Proso millet

{{short description|Species of grass}} {{Use American English|date=January 2025}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2025}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}} {{Speciesbox |image = Mature Proso Millet Panicles.jpg |image_caption = Proso millet panicles |taxon = Panicum miliaceum |authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |synonyms = {{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | *''Leptoloma miliacea'' (L.) Smyth *''Milium esculentum'' Moench nom. illeg. *''Milium panicum'' Mill. nom. illeg. *''Panicum asperrimum'' Fisch. *''Panicum asperrimum'' Fischer ex Jacq. *''Panicum densepilosum'' Steud. *''Panicum milium'' Pers. nom. illeg. *''Panicum ruderale'' (Kitag.) D.M.Chang *''Panicum spontaneum'' Zhuk. nom. inval. }} |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-429269|title=''Panicum miliaceum L.''|year=2013|access-date=8 January 2015|publisher=[[The Plant List]]}}</ref> }} [[File:Panicum miliaceum MHNT.BOT.2015.34.20.jpg|thumb|''Panicum miliaceum'' ([[MHNT]])]] '''''Panicum miliaceum''''' is a grain crop with many [[common name]]s, including '''proso millet''', '''broomcorn millet''', '''common millet''', '''hog millet''', '''Kashfi millet''', '''red millet''', and '''white millet'''.<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN | access-date=8 January 2015}}</ref> [[Archaeobotany|Archaeobotanical]] evidence suggests millet was first domesticated about [[Before Present|10,000 BP]] in Northern China.<ref name = domestication >{{ Cite journal |display-authors=3| doi-access = free | last1 = Lu | first1 = H. | last2 = Zhang | first2 = J. | last3 = Liu | first3 = K.-b. | last4 = Wu | first4 = N. | last5 = Li | first5 = Y. | last6 = Zhou | first6 = K. | last7 = Ye | first7 = M. | last8 = Zhang | first8 = T. | last9 = Zhang | first9 = H. | last10 = Yang | first10 = X. | last11 = Shen | first11 = L. | last12 = Xu | first12 = D. | last13 = Li | first13 = Q. | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| title = Earliest domestication of common millet (''Panicum miliaceum'') in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago | date = 21 April 2009 | volume = 106 | issue = 18 | pages = 7367–7372 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0900158106 | pmid = 19383791 | pmc = 2678631 | bibcode = 2009PNAS..106.7367L }}</ref> Major cultivated areas include [[Agriculture in China|Northern China]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] of India,<ref name="India 2019">{{cite book|title=Millets in the Himalaya|first1=B Venkatesh |last1=Bhat|first2=A |last2=Arunachalam|first3=Dinesh|last3= Kumar|first4=Vilas A|last4= Tonapi|first5= Trilochan |last5=Mohapatra|date=2019|pages=28, 76|publisher=Indian Council of Agriculgultural Research|url=https://millets.res.in/pub/2019/Millets_Indian_Himalaya.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225060408/https://millets.res.in/pub/2019/Millets_Indian_Himalaya.pdf|archivedate=2022-02-25}}</ref> [[Agriculture in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Agriculture in Russia|Russia]], [[Agriculture in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Agriculture in Belarus|Belarus]], the [[Middle East]], [[Agriculture in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Agriculture in Romania|Romania]], and the [[Great Plains]] states of the United States.<ref name="2017 review"/> About {{Convert|500,000|acre|abbr=off}} are grown each year.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.nass.usda.gov/ |title = USDA - National Agricultural Statistics Service Homepage}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2022}} The crop is notable both for its extremely short lifecycle, with some varieties producing grain only 60 days after planting,<ref name=waxymilletpaper>{{cite journal |last1=Graybosch |first1=R. A. |last2=Baltensperger |first2=D. D. |title=Evaluation of the waxy endosperm trait in proso millet|journal=Plant Breeding|date=February 2009 |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=70–73 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0523.2008.01511.x|url= http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1367&context=agronomyfacpub |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and its low water requirements, producing grain more efficiently per unit of moisture than any other grain species tested.<ref name=waxymilletpaper/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Lyman James Briggs|author2=Homer LeRoy Shantz|title=The water requirement of plants|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rkIZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR29 |year=1913|publisher=Govt. Print. Off.|pages=29–}}</ref> The name "proso millet" comes from the pan-Slavic general and generic name for millet ({{lang-sh-Latn-Cyrl|separator=/|proso|просо}}, {{langx|cs|proso}}, {{langx|pl|proso}}, {{langx|ru|просо}}).

