported from iNaturalist photo 203421474.jpg|caption=''C. c. crocodilus'', in Apure, Venezuela|align=right|desired_width=250|crop_right_perc=25|crop_top_perc=30}}{{Easy CSS image crop|Image=Caiman crocodilus fuscus 206262401.jpg|align=right|desired_width=250|caption=Young ''C. c. fuscus'', in Panama|crop_top_perc=30|crop_bottom_perc=20}}{{Easy CSS image crop|Image=Caiman crocodilus fuscus 457667208.jpg|desired_width=250|align=right|caption=Juvenile ''C. c. fuscus'', in Panama|crop_top_perc=25|crop_bottom_perc=20|crop_right_perc=10}}

The spectacled caiman reaches sexual maturity from four to seven years old, at a length of {{convert|1.2|m|ft}} for females and {{convert|1.4|m|ft}} for males. Usually, the more dominant individuals mature more quickly. A size-based dominance system is suggested as studies show larger males have more success breeding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barragán-Contreras |first1=L.A. |last2=Antelo |first2=R. |last3=Amézquita |first3=A. |title=Not only big bulls — Correlation between morphometry, reproductive success, and testosterone level in a flooded savannah population of the Spectacled Caiman ( Caiman crocodilus ) |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=July 2021 |volume=99 |issue=7 |pages=580–587 |doi=10.1139/cjz-2020-0099 |bibcode=2021CaJZ...99..580B |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjz-2020-0099 |language=en |issn=0008-4301|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Specimens choose mates and engage in copulation from May to August, the wet season.<ref name="brit" /> The females build nests as a mound of dense vegetation, in areas that are close to water but not at risk of being flooded. The nests are over {{convert|1|m|ft}} in diameter and can be {{convert|40|cm|in}} high, but the exact size depends on the resources available. Eggs are laid in July and August; the species very rarely nests in the winter, as the temperature is too low for the eggs.<ref name="latin"/><ref name="mag">Magnusson, W.E. Vliet, K.A. Pooley, A.C. and Whitaker, R. "Reproduction." ''Crocodiles and Alligators'' (illustrated ed.). Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. {{ISBN|0816021740}}.</ref> Clutch size is 22 on average, but can range from 14 to 40.<ref name="brit"/> Larger females have been known to lay larger eggs compared to smaller females.<ref name="reproductive">{{cite journal |last1=Campos |first1=Zilca |last2=Magnusson |first2=William E. |last3=Sanaiotti |first3=Tânia |last4=Coutinho |first4=Marcos E. |title=Reproductive trade-offs in ''Caiman crocodilus crocodilus'' and ''Caiman crocodilus yacare'': Implications for size-related management quotas |journal=Herpetological Journal |date=April 2008 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233485395 |access-date=30 March 2019}}</ref> Females stay close to their nests during the incubation period, as several species, such as lizards in the genus ''Tupinambis'', have been known to destroy nests and prey on the eggs.<ref name="brit"/> White-nosed coatis and foxes also raid nests.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Flooding and human egg collecting can also be a threat to the nests.<ref name="latin"/> In a study in the Central Amazonia assessing reproductive similarities between C. crocodilus and Melanochus niger, research found that they indiscriminately separate their nests at larger distances than other species in this family, most likely to avoid predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silveira |first1=Ronis Da |last2=Magnusson |first2=William Ernest |last3=Campos |first3=Zilca |title=Monitoring the Distribution, Abundance and Breeding Areas of Caiman ''crocodilus crocodilus'' and ''Melanosuchus niger'' in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil |journal=Journal of Herpetology |date=December 1997 |volume=31 |issue=4 |page=514 |doi=10.2307/1565603|jstor=1565603 |bibcode=1997JHerp..31..514S }}</ref>

Temperature is important to the developing eggs, so females build their nests in a way that insulates them from extreme temperature changes. As the vegetation in the nests decays, the nests produce heat which can keep the eggs about 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than if they were insulated by mud alone.<ref name="mag" /> Heat not only incubates the eggs, but also determines the sex of the developing caimans (temperature-dependent sex determination). When the temperature inside the nest is about {{convert|32|C|F}} or higher, the caimans become female, and otherwise become male.<ref>Lang, J.W. "Sex Determination." ''Crocodiles and Alligators'' (illustrated ed.). Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. {{ISBN|0816021740}}.</ref> Young hatch after 90 days,<ref name="lpzoo"/> with 20–25 percent of eggs hatching successfully.<ref name="latin"/> They are yellow with black spots, a coloration which fades away as they grow older,<ref name="brit" /> with a length of {{convert|20|–|23|cm|in}}.<ref name="latin"/> Parents raise their young in crèches, with one female taking care of her own, as well as several others' offspring.<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |last1=Somma |first1=Louis A. |last2=Fuller |first2=Pam |title=Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |url=https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=222 |website=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> They take care of their young for 12–18 months.<ref name="specialist"/> Young are threatened by various predators, such as raptors (like hawks)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/images/Caiman_crocodilus%20-%20Spectacled%20Caiman.pdf |title=Caiman crocodilus (Spectacled Caiman)|website=Sta.uwi.edu|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> and wader birds (like herons),<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> causing most to die in their first year.<ref name="latin"/> These juveniles are also preyed upon by large fish, large snakes (such as anacondas), and other crocodilians.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/>

