{{Short description|Prehistory of Scotland}} {{See also|Prehistoric Britain}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} {{multiple issues| {{More footnotes needed|date=January 2009}} {{original research|date=March 2024}} }} {{History of Scotland}} [[Archaeology]] and [[geology]] continue to reveal the secrets of '''prehistoric Scotland''', uncovering a complex past before the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] brought Scotland into the scope of [[recorded history]]. Successive human cultures tended to be spread across Europe or further afield, but focusing on this particular geographical area sheds light on the origin of the widespread remains and monuments in Scotland, and on the background to the [[history of Scotland]].
The extent of open countryside untouched by [[intensive farming]], together with past availability of stone rather than timber, has given Scotland a wealth of accessible sites where the ancient past can be seen.
==The remote prehistory of Scotland== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2025}}{{Main|Geology of Scotland}} Scotland is geologically alien to Europe, comprising a sliver of the ancient continent of [[Laurentia]] (which later formed the bulk of [[North America]]). During the [[Cambrian]] period the crustal region which became Scotland formed part of the continental shelf of Laurentia, then still south of the equator. Laurentia was separated from the continent of [[Baltica]] (which later became [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Baltic region]]) by the diminishing [[Iapetus Ocean]]. The two ancient continents moved toward one another through the Cambrian and [[Ordovician]] periods, with [[tectonic]] folding during the [[Silurian]] pushing the first Scottish land above water. The final collision occurred during the [[Devonian]] period, with the Scottish segment of the Laurentian plate smashing into [[Avalonia]] (which contained what is now most of [[England]] and [[Wales]]), a motile subcontinent which had previously joined with Baltica.
This impact threw up a massive chain of mountains (at least as tall as the present-day [[Alps]]) and saw the formation of the granitic [[West Highland]] and [[Grampian Mountains|Grampian]] mountain chains and (through the [[Carboniferous]]) a period of volcanic activity in central and eastern Scotland. During the [[Permian]] and [[Triassic]] periods, with the [[Iapetus Ocean]] entirely closed, Scotland lay near the centre of the [[Pangaea]]n supercontinent. At the start of the [[Tertiary period|Tertiary]], a constructive plate boundary (at which tectonic plates move apart) became active between Laurentia and Eurasia, pushing the two apart (and parting Scotland from Laurentia). This recession opened the [[Atlantic Ocean]] for the first time, and the consequent [[subduction zone]] at the western plate margin led to a renewed period of [[volcanism]], this time on Scotland's west coast, producing fresh mountains on [[Isle of Skye|Skye]], [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], [[Isle of Mull|Mull]], [[Rùm]], and [[Isle of Arran|Arran]].
This tectonic activity produced the basis of Scotland's topography: ancient mountains in the North and South of the country, partially eroded by 400 million years of water and ice with a wide fertile valley between them, and a newer, wilder western terrain. With Scotland now in the northern temperate zone, it was subjected to numerous glaciations in the [[Neogene]] and [[Quaternary]] periods, the ice sheets and their attendant glaciers carving the landscape into a typical postglacial one, [[overdeepening]] river valleys into the characteristic U-shape and leaving the upland areas covered with glacial [[corrie (geology)|corrie]]s and dramatic pyramidal peaks. In lowland areas the ice deposited rich fields of fertile glacial till and eroded the softer material surrounding the extinct volcanoes (particularly the older Carboniferous ones), leaving many [[crag and tail|crag]]s.
==Before modern humans== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2025}} During the last [[interglacial]], around 130,000–70,000 BC, there were times when the climate in Europe was warmer than it is today, and after the [[Neanderthal]]s came to prominence{{clarify|date=October 2016}} there was another mild spell around 40,000 BC. Neanderthal sites have been found in the south of England from this era, though no traces of early modern humans have been found. Repeated glaciations, which covered the entire land mass of modern Scotland, may have destroyed traces of [[human habitation]] that existed before the [[Mesolithic period]].
Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and it was only after the ice retreated about 15,000 years ago that Scotland again became habitable.