Proso millet is a relative of [[foxtail millet]], [[pearl millet]], [[maize]], and [[sorghum]] within the grass subfamily [[Panicoideae]]. While all of these crops use [[C4 photosynthesis]], the others all employ the NADP-ME as their primary carbon shuttle pathway, while the primary C4 carbon shuttle in proso millet is the NAD-ME pathway.

== Evolutionary history == ''Panicum miliaceum'' is a [[tetraploid]] species with a base chromosome number of 18, twice the base chromosome number of [[diploid]] species within its genus ''[[Panicum]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aliscioni |first1=Sandra S. |last2=Giussani |first2=Liliana M. |last3=Zuloaga |first3=Fernando O. |last4=Kellogg |first4=Elizabeth A. |title=A molecular phylogeny of ''Panicum'' (Poaceae: Paniceae): tests of monophyly and phylogenetic placement within the Panicoideae |journal= [[American Journal of Botany]] |date=May 2003 |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=796–821 |doi=10.3732/ajb.90.5.796 |pmid=21659176 |bibcode=2003AmJB...90..796A }}</ref> The species appears to be an [[allotetraploid]] resulting from a wide hybrid between two different diploid ancestors.<ref name=reticulateevolution>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=H. V. |last2=Badakshi |first2=F. |last3=Romanova |first3=O. |last4=Howe |first4=C. J. |last5=Jones |first5=M. K. |last6=Heslop-Harrison |first6=J. S. P. |display-authors=3|title=Reticulate evolution in ''Panicum'' (Poaceae): the origin of tetraploid broomcorn millet, ''P. miliaceum'' |journal= [[Journal of Experimental Botany]] |date=10 April 2014 |volume=65 |issue=12 |pages=3165–3175 |doi=10.1093/jxb/eru161|pmid=24723408 |pmc=4071833 }}</ref> One of the two subgenomes within proso millet appears to have come from either ''[[Panicum capillare|P. capillare]]'' or a close relative of that species. The second subgenome does not show close homology to any known diploid ''Panicum'' species, but some unknown diploid ancestor apparently also contributed a copy of its genome to a separate [[allotetraploid]] species ''[[Panicum repens|P. repens]]'' (torpedo grass).<ref name=reticulateevolution/> The two subgenomes within proso millet are estimated to have diverged 5.6 million years ago.<ref name=prosogenome>{{cite journal |last1=Zou |first1=Changsong |last2=Li |first2=Leiting |last3=Miki |first3=Daisuke |last4=Li |first4=Delin |last5=Tang |first5=Qiming |last6=Xiao |first6=Lihong |last7=Rajput |first7=Santosh |last8=Deng |first8=Ping |last9=Peng |first9=Li |last10=Jia |first10=Wei |last11=Huang |first11=Ru |last12=Zhang |first12=Meiling |last13=Sun |first13=Yidan |last14=Hu |first14=Jiamin |last15=Fu |first15=Xing |last16=Schnable |first16=Patrick S. |last17=Chang |first17=Yuxiao |last18=Li |first18=Feng |last19=Zhang |first19=Hui |last20=Feng |first20=Baili |last21=Zhu |first21=Xinguang |last22=Liu |first22=Renyi |last23=Schnable |first23=James C. |last24=Zhu |first24=Jian-Kang |last25=Zhang |first25=Heng |display-authors=3|title=The genome of broomcorn millet |journal= [[Nature Communications]] |date=25 January 2019 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=436 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-08409-5|pmid=30683860 |pmc=6347628 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10..436Z }}</ref> However, the species has experienced only limited amounts of fractionation and copies of most genes are still retained on both subgenomes.<ref name=prosogenome /> A sequenced version of the proso millet genome, estimated to be around 920 [[megabase]] pairs in size, was published in 2019.<ref name=prosogenome />