==Threats and conservation== [[File:Caimán del Magadalena - Mark, Edward Walhouse.jpg|thumb|A 19th century watercolor painting depicting a hunter aiming at a caiman on the Magdalena River]] The skin of the spectacled caiman is covered with osteoderms, which previously caused it to not be a major commercial target for its skin. However, harvesting of the skins of this caiman and others became very common in the 1950s, due to the declining stocks of crocodiles.<ref name="specialist"/> Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the species was frequently traded, causing its population to decrease in some areas. Its skin was often exported from South America and utilized primarily for leather; at least 6 million skins were exported from Colombia from 1996 to 2015. However, conservation efforts since have caused a significant reduction in the number of skins exported.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> In most countries, hunting this species is legal. Venezuela permits hunting every fall, provided the total number of kills in the season does not exceed 150,000.<ref name="ald" /> Because of its adaptability and wide distribution, habitat loss does not affect the species significantly globally.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It is reasonably resilient to hunting as well, as hunters usually focus on large males and the species reproduces at a small size.<ref name="specialist"/> However, it is severely threatened in Colombia,<ref name="brit"/> primarily the subspecies ''C. c. fuscus'' and sometimes ''C. c. crocodilus''.<ref name="skin">{{cite journal |last1=Webb |first1=Grahame |last2=Brien |first2=Matthew |last3=Manolis |first3=Charlie |last4=Medrano-Bitar |first4=Sergio |title=Predicting total lengths of spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') from skin measurements: A tool for managing the skin trade |journal=Herpetological Conservation and Biology |date=6 May 2012 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=16–26 |url=http://herpconbio.org/Volume_7/Issue_1/Webb_etal_2012.pdf |access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref>

The adult population of this crocodilian is estimated to be in the millions and stable.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> About four million spectacled caimans are found in Venezuela and surveys have shown that it is expected to increase.<ref name="ald" /> This is an example of how well the species is able to adapt.<ref name="brit" /> However, populations are not doing well in other countries, such as Peru.<ref name="ald" /> The population in a single area can be determined the easiest by counting individuals in the dry season at night.<ref name="latin" />

The spectacled caiman benefits from the removal of competitive species which occupy the same home range, as this allows it to access resources normally lost to these other species. Specimens that have been introduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the United States negatively impact the native animals there. They are believed to have been the main reason for the likely extirpation of the Cuban crocodile (''Crocodylus rhombifer'') from the Isla de la Juventud, Cuba.<ref name="brit" /> The species has a similar diet to the black caiman (''Melanosuchus niger'') – both species eat mostly insects as juveniles and fish as adults. This causes interspecific competition, making it more difficult for the black caiman's population to recover.<ref name="overlap">{{cite journal |last1=Laverty |first1=Theresa M. |last2=Dobson |first2=Andrew P. |title=Dietary overlap between black caimans and spectacled caimans in the Peruvian Amazon |journal=Herpetologica |date=March 2013 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-12-00031 |s2cid=86391999 }}</ref> The spectacled caiman lives in parts of the Amazon rainforest that the black caiman was extirpated from.<ref name="specialist" />

[[File:Caiman crocodilus Tropicario 2.JPG|thumb|''C. crocodilus'' at the Helsinki Tropicario Zoo aquarium in Helsinki, Finland in 2010]] Conservation programs for this species are used in many countries. The most common form of conservation is the use of cropping, which consists of manually reducing the numbers of several wild and abundant species. Long-term effects of cropping have yet to be discovered; more surveys have been recommended. Farming or ranching programs have also been used as conservation efforts for the species, but seem to be more expensive and possibly less effective.<ref name="brit" /> A conservation program in Colombia, which existed from 2004 to 2006, bred spectacled caimans in captivity and released the young into the wild at one year old. A similar program released over 15,000 juveniles into wetlands from 2005 to 2009.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> Previously, Colombia restricted the exportation of spectacled caiman skins to ones shorter than {{convert|1.2|m|ft}}, but as of 2011 there are now only size limits for some individual pieces of the skin, rather than the overall size of the skin. These limits are less effective, as large skins could accord with the size limits if cut and trimmed.<ref name="skin"/> According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), further surveys of the species would help with future conservation plans.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

The spectacled caiman is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List, due to its large range and population globally, following two assessments as threatened in 1986 and 1988.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> The subspecies ''C. c. crocodilus'' is on Appendix II of CITES,<ref name="cites1"/> ''C. c. apaporiensis'' Appendix I,<ref name="cites2">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus fuscus |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/43090 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330201837/https://cites.org/eng/node/43090 }}</ref> and ''C. c. fuscus'' Appendix II.<ref name="cites3">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/20218 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330203635/https://cites.org/eng/node/20218 }}</ref> {{-}}

== Gallery == <gallery mode="packed" heights="140"> File:Spectacled Caiman - Baba (Caiman crocodilus) (10870277833).jpg|''C. c. crocodilus'', in Venezuela File:Caiman crocodilus -1-4 - Flickr - Ragnhild & Neil Crawford.jpg|''C. c. fuscus'', in Costa Rica File:Spectacled Caiman Costa Rica.jpg|''C. c. fuscus'', in Costa Rica File:Spectacled caiman in Costa Rica 02.jpg|''C. c. fuscus'', in Costa Rica File:Caiman crocodilus. Spectacled Caiman (42253684125).jpg|''C. c. fuscus'', in Panama </gallery>

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|Caiman crocodilus}} * {{Wikispecies inline|Caiman}}

Category:Caiman (genus) Category:Crocodilians of North America Category:Crocodilians of Brazil Category:Reptiles of Colombia Category:Reptiles of Costa Rica Category:Reptiles of Ecuador Category:Reptiles of El Salvador Category:Reptiles of French Guiana Category:Reptiles of Guatemala Category:Reptiles of Guyana Category:Reptiles of Honduras Category:Reptiles of Mexico Category:Reptiles of Nicaragua Category:Reptiles of Panama Category:Reptiles of Peru Category:Reptiles of Suriname Category:Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago Category:Reptiles of the Caribbean Category:Reptiles of Venezuela Category:Reptiles described in 1758 Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Spectacled caiman

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