==Hunter-gatherers== [[File:Human Prehistory in the Kelvingrove mesolithic.JPG|thumb|The Mesolithic]]
As the climate improved, [[mesolithic]] [[hunter-gatherers]] extended their range into Scotland. The earliest evidence to date is the [[flint]] artefacts found at Howburn Farm, near [[Elsrickle]] in 2005. This is the first and so far the only evidence of [[Upper Paleolithic]] human habitation in Scotland, around 12,000 BC, which appears to fall between the [[Younger Dryas]] and [[Lomond Stadial]] periods when cold conditions returned relatively briefly.<ref>Haworth, Jenny (10 April 2009) [http://news.scotsman.com/scotland/Scotland39s-most-ancient-home-found.5161087.jp "Scotland's most ancient home found – at 14,000 years old"] ''The Scotsman''. Edinburgh. Retrieved 24 June 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.biggararchaeology.org.uk/news03_109_howburn.shtml "Earliest site in Scotland discovered"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101010201621/http://www.biggararchaeology.org.uk/news03_109_howburn.shtml |date=2010-10-10 }}. biggararchaeology.org.uk. Retrieved 13 March 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.scottishgeology.com/outandabout/classic_sites/locations/loch_lomond.html "South end of Loch Lomond (Geomorphology)"] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20060616043408/http://www.scottishgeology.com/outandabout/classic_sites/locations/loch_lomond.html |date=2006-06-16 }}. Scottish Geology. Retrieved 13 March 2011.</ref>
An early settlement at [[Cramond]], near what is today [[Edinburgh]], has been dated to around [[9th millennium BC|8500 BC]]. Pits and stakeholes suggest a hunter-gatherer encampment, and [[microlith]] stone tools made at the site predate finds of similar style in England. Although no bones or shells had survived in the acidic soils, numerous carbonised hazelnut shells indicate cooking in a similar way to finds at other Mesolithic period sites, including the slightly earlier [[Star Carr]] and the [[Howick house]] in [[Northumberland]], dated to [[8th millennium BC|7600 BC]] ("Britain's oldest house"), where post holes indicate a very substantial construction, interpreted as a permanent residence for hunting people. This suggests that hunter-gatherers could also have settled down in Scotland.
Other sites on the east coast and at lochs and rivers, and large numbers of rock shelters and shell [[midden]]s around the west coast and islands, build up a picture of highly mobile people, often using sites seasonally and having boats for fishing and for transporting stone tools from sites where suitable materials were found. Finds of flint tools on Ben Lawers and at Glen Dee (a mountain pass through the Cairngorms) show that these people were capable of travelling well inland across the hills.
At a rock shelter and shell midden at [[Sand, Applecross]] in [[Ross and Cromarty|Wester Ross]] facing [[Isle of Skye|Skye]], excavations have shown that around 7500 BC people had tools of bone, stone and antlers, were living off shellfish, fish, and deer using "[[pot boiler]]" stones as a cooking method, were making beads from seashells, and had ochre pigment and used shellfish which can produce purple dye.
{{anchor|Neolithic}}
==Farmers and monument builders== {{further|Neolithic British Isles}} [[File:Maes Howe 1861.jpg|thumb|[[Maeshowe]] Neolithic tomb, Orkney, built c. 2800 BC]]
[[Neolithic]] farming brought permanent settlements. At [[Balbridie]] in [[Aberdeenshire]] crop markings were investigated, and ditches and post holes found, revealing a massive timber-framed building dating to about 3600 BC. An almost identical building, with evidence of pottery, was excavated at Claish near Stirling.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barclay |first1=Gordon |last2=Brophy |first2=Kenneth |last3=MacGregor |first3=Gavin |year=2002 |title=A Neolithic building at Claish Farm, near Callander, Stirling Council, Scotland, UK |journal=Antiquity |volume=76 |issue=291 |pages=23–24 |publisher=Antiquity Publications |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00089675 |s2cid=163495241 |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/076/Ant0760023.htm |access-date=11 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131011233242/http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/076/Ant0760023.htm |archive-date=11 October 2013 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> On the islet of [[Eilean Domhnuill]], in Loch Olabhat on [[North Uist]], [[Unstan ware]] pottery suggests a date of 3200–2800 BC for what may be the earliest [[crannog]]. [[Neolithic]] habitation, burial, and ritual sites are particularly common and well preserved in the [[Northern Isles]] and [[Western Isles]], where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pryor |first=Francis |title=Britain BC |publisher=HarperPerennial |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-00-712693-4 |location=London |pages=98–104 & 246–250 |author-link=Francis Pryor}}</ref>
[[File:Standing Stones of Stenness 062015.jpg|thumb|[[Stones of Stenness|Standing Stones of Stenness]], Orkney, {{Circa|3100 BCE}}]]
The remainder of this section focuses mainly on the [[Orkney Islands]], where there is a Neolithic landscape rich in sites amazingly preserved by prevalent use of the local stone which appears on the shore ready-split into convenient building slabs. There are many other examples across the country, many under the care of [[Historic Scotland]].