== As a weed == [[Weed]]y and [[feral]] types are classified as ''[[Panicum ruderale]]''(Kitag.) Chang comb. Nov. or ''[[Panicum miliaceum]]'' subsp. ''ruderale''.<ref name="Develop archaelogical method">{{Cite journal |last1=Portillo |first1=Marta |last2=Ball |first2=Terry B. |last3=Wallace |first3=Michael |last4=Murphy |first4=Charlene |last5=Pérez-Díaz |first5=Sebastián |last6=Ruiz-Alonso |first6=Mónica |last7=Aceituno |first7=Francisco Javier |last8=López-Sáez |first8=José Antonio |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=Advances in Morphometrics in Archaeobotany |url=https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/81875/1/Portillo%20et%20al%202019.pdf |journal=Environmental Archaeology |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=246–256 |doi=10.1080/14614103.2019.1569351 |s2cid=135206336}}</ref> A 2018 report developed a [[morphometric]] analysis method which distinguishes [[seed]]s of ''P. miliaceum'' and ''P. ruderale'' on the basis of micromorphology.<ref name="Develop archaelogical method" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jianping |last2=Lu |first2=Houyuan |last3=Liu |first3=Minxuan |last4=Diao |first4=Xianmin |last5=Shao |first5=Konglan |last6=Wu |first6=Naiqin |year=2018 |title=Phytolith analysis for differentiating between broomcorn millet (''Panicum miliaceum'') and its weed/feral type (''Panicum ruderale'') |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=13022 |bibcode=2018NatSR...813022Z |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-31467-6 |pmc=6115419 |pmid=30158541 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Domestication and history of cultivation == [[File:Centres of origin and spread of agriculture.svg|thumb|right|upright=2.0|Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory: the Fertile Crescent (11,000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9,000 BP), the New Guinea Highlands (9,000–6,000 BP), Central Mexico (5,000–4,000 BP), Northern South America (5,000–4,000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (5,000–4,000 BP, exact location unknown), and eastern North America (4,000–3,000 BP).<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1078208 | last1 = Diamond | first1 = J. | last2 = Bellwood | first2 = P. | title = Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions | journal =[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 300 | issue = 5619 | pages = 597–603 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12714734|bibcode = 2003Sci...300..597D | url = http://faculty.bennington.edu/%7Ekwoods/classes/enviro-hist/diamond%20agriculture%20and%20language.pdf | citeseerx = 10.1.1.1013.4523 | s2cid = 13350469 }}</ref>]]

Weedy forms of proso millet are found throughout central Asia, covering a widespread area from the [[Caspian Sea]] east to [[Xinjiang]] and [[Mongolia]]. These may represent the wild progenitor of proso millet or feral escapes from domesticated production.<ref name="ZH">{{cite book |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World |editor-first1=Daniel |editor-last1=Zohary |editor-first2=Maria |editor-last2=Hopf |edition=3rd |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |year=2000|isbn= 978-0198503569}}</ref>{{rp|83}} Indeed, in the United States, weedy proso millet, representing feral escapes from cultivation, are now common, suggesting current proso millet cultivars retain the potential to revert, similar to the pattern seen for weedy rice.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} Currently, the earliest archeological evidence for domesticated proso millet comes from the Cishan site in semiarid north east China around 8,000 BCE.<ref name=domestication/> Because early varieties of proso millet had such a short lifecycle, as little as 45 days from planting to harvest, they are thought to have made it possible for seminomadic tribes to first adopt agriculture, forming a bridge between hunter-gatherer-focused lifestyles and early agricultural civilizations.<ref>{{Cite magazine| url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-ancient-grain-may-have-helped-humans-become-farmers-180957546/ |title = This Ancient Grain May Have Helped Humans Become Farmers|first=Maris |last=Fessenden |date=January 7, 2016|magazine=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> Archaeological charred grains of common millet were found in several Neolithic sites in Europe and Transcaucasia but [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon]] dates obtained thanks to [[Accelerator mass spectrometry|AMS]] method directly from the grains, indicated that it appeared in that area in the 2nd millennium BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute |first1=Giedre |last2=Staff |first2=Richard A. |last3=Hunt |first3=Harriet V. |last4=Liu |first4=Xinyi |last5=Jones |first5=Martin K. |date=December 2013 |title=The early chronology of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) in Europe |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/early-chronology-of-broomcorn-millet-panicum-miliaceum-in-europe/638EF70E1C525C8826B9D5076AD617E9 |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=87 |issue=338 |pages=1073–1085 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00049875 |s2cid=163096064 |issn=0003-598X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Filipović |first1=Dragana |last2=Meadows |first2=John |last3=Corso |first3=Marta Dal |last4=Kirleis |first4=Wiebke |last5=Alsleben |first5=Almuth |last6=Akeret |first6=Örni |last7=Bittmann |first7=Felix |last8=Bosi |first8=Giovanna |last9=Ciută |first9=Beatrice |last10=Dreslerová |first10=Dagmar |last11=Effenberger |first11=Henrike |last12=Gyulai |first12=Ferenc |last13=Heiss |first13=Andreas G. |last14=Hellmund |first14=Monika |last15=Jahns |first15=Susanne |date=2020-08-13 |title=New AMS 14C dates track the arrival and spread of broomcorn millet cultivation and agricultural change in prehistoric Europe |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=13698 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-70495-z |pmid=32792561 |pmc=7426858 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Lucie |last2=Messager |first2=Erwan |last3=Bedianashvili |first3=Giorgi |last4=Rusishvili |first4=Nana |last5=Lebedeva |first5=Elena |last6=Longford |first6=Catherine |last7=Hovsepyan |first7=Roman |last8=Bitadze |first8=Liana |last9=Chkadua |first9=Marine |last10=Vanishvili |first10=Nikoloz |last11=Le Mort |first11=Françoise |last12=Kakhiani |first12=Kakha |last13=Abramishvili |first13=Mikheil |last14=Gogochuri |first14=Giorgi |last15=Murvanidze |first15=Bidzina |date=2021-06-23 |title=The place of millet in food globalization during Late Prehistory as evidenced by new bioarchaeological data from the Caucasus |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=13124 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-92392-9 |pmid=34162920 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1113124M |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free |pmc=8222238 }}</ref> At around 1700 BCE, broomcorn millet was present north of the Black Sea, 1450 BCE in central Europe, and 1200 BCE in northern Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dal Corso |first1=Marta |last2=Pashkevych |first2=Galyna |last3=Filipović |first3=Dragana |last4=Liu |first4=Xinyi |last5=Motuzaite Matuzeviciute |first5=Giedre |last6=Stobbe |first6=Astrid |last7=Shatilo |first7=Ludmila |last8=Videiko |first8=Mihail |last9=Kirleis |first9=Wiebke |date=2022-12-01 |title=Between Cereal Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: Millet in the Early Economy of the North Pontic Region |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-022-09171-1 |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=321–374 |doi=10.1007/s10963-022-09171-1 |issn=1573-7802}}</ref>

=== Cultivation ===

Proso millet is a relatively low-demanding crop, and diseases are not known; consequently, it is often used in organic farming systems in Europe. In the United States, it is often used as an intercrop. Thus, proso millet can help to avoid a summer fallow, and continuous crop rotation can be achieved. Its superficial root system and its resistance to atrazine residue make proso millet a good intercrop between two water- and [[pesticide]]-demanding crops. The stubbles of the last crop, by allowing more heat into the soil, result in a faster and earlier millet growth. While millet occupies the ground, because of its superficial root system, the soil can replenish its water content for the next crop. Later crops, for example, a winter wheat, can in turn benefit from the millet stubble, which act as snow accumulators.<ref name="UNebraskaL">[http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/live/ec137/build/ec137.pdf Producing and marketing proso millet in the great plains], U. Nebraska-Lincoln Extension</ref> ''P. miliaceum'' is commonly classified into five [[Race (taxonomy)|race]]s, ''miliaceum'', ''patentissimum'', ''contractum'', ''compactum'', and ''ovatum''.<ref name = "Diversity-Resources">{{ Cite journal | volume = 6 | year = 2015 | first2 = Manish | first1 = Travis | last2 = Raizada | last1 = Goron | journal = Frontiers in Plant Science | title = Genetic diversity and genomic resources available for the small millet crops to accelerate a New Green Revolution | page = 157 | doi = 10.3389/fpls.2015.00157 | pmid = 25852710 | pmc = 4371761 | bibcode = 2015FrPS....6..157G | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Climate and soil requirements === Due to its C4 photosynthetic system, proso millet is thermophilic like [[maize]], so shady locations of the field should be avoided. It is sensitive to temperatures lower than {{ Convert | 10 to 13 | C }}. Proso millet is highly drought-resistant, which makes it of interest to regions with low water availability and longer periods without rain.<ref name="Biohirse">Merkblatt für den Anbau von Rispenhirse im biologischen Landbau, www.biofarm.ch, http://www.biofarm.ch/assets/files/Landwirtschaft/Merkblatt_Biohirse_Version%2012_2010.pdf(23.11.14) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203161307/http://www.biofarm.ch/assets/files/Landwirtschaft/Merkblatt_Biohirse_Version%2012_2010.pdf |date=2015-02-03 }}</ref><ref name="Pearl">{{cite book |vauthors= Hanna WW, Baltensperger DD, Seetharam A |year=2004 |chapter=Pearl Millet and Other Millets |title=Warm-Season (C4) Grasses |series=Agronomy Monographs|volume=45 |pages=537–560 |veditors=Moser LE, Burson BL, Sollenberger LE |doi=10.2134/agronmonogr45.c15|isbn=9780891182375 }}</ref> The soil should be light or medium-heavy. Due to its flat root systems, soil compaction must be avoided. Furthermore, proso millet does not tolerate soil wetness caused by dammed-up water.<ref name="Pearl" />