At the stone house at [[Knap of Howar]] on the [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] island of [[Papa Westray]] (occupied from 3500 BC to 3100 BC) the walls stand to a low eaves height, and the stone furniture is intact. Evidence from [[middens]] shows that the inhabitants kept cattle, sheep and pigs, farmed barley and wheat and gathered shellfish, as well as fishing for species which must be caught from boats using lines. Finely made and decorated [[Unstan ware]] pottery links the inhabitants to [[chambered cairn]] tombs nearby and to sites far afield, including [[Balbrindi]] and [[Eilean Domhnuill]].
The houses at [[Skara Brae]] on the [[Mainland, Orkney|Mainland]] of the [[Orkney Islands]] are very similar, but are grouped into a village linked by low passageways. This settlement was occupied from about 3000 BC to 2500 BC. Pottery found here is of the [[grooved ware people|grooved ware]] style which is found across Britain as far away as [[Wessex]].
About 6 miles (10 km) from Skara Brae, [[grooved ware]] pottery was found at the [[Standing Stones of Stenness]] (originally a circle) which lie centrally in a close group of three major monuments. [[Maeshowe]], the finest example of the [[passage grave]] type of [[chambered cairn]] (radiocarbon dated to before 2700 BC) lies just to the east. The [[Ring of Brodgar]] circle of standing stones is across a bridge immediately to the north. This circle was one of the first to be analysed by Professor [[Alexander Thom]] to establish the likely use of standing stones as astronomical observatories. Another [[Neolithic]] village has been found nearby at [[Barnhouse Settlement]], and the inference is that these farming people were the builders and users of these mysterious structures.
Like the standing stones at [[Callanish]] on [[Isle of Lewis|Lewis]] and other standing stones across Scotland, these monuments form part of the Europe-wide [[Megalithic]] culture which also produced [[Stonehenge]] in [[Wiltshire]] and the stone rows at [[Carnac]] in [[Brittany]].
Further evidence can be found in [[Kilmartin Glen]] with its Stone Circles, Standing Stones and Rock Art.
The widespread connections of these people are shown by offerings imported from [[Cumbria]] and [[Wales]] and left on the sacred hilltop at [[Cairnpapple Hill]], [[West Lothian]], as early as 3500 BC.
<gallery perrow="7"> File:Ring of Brodgar with earthwork ramparts, Mainland Orkney - geograph.org.uk - 535544.jpg|[[Ring of Brodgar]], Orkney File:National Museum of Scotland (16778674802).jpg|Jade axehead, imported from the [[Italian Alps]] File:Westray Wife 20110529.jpg|The '[[Westray Wife]]' File:Cairnbaan Cup And Ring Marks 01 - eastern rock.jpg|Cup and ring marks File:Towriepetrosphere.jpg|The Towie carved stone ball File:Kelvingrove Art Gallery and MuseumDSCF0239 11.JPG|Carved stone balls File:Kelvingrove Art Gallery and MuseumDSCF0239 12.JPG|Stone mace and axes File:Inside a house at Skara Brae - geograph.org.uk - 582971.jpg|House at [[Skara Brae]], 3180–2500 BC File:Knap of Howar - geograph.org.uk - 1398054.jpg|House at [[Knap of Howar]], 3700–2800 BC File:Callanish Stones in summer 2012 (7).JPG|[[Callanish Stones]], File:Cuween Hill Chambered Cairn 03.jpg|[[Cuween Hill Chambered Cairn]], c. 3000 BC File:Barnhouse settlement1.jpg|[[Barnhouse Settlement]] File:Ness of Brodgar 19 - 6.7.16.jpg|[[Ness of Brodgar]], 3300-2800 BC File:Quoyness chambered cairn interior.jpg|[[Quoyness chambered cairn]] </gallery>
==Bronze Age== {{Main|Bronze Age Britain|Bell Beaker culture}}
The cairns and [[megalithic]] monuments continued into the [[Bronze Age]], though there was a decline in both the building of large new structures and the total area under cultivation.<ref>Moffat, Alistair (2005) ''Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History''. London. Thames & Hudson. Page 154.</ref>
The [[Clava cairn]]s and standing stones near [[Inverness]] show complex geometries and astronomical alignments, with smaller, perhaps individual, tombs instead of the communal Neolithic tombs.<ref>Kruse, S. 2021. [https://scarf.scot/regional/higharf/highland-archaeological-research-framework-case-studies/clava-cairns/ Case Study: Clava Type Cairns]. Scottish Archaeological Research Framework ([https://scarf.scot/ ScARF]), accessed April 2022</ref>
[[Mummy|Mummies]] dating from 1600 to 1300 BC have been discovered at [[Cladh Hallan]] on [[South Uist]].