A 2019 study found different [[cultivar]]s have significantly different effects on [[rhizosphere]] assemblage, and also that ''[[Proteobacteria]]'', ''[[Bacteroidetes]]'', ''[[Chloroflexota|Chloroflexi]]'', ''[[Gemmatimonadetes]]'', ''[[Firmicutes]]'', ''[[Verrucomicrobiota|Verrucomicrobia]]'', and ''[[Planctomycetes]]'' are the most common members, in declining order.<ref name="Diversity">{{cite journal|year=2020|volume=11 |first7=Ni|first6=Joe|first5=Hesham|first4=R.|first3=Iqbal|first2=Anirban|first1=Sadaf|last7=Suriani|last6=Dailin|last5=El-Enshasy|last4=Sayyed|last3=Ahmad|last2=Basu|last1=Kalam|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|title=Recent Understanding of Soil Acidobacteria and Their Ecological Significance: A Critical Review|article-number=580024 |s2cid=226064207|pmid=33193209|pmc=7661733|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.580024 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2019| display-authors=3|last1=Na|first1=Xiaofan|last2=Cao|first2=Xiaoning|last3=Ma|first3=Caixia|last4=Ma|first4=Shaolan|last5=Xu|first5=Pengxin|last6=Liu|first6=Sichen|last7=Wang|first7=Junjie|last8=Wang|first8=Haigang|last9=Chen|first9=Ling|last10=Qiao|first10=Zhijun|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|s2cid=128359092|pmid=31068914|pmc=6491785|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2019.00828|title=Plant Stage, Not Drought Stress, Determines the Effect of Cultivars on Bacterial Community Diversity in the Rhizosphere of Broomcorn Millet (''Panicum miliaceum'' L.)|volume=10| article-number=828| doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Seedbed and sowing === The seedbed should be finely crumbled as for [[sugar beet]] and [[rapeseed]].<ref name=Biohirse /> In Europe, proso millet is sowed between mid-April and the end of May. About {{ Convert | 500 | g/acre }} of seeds are required, which is roughly {{ Convert | 500 | /m2 | /acre }}. In [[organic farming]], this amount should be increased if a [[harrow (tool)|harrow]] weeder is used. For sowing, the usual sowing machines can be used similarly to how they are used for other crops such as wheat. A distance between the rows of {{ Convert | 16 to 25 | cm }} is recommended if the farmer uses an interrow [[cultivator]]. The sowing depth should be {{ Convert | 1.5 to 2 | cm }} in optimal soil or {{ Convert | 3 to 4 | cm }} in dry soil. Rolling of the ground after sowing is helpful for further cultivation.<ref name=Biohirse /> Cultivation in [[no-till farming]] systems is also possible and often practiced in the United States. Sowing then can be done two weeks later.<ref name="UNebraskaL"/> [[File:White Proso Millet.jpg|frameless|right]]

=== Field management === Only a few diseases and pests are known to attack proso millet, but they are not economically important. Weeds are a bigger problem. The critical phase is in juvenile development. The formation of the grains happens in the 3- to 5-leaf stage. After that, all nutrients should be available for the millet, so preventing the growth of weeds is necessary. In [[conventional farming]], [[herbicides]] may be used. In [[organic farming]], harrow weeder or interrow [[cultivator]] use is possible, but special sowing parameters are needed.<ref name=Biohirse /> For good crop development, [[fertilization]] with {{ Convert | 50 to 75 | kg }} nitrogen per hectare is recommended.<ref name="Pearl" /> Planting proso millet in a [[crop rotation]] after [[maize]] should be avoided due to its same weed spectrum. Because proso millet is an undemanding crop, it may be used at the end of the [[crop rotation|rotation]].<ref name=Biohirse />

=== Pests === [[Insect pest]]s include:<ref name="Kalaisekar">{{cite book |last=Kalaisekar |first=A |title=Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-804243-4 |publication-place=[[London]] |oclc=967265246}}</ref>

;Seedling pests *shoot fly ''[[Atherigona pulla]]'' (proso millet shoot fly,<ref name="GahukarReddy2019">{{cite journal |last1=Gahukar |first1=Ruparao T |last2=Reddy |first2=Gadi V P |last3=Royer |first3=Tom |year=2019 |title=Management of Economically Important Insect Pests of Millet |journal=Journal of Integrated Pest Management |volume=10 |issue=1 |article-number=28 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmz026 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sathish |first1=Ravulapenta |last2=Manjunatha |first2=M |last3=Rajashekarappa |first3=K |year=2017 |title=Incidence of shoot fly, ''Atherigona pulla'' (Wiedemann) on proso millet at different dates of sowing |url=https://www.entomoljournal.com/archives/?year=2017&vol=5&issue=5&ArticleId=2557 |journal=Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=2000–2004}} </ref> a major pest in India and Africa) *''[[Atherigona miliaceae]]'', ''[[Atherigona soccata]]'', and ''[[Atherigona punctata|A. punctata]]'' *wheat stem maggot ''[[Meromyza americana]]'' occurs in the United States *thrip, ''[[Haplothrips aculeatus]]'' *armyworms ''[[Mythimna separata]]'', ''[[Mythimna unipuncta|M. unipuncta]]'', ''[[Spodoptera exempta]]'', and ''[[Spodoptera frugiperda|S. frugiperda]]'' *field cricket ''[[Brachytrupes]]'' sp.

;Stem borers *''[[Chilo partellus]]'', ''[[Chilo suppressalis|Ch. suppressalis]]'', ''Chilo orichalcociliellus'', ''[[Sesamia inferens]]'', ''[[Sesamia cretica|S. cretica]]'', and ''[[Ostrinia furnacalis]]''

;Leaf feeders *leaf folders ''[[Cnaphalocrocis medinalis]]'' and ''[[Cnaphalocrocis patnalis|Cn. patnalis]]'' *hairy caterpillar ''[[Spilosoma obliqua]]'' *rice butterfly ''[[Melanitis leda]] ismene'' *Moroccan locust ''[[Dociostaurus maroccanus]]'' *migratory locust ''[[Locusta migratoria]]'' *grasshoppers ''[[Hieroglyphus banian]]'' and ''[[Oxya chinensis]]''

;Earhead feeders *cotton boll worm ''[[Helicoverpa zea]]'' (in the United States)

;Other pests *aphid ''[[Sipha flava]]'' (in North America) *earhead bug ''[[Leptocorisa acuta]]'' and green bug ''[[Nezara viridula]]'' suck the milky developing grains in India *termites, ''[[Odontotermes]]'' spp. and ''Microtermes'' spp., are the common species recorded on proso millet during dry seasons in India.

=== Harvesting and postharvest treatments === Harvest time is at the end of August until mid-September. Determining the best harvest date is not easy because all the grains do not ripen simultaneously. The grains on the top of the [[panicle]] ripen first, while the grains in the lower parts need more time, making compromise and harvest necessary to optimize yield.<ref name=Biohirse /> Harvesting can be done with a conventional [[combine harvester]] with the moisture content of the grains around 15-20%. Usually, proso millet is mowed into [[windrow]]s first, since the plants are not dry like [[wheat]]. There, they can wither, which makes the [[threshing]] easier. Then the harvest is done with a pickup attached to a combine.<ref name=Biohirse /> Possible yields are between {{ Convert | 2.5 and 4.5 | t/ha }} under optimal conditions. Studies in Germany showed that even higher yields can be attained.<ref name=Biohirse />