[[Hill forts]] were introduced, such as [[Eildon Hill]] near Melrose in the [[Scottish Borders]], which goes back to around 1000 BC and which accommodated several hundred houses on a fortified hilltop. Excavation at [[Edinburgh Castle]] found late [[Bronze Age]] material from about 850 BC.
=== Gallery === <gallery perrow="7"> File:Scotland beaker copy.jpg|All-over corded beaker, [[Bell Beaker culture]] File:Museum of ScotlandDSCF6289.jpg|[[Gold lunula]], Lanarkshire, 2300-2000 BC<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gold lunula|url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/lunula/133051|website=National Museums Scotland}}</ref> File:Jet necklace2.png|[[Jet (gemstone)|Jet necklace]], c. 2140-1900 BC<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.butemuseum.org.uk/project/spacer-plate-necklace/ |title=Spacer-Plate Necklace |website=Bute Museum}}</ref> File:Museum of ScotlandDSCF6306.jpg|[[Bronze Age sword|Bronze swords]], c. 1000 BC File:Horses1.png|Bronze Age [[Bridle|horse harness]] File:Museum of ScotlandDSCF6308.jpg|Bronze spearheads File:National Museum of Scotland (16779774705).jpg|Bronze shield File:Loch Tay, a crannog and Ben Lawers - geograph.org.uk - 2566330.jpg|Reconstructed [[Crannog]] at [[Loch Tay]] File:Eildon Village - geograph.org.uk - 55018.jpg|[[Eildon Hill]] File:Kite Aerial Photo of Cairnpapple Hill.jpg|[[Cairnpapple Hill]] burial and ritual site File:Scottish - Ribbon Armlet and Neck Torque - Walters 571847, 571848.jpg|Gold armlet and neck torc, c. 1000 BC File:A collection of items from the Adabrock hoard, Isle of Lewis.jpg|[[Adabrock Hoard]], [[Isle of Lewis]], c. 1000 BC File:Bronze Age razor 2.png|Bronze razor, c. 900 BC File:Wooden wheel, found in Blair-Drummond Moss.jpg|Wooden wheel remains, [[Blair Drummond]], 1260-810 BC </gallery>
==Iron Age== {{Main|Scotland in the Iron Age}} [[File:Traprain Law, East Lothian.jpg|thumb|Traprain Law, East Lothian]]
From around 700 BC and extending into [[Scotland during the Roman Empire|Roman]] times, the [[Iron Age]] was an age of forts and defended farmsteads, which support the image of quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms recorded by the Romans. Evidence that at times occupants neglected the defences might suggest that symbolic power was as significant as warfare.<ref>Kruse, S. et al 2021. [https://scarf.scot/regional/higharf/iron-age/ Iron Age]. Scottish Archaeological Research Framework ([https://scarf.scot/ ScARF]), accessed April 2022.</ref>
[[File:Broch of Mousa - geograph.org.uk - 2079773.jpg|thumb|[[Broch of Mousa]], c. 300 BC<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.historicenvironment.scot/visit-a-place/places/mousa-broch/ |title=Mousa Broch |website=Historic Environment Scotland}}</ref>]]
[[Britons (historical)|Brythonic]] (or "[[Pritennic]]") [[Celt]]ic culture and language spread into southern Scotland at some time after the 8th century BC, possibly through cultural contact rather than mass invasion, and systems of kingdoms developed.
Larger fortified settlements expanded, such as the [[Votadini]] stronghold of [[Traprain Law]], [[East Lothian]], which was the size of a town. Huge numbers of small [[dun (fortification)|dun]]s, [[hill fort]]s and [[Ringfort|ring forts]] were built on any suitable [[cliff|crag]] or hillock. The spectacular [[broch]]s were built, most impressively the nearly complete [[Broch of Mousa|Mousa Broch]], [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]]. Many [[Souterrain]] underground passageways were constructed, though their purpose is obscure. Island settlements linked with land by a causeway, the [[crannog]]s, became common; it is thought that their function was defensive.