===Geographical distribution=== In the United States, as of 2015, the total cultivated area of proso millet was {{Convert|204,366|ha}}, mostly in the [[Great Plains]] states.<ref name="2017 review"/> The top three producers in 2015 were Colorado, Nebraska, and South Dakota, with {{Convert|109,265|ha}}, {{Convert|42,492|ha}}, and {{Convert|28,328|ha}}.<ref name="2017 review">{{cite journal|volume=7|year=2017 |last1=Habiyaremye|first1=Cedric|last2=Matanguihan|first2=Janet B.|last3=D'Alpoim Guedes|first3=Jade|last4=Ganjyal|first4=Girish M.|last5=Whiteman|first5=Michael R.|last6=Kidwell|first6=Kimberlee K.|last7=Murphy|first7=Kevin M.|journal=[[Frontiers in Plant Science]]|s2cid=10022987|pmc=5220228|pmid=28119699|doi=10.3389/fpls.2016.01961|title= Proso Millet (''Panicum miliaceum'' L.) and Its Potential for Cultivation in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.: A Review |page=1961 |bibcode=2017FrPS....7.1961H |doi-access=free }}</ref> Historically grown as animal and bird seed, as of 2020, it has found a market as an organic gluten-free grain.<ref name="DP73020">{{cite news |author1=Daliah Singer |title=Colorado's hottest grain is gluten-free, nutrient-dense, great in beer and about to be your new fav pantry staple Colorado produces the most millet in the country. But what exactly is it? |url=https://theknow.denverpost.com/2020/07/30/millet-grain-colorado/242449/ |access-date=July 30, 2020 |work=The [[Denver Post]]|date=July 30, 2020}}</ref>

Proso millet is one of the few types of millet not cultivated in Africa.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=260 |access-date=2008-07-18 |volume=1 |date=1996-02-14 |publisher= [[National Academies Press]] |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |doi= 10.17226/2305|page=260 |chapter=Ebony |bibcode=1996nap..book.2305N |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=252 }}</ref>

==Uses== [[File:Gijang-bap.jpg|thumb|Cooked rice with proso millet]]

=== Nutrition === {{Infobox nutritional value | name = Millet flour | kJ = 1597 | protein = 10.8 g | fat = 4.2 g | satfat = | transfat = | monofat = | polyfat = | omega3fat = | omega6fat = | carbs = 75.1 g | fiber = 3.5 g | calcium_mg = 14 | iron_mg = 3.9 | magnesium_mg = 119 | phosphorus_mg = 285 | potassium_mg = 224 | sodium_mg = 4 | zinc_mg = 2.6 | manganese_mg = 1 | thiamin_mg = 0.4 | riboflavin_mg = 0.07 | niacin_mg = 6 | pantothenic_mg = 1.3 | vitB6_mg = 0.37 | folate_ug = 42 | vitE_mg = 0.11 | vitK_ug = 0.8 | opt1n = Water | opt1v = 8.7 g | note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/172023/nutrients Full Report of USDA Database entry] }}

Millet flour is 9% water, 75% [[carbohydrate]]s, 11% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 4% [[fat]]. In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, millet flour supplies 382 [[calorie]]s, and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of several [[B vitamins]] and [[dietary mineral]]s.

The demand for more diverse and healthier cereal-based foods is increasing, particularly in affluent countries.<ref name="Saleh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Saleh AS, Zhang Q, Chen J, Shen Q |year=2012 |title=Millet Grains: Nutritional Quality, Processing, and Potential Health Benefits |journal=[[Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety]] |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=281–295 |doi=10.1111/1541-4337.12012 |s2cid=86749886}}</ref> Protein content in proso millet grains is comparable with that of wheat, but the proportion of certain essential amino acids ([[leucine]], [[isoleucine]], and [[methionine]]) is substantially higher in proso millet.<ref name="Saleh" /> Among the most commonly consumed products are ready-to-eat breakfast cereals made purely from millet flour,<ref name="Biohirse" /><ref name="Saleh" /> and a variety of noodles and bakery products that are produced from mixtures of wheat and millet flours to improve their sensory quality.<ref name="Saleh" />