=== Gallery === <gallery perrow="6"> File:Calgacus.JPG|Illustration of [[Caledonians|Caledonian]] king [[Calgacus]] File:Celtic horse helmet - geograph.org.uk - 1341264.jpg|[[Torrs Pony-cap and Horns|Horse helmet]], 300-200 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/scottish-history-and-archaeology/torrs-pony-cap/ |title=The Torrs pony cap |website=National Museums Scotland}}</ref> File:Stirling HoardDSCF6398.jpg|Gold torcs, [[Stirling torcs|Stirling hoard]], 300-100 BC File:Stirling HoardDSCF6396.jpg|Stirling hoard gold torc, 300-100 BC File:PageMuseum of Scotland scabbard.jpg|Scabbard, c. 1st century AD<ref>{{cite web |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/mortonhall-scabbard-national-museums-scotland/kAEM3Xuuc-wOkw?hl=en |title=Mortonhall Scabbard |website=Google Arts & Culture}}</ref> File:Museum of ScotlandDSCF6322.jpg|[[Carnyx|Deskford carnyx]] & reconstruction.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/scottish-history-and-archaeology/deskford-carnyx/ |title=Deskford carnyx |website=National Museums Scotland}}</ref> File:CeltCarnyx2.jpg|Carnyx reconstruction File:Harness1.png|Horse harness, Middlebie Hoard, 1st-2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nms.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-100-036-143-C |title=Middlebie Hoard |website=National Museums Scotland}}</ref> File:Museum of ScotlandDSCF6346.jpg|Bronze bracelets, c. 100 AD File:Nachgebauter keltischer Streitwagen.png|Reconstruction of an [[Newbridge chariot|Iron Age chariot]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/scottish-history-and-archaeology/newbridge-chariot-reconstruction/ |title=Newbridge Chariot reconstruction |website=National Museums Scotland}}</ref> File:Eildon Hill North - geograph.org.uk - 1515507.jpg|[[Eildon Hill|Eildon Hill North]] hillfort File:Broch Dun Carloway Lewis Schottland.jpg|Broch of [[Dun Carloway]] </gallery>
==See also==
* [[Timeline of prehistoric Scotland]] * [[Prehistoric Orkney]] * [[Prehistoric Britain]] * [[List of prehistoric structures in Great Britain]] * [[Early history of Ireland]] * [[Genetic history of the British Isles]]
==References== <references />
==Further reading== *''Scotland Since Prehistory: Natural Change and Human Impact'', by [[Christopher Smout]], 1993, Scottish Cultural Press, {{ISBN|1-898218-03-X}} *''Mesolithic Scotland and Its Neighbours'', by [[Alan Saville]], 2004, [[Society of Antiquaries of Scotland]], {{ISBN|0-903903-28-8}} *''Scotland: From Prehistory to the Present'', by Fiona Watson, 2003, {{ISBN|0-7524-2591-9}} *''The Early Prehistory of Scotland'', by [[Tony Pollard (archaeologist)|Tony Pollard]] and Alex Morrison, 1996, {{ISBN|0-585-10420-4}} *''The Later Prehistory of the Western Isles of Scotland'', by Ian Armit, 1992, {{ISBN|0-86054-731-0}} *''Prehistoric Scotland'', by Ann MacSween and Mick Sharp, 1989, {{ISBN|0-7134-6173-X}} *''Guide to Prehistoric Scotland'', by Richard Feachem, 1977, Simon & Schuster *''Prehistoric Scotland'', by Richard Feachem and Urho Kekkonen, 1963 *''A Guide to Prehistoric Scotland'', by Richard Feachem, 1963, Batsford *''Prehistoric Scotland'', by [[Vere Gordon Childe]], 1940, G Bell and Sons *''The Prehistory of Scotland'', by Vere Gordon Childe, 1935, K Paul, Trench, Trubner & co *''Prehistoric Scotland and Its Place in European Civilization'', by Robert Munro, 1899, W Blackwood and sons *Scottish Archaeological Research Framework ([https://scarf.scot/ ScARF]) * Toghill, Peter, ''The Geology of Britain, an introduction'', Airlife (2000), {{ISBN|1-84037-404-7}} * ''The Other Orkney Book'', Gordon Thomson, Northabout Publishing 1980, {{ISBN|0-907200-00-1}} * ''Scotland Before History'', Stuart Piggott, Edinburgh University Press 1982, {{ISBN|0-7524-1400-3}} * ''Scotland's Hidden History'', Ian Armit, Tempus (in association with Historic Scotland) 1998, {{ISBN|0-85224-348-0}}
==External links== {{commons category}} *[https://www.historicenvironment.scot/archives-and-research/online-exhibitions/places-for-prayer/prehistory-places-of-ancient-belief/ An online exhibition on prehistoric sites in Scotland] from Historic Environment Scotland *[https://www.digitscotland.com/an-easy-guide-to-scotlands-archaeological-time-periods-and-ages/ Overview of the periods of Scotland's prehistory from Dig It!], part of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
{{Prehistoric Scotland}}{{Archaeology of Scotland}}{{Prehistoric Europe}} {{Scotland topics}} {{History of the British Isles|bar=yes}}
[[Category:Prehistoric Scotland| ]] [[Category:Prehistory by country|Scotland]]