=== Culinary === In Inner Mongolia and northwestern Shanxi, China, fermented proso millet [[porridge]] known as "suan zhou" (酸粥) is popular. Millet is soaked to allow fermentation, then water is emptied to obtain porridge. The emptied water is served as a millet drink called "suan mi tang" (酸米湯). The porridge is eaten alongside [[Chinese pickles|pickles]], e.g. turnips, carrots, radish and celery. The porridge may be stir-fried and is called "chao suan zhou" (炒酸粥). The porridge may also be steamed into a firmer form known as "suan lao fan" (酸撈飯). While the traditional grain is proso millet, it is mixed with rice when available. Many folk idioms of sourness derive from this dish.<ref name="Zhao Xirong 2">{{cite news|title=东拉西扯唠酸粥（二）|date= 2023-06-05|last= 赵喜荣|work=府谷故事|publisher=府谷县委史志研究室|url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CPt_a6nVmkcAHRL2V7fA9Q|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20230827155049/https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/CPt_a6nVmkcAHRL2V7fA9Q |archivedate=2023-08-27}}</ref><ref name="sour wubu">{{cite book|title=吴堡方言调查研究|date=2014|last1=邢向东|last2=王兆富|publisher=中华书局|pages=43, 44, 48, 51, 61, 150}}</ref>

In the United States, proso millet is used to brew [[gluten-free beer]], being mixed with other grains for texture.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Santra|first1= D.K.|last2= Rose|first2= D.J.|title= Alternative Uses of Proso Millet| work=University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension|date=2013|page=2|url=https://extensionpublications.unl.edu/assets/pdf/g2218.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Pale Millet Malt - 5 LB|date=c. 2015|publisher=Gluten Free Home Brewing|url=https://glutenfreehomebrewing.com/STOREProduct/944/Pale-Millet-Malt--5-LB.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812210206/https://glutenfreehomebrewing.com/STOREProduct/944/Pale-Millet-Malt--5-LB.html|archivedate=2022-08-12}}</ref>

===Livestock and poultry=== Proso millet is primarily grown as livestock and poultry [[fodder]]. As food it is very deficient in [[lysine]] and needs complementation. Proso millet is also a poor fodder due to its low leaf-to-stem ratio and a possible irritant effect due to its hairy stem. Foxtail millet, having a higher leaf-to-stem ratio and less hairy stems, is preferred as fodder, particularly the variety called moha, which is a high-quality fodder.

=== Fermentation products === [[Starch]] derived from millet has been shown to be a good substrate for fermentation and malting with grains having similar starch contents as wheat grains.<ref name="Rose">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rose DJ, Santra DK |year=2013 |title=Proso millet (''Panicum miliaceum'' L.) fermentation for fuel ethanol production |journal=Industrial Crops and Products |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=602–605 |doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.08.010|s2cid=1627015 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1066&context=panhandleresext |url-access=subscription }}</ref> One study suggested that starch derived from proso millet can be converted to [[ethanol]] with an only moderately lower efficiency than starch derived from corn.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal | last1 = Taylor | first1 = J.R.N. | last2 = Schober | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Bean | first3 = S.R. | year = 2006 | title = Novel food and non-food uses for sorghum and millets | journal = Journal of Cereal Science | volume = 44 | issue = 3| pages = 252–271 | doi=10.1016/j.jcs.2006.06.009}}</ref> As proso millet is compatible with low-input agriculture, cultivation on marginal soils for biofuel production may present a new market for farmers.<ref name="Taylor"/>

== Local names == Native names for proso millet in its cultivated area include: *[[Jin Chinese]]: 糜米 *{{langx|bn-Latn|cheena}} *{{langx|or-Latn|china bachari bagmu}} *{{langx|kn-Latn|baragu}} *{{langx|te-Latn|variga}} *{{langx|hi-Latn|chena}} or {{lang|hi-Latn|barri}} *{{langx|pa-Latn|cheena}} *{{langx|gu-Latn|cheno}} *{{langx|mr-Latn|varaī}} *{{langx|ta-Latn|pani varagu}} *{{langx|ne-Latn|dudhe}} *[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]: тары *[[Catalan language|Catalan]]: Mill Comú

==References== {{reflist}}

==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|Panicum miliaceum}} * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/millet.html Alternative Field Crops Manual: Millets]

[[Category:Millets]] [[Category:Panicum]] [[Category:Forages]] [[Category:Plants described in 1753]] [[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]] [[Category:Cereals]] [[Category:Kiel Archaeology